TBB AIR PORCE Ill TD. BATICIIAL SPACE PB9GRAM 1945-1959 ·. .

.. /(u>

Lee Bowen

September 1960 USAF Historical D1Vis10ZJ Liaison Otfice

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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE The Threshold of Space: The Air Force in the National Space Program 1945-1959

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Ah1 but a JDaD •a reach abould exceed his grasp, Or vhat 'a a beawn fort

- Robert Browins

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~ ll'bz'eUol.d ~ Space is a brief •tudJ ot tbe natioD&l space progra traa 1954 tbroush ·1959 with empbuis OD the role ot the A1r J'orce. It vu oriaiDal.J¥ pl'8piLN4 u a chapter for incluaioa 1D tbe Bietozx g! Bepce.rten USAJ', fiscal!!!£-~· BeC8U.H ot the :lll­JOI'1*lce·. 8D4 t1M11•u ot 1ibe 1Ub3ect, tbe cbapter is beiDa issued u a separate stuq to ute it more qui~ aw.Uable throQahout the Air rorce. · Baaed cbi~ oa ofticial. docaezats, ~ ~sbol4 2! !E!s! is a pncis ot a IIU.ChiiON cleta:Ue4 bistor,y 011 tbe apace procra currently beiDa preparecl. Ba.tblr tbaD coat1D1Ds itaelt to fiscal ;rear ~959, the present studl' reaches back 1;o the bea'nn:lnp ot space research 1D tbe . J9110'• ad c&l'l'1ea tbe •torT forward to J8DU8.17 1960. ftia vae neces­SU'I' to pl'O'Vicle ~ proper perapecti w tor a 'UDClerataDclia& aud ap­preciation ot tbia "11 tal azrea of uat1011&1. actb1. t.Y··

It vu 111poaa1ble 1D a •tudl' ot this leD&th to cover ell facets ot the space p:rosr-, vbetller nat1oaal or ~ Ioree. There bad to be a choice of topics ncb u pol.iq, tbe selection ot projects tor 4ewl.opaeDt, ad: the videQN.:l d1str1'but1oD 'b7 tbe Departlllent ot Defense ot 117Steu .IIDd sub1171tsaa a0111 tbe tbl'ee services tor re­search 8114 tests. Other topica &lmlt equall.J Dlportant bad to be excl.udacl. ltlcD& the latter there were Reb subJects u 1Dterservice r1'Y&l.17 tor control. of tbe satellJ:te-4etect1on fence aDd tbe Bav-A:lr ~Wee cl1~p~te aboUt tbl PacUic IUaaile Baa&e· It was also necessary­~ C111t coverap· of' the valuable vozok doDe b7 tbe ,Air Force in the field ot space ..Ucille aDd :tn tbe ttltabl1.-.mt ot 1Dternat10rl&l. IIIX••eDta tctl' the conatruct:1011 ot bues outside tbe United States. 1'bese IIDd otber 1Ub3ects v1ll receiw tl:liorou8h treataent 1D tl:Je more C<8pNheneiw ~tol'J nov UDder Yftl•

COITBITS

Space Work Prior to Sputnik. • • • • • • • • • • Evolution of a :Rational Space Policy, 1954-58 ••

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. . . . . Air lorce Space Po1ic7 to 1959 • • • • • • • • • • • • • 16 USAF Plana and ProJects, 1951-59 • • • • • • • o • Directorate of AdVBDced TecbDo1ogy. • • • • USAF Space 1'ro6ram and ARPA • • • , o o • o o • ARPA-RASA Partition ot Pro3ecta • • • • • •

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Ma~or Beadjustmeata, AprU-December 1959 ••• o ••• o 31 Significance of X-15 and D,vna Soar • • • 0· • . . . . Fund.ins the Space Prosram, 1957-59 ••• • ·• • Space Prosram in December 1959 • • • • • . . •· . . . Bates •••••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G1oaaaq • . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . Appendix

Satellite LauDch1aga, 4 Oct 1957 to 2.6 Ifov 1959 o ·• • 6o ·

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TBI TII8BSH)LD Ol fi'ACB (TIIi Am fOlQ Ill TD liATICIIAL SPACE PROGlWI, 1945-1959)

In October 1957 the So~et UDiOD staked out tor i tselt historical ·prilllli.cJ 1D apace b7 1auDchiDg SpUtaik I--the :tint 1181l~made satellite to orbit tbe Earth. This tr1umph veDt to. Russia by default, tor tb& United states coul.d have been first to place a aateUite 1D orbit~ To 118D7 laericaas, it ·aese4 tbat1 ~ than BDYthi.Da else,. our ta1lure was the reaul t ot DatiOD&l. caapl.acenC7·· ADd there is much 1D the ·record to support tbis a;pl&DatioD ot ewDts.

Space Work Prior to S,putaik

1'be ~ to 'trespass upoa apace is as old as ao-thal.osY, but it re-m aiDed a taataq · UD'tU the Gemans clrsaatized tbe power ot rocltetlT with tbe V-2 1D ·world. War II. It aeaaecl clear that this propulaioa, i:t proper]¥ developed., could break. the reatrictiolla ot Barth' a sravi tr and reach both orqitaJ. 8Dcl escape wlocitiea. Bq~ 1mportaat tor a space vehicle vu the rocket' a iDdepeDc1eDce ot the ataoapbere. Structurall7 . tree of aerod1D.Uc requiraeDts--'QDJ.esa Deeded tor controlled reeatey-­aad breathiDg the oxyp~ ot ita OWD tuela1 the rocket could travel to Ute~ uD]iaited diat&Dces 1D the Dear 'f1ICU\IIl ot apace. At first 1 t seaecl tbat to iDcreaae the size ot the rocket e~e would be to 1D­creaae the thrust proportionate~. However, it vas soon &ppal'eDt that CCIIlbuatioD tl.alea behave dittereDtq 1D c:baaabera ot ditteriDt dimeDaion81

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ud there vas Do eu:~ ratio bfttveeD the size md thrust o-r eag1nes .l Coasequaa~, rocket eaa1DeeriDa took 1 ta place amoag tbe rigiclJ¥ ea­tablisbed propulsiaa scieDces, ud the loDa years ot patient research Coiltiaued.

llmediately after the war the Artlr:/, Hav 1 ud Air Porce, moved both b)' the Ge1't18D success vi th tbe V-2 at Peellet!Dde ud tbe l.ess 1m.-presaive results ot laericu eadeavora, carried torward experiments at White Suds Pro'rilic Gro1md aad BollCDaD An. Tbe7 used left-over V-2 1a as well u nev 1 1Dupeasi ve 1 8114 apec~&1.J.¥ desi&Ded llll&lJ. missiles tor scientUic expl.oration o-r the upper atmosphere. Prosreaa waa swift. At~ sae tiM tbe llil1tar;r services, aDd especi~ the Air Porce, turDed to 1Ddustr1&1. coatractors tor the rocket-propelled ballistic lliis­siles that they could &J:re~ foresee as sreat na;oDs ot the fllture. As tar as the proposed 1Dtercoat1Deatal aDd iDtemediate-rsage ballistic missiles (ICJI('s &Dd IBBN 1 a) were concerDed1 progress vas sl.ov because ot ali:ll bwS&ets and the coat ot curreat milita.ry requirsenta. Tbe ICJI( 1 s 8Dd IRBN 1 a were too cost4 to serve as .CIIZ'l"1en ot bigh exp1o-ai ve b011lba1 . and tission bc:mbs were too cos~ to riek tbe 1neccurac1ea ot nrwenned deli 'Vel'1· CoasequentJ¥ 1 1D 19471 Air Porce hoJes for a progr• o-r J.oD&-range ballistic missiles had. to be suspeoded 2 d could not be reau.~ for a number of yeartJ. Even the earl.J' tuaion bcab IIOdel,a ot 1951 and 1952 vere ot no. be1p. ~ their sreat radii ~t destructioa coul.d be recoacUed with the circular probable error (CEP) of miaaile~, tbe ballb designs did not tit Jlliaaile contigurations.

The ·great cl:laap c- iD 1953 vbeD lAs Al.ao8 Sc1eDt1f'1c Labora­tor;y, after prol.oapcl theDIODUC1ear reHG"Ch1 praa1aecl a tUaiOD bciDb ot ..:U abe and high Jield. 'lb18 warhead could .1US'titJ ICJil ~ DUll dell -veey, and the Air Porce vas free at lut to unclertake, v1 th

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tbe conaeDt ot the Adm1D1atrat1aa, an all-out ball18Uc Jliaa1le progr•. Tbe Air Jeaearch aud De-ve1opaeDt ()m!8Dd (.AROO) eDtruated tbe vork to ita Western DewloplleDt D1v1a1oia (WDD), act1w.ted eapec1~ tor that purpose 1D 1954 1111d eubaeque~tl:J re4ea1SD&1*1 .A1r Porce Bllll1at1c Mia­aUe· Division (Anlm). Tbe propwa 80011 c- to 1Dcl.u4e tbe Atlas u4 T1 taD lOll(' a 8DCl tbe Thor IRBM.

BveD before 1954 there coul.d baw been plaDs tor a epace progr• . . util1z1Ds the Arlq Redstone lliaaile u booster :I.D a aul.t1-atap combiDa­tiaa with llll&l.l. llissUea. B,y 1954, or 1955 at the latest, . tbere vu 1m 1D'V8Dtol:.')' ot at least ll m1ss1l.es 1D Mnice or ~t euitable tor aulti-atase vehicles. Tbe A.J:ttq .RedetODe aDd Jupiter 8DCl tbe Air Porce Atlas, T1t8D, IIDCl Thor were 5 possible boosters to be callb'ined with arrr ot the 6 ...U lliss~s tbeD · a'¥allab1e *..a beJ.oasiQS to the Air rorce and 5

iS Cii&iiCter1st1ca ~ 1957 status ot tbea.e 11 miaailea: M1811le Max Tbruat Veloci:JZ Alt~ ~~Statue Sv Origin (:I.D lba) (.p (in llffi8 Corporal 20,000 l,Boo lOOma ID aerv:i..ce · .A:L7q Aero bee 4,000 3,000 70ma ID .Mrvice· •v Aerobee B1 4,000 3,000 1.20 ma ID .Mrvice Air rorce Aerobee H1 5,000 4,500 l.6o II& ID eervice Bav Vildns 20,000 . 4,500 100 II& ID Hn1ce •av Serseant 70,000 1,900 lOO ma Dev &·P4D Arlq BedatoDe 75,000 10,90<) 250 111" PdD" Sv Arlq Jupiter 165,000' 15,000 1,500 mr· P4D" Sv Artq Atlas J)O,OOO 15,000 5,500 mr Dev·& PdD Air rorce 'Htm :J)O,OOO 15~000 5,500 Jill' Dev I. Pdn Air rorce Thor 1.65,000 15,000 '1,500 Jill' Dev I. Pdn Air Force .

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bel.oog:I.Dg to tbe .A:rtq and N«v. Yet aot 1 ot ~ 11· bad been designed specit:ical.ly tor space purposes. Th1s fact, not 1n:trequentl3' ·charged tO a bit-or-miss policy followed b;r the Department of Defense, con­stricted tbe .American space pqload.a for a long time atter the space Prosram beian.

Tbe Russiane followed a quite different policy.. It aeeme certa1D that tbe;r pursued atc:imic and m:1asUe prograrus simul. taneouaq. Aa8\11111ag tb.at sooner or later there would be a breakthroush to relat1 vel;r amall thermonuclear weapons, the Soviets produced a ·rocket enaine that vas tailored neither as a carrier ot thezmoauclear VBrbeada nor as a boost-er of apace vehicles but one that could serve both purposes. The polic;r ~ 1nd.icate poor· plann~ as tar a8 the optiDNIIl IClll is coacerned, bu.t iD 1957 it gave tbe Soviets a f:Lne space vehicl.e. The Ru.ss:iau rocket qine possessed a thrust 'be;rond au;ythi.Dg then ~ing pl.almed tor tbe American arsenal, including the Atlas· aDd 'ritan, and permitted tbe use of large pqloads.

Tbe :rauure of tbe Americans to devel.op eitber a higb.-tbrust booster or one epeci~ desigDed for spece vehicles did not mean that tbe :m111-ta.r;r deps.rtments had had no intere-st in space. lD 1945 the lav began a a~ ot satellite feas1bilit;r. Tbe proJect moved slovJ.;r, :bowever, and its caap.Let1on was &Dt1c1pated b;r a similar .Air rorce UDdertald.ng. EarJ.7 1D 1946, Headquarters USAF directed lWfD to inveatiaate tbe teas1-

b1lit;r ot man-made satellites. In accordaDce with instructions, RAID com.pleted a basic stu~ in Mq 1946, aDd in lebruar,y 1947 Nleased

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12 e441t1oD&l.. studies augestq a space p:rosnm that -. largel.7 of scieDt:lfic 1Dtereet. 3

ID Dec.aber 19'1-7 1ibe ID&ineer1Dg Division of tbe Air Materiel Can­IIIIIDd (.AIIC) evaluated tbe· lWID 13 stu4ie•, coacludecl that a satellite vas techD1cal.l7 possible, aDd recCB~encled eatabllsbDeDt of BD Air J"orce · satel­lite proJect. Bee4quartera U8AI' vas IIJIII)&thetic bUt could c1o l.ittle ill / the ...- ot support dllriDs tbe decade l94-7·57~ D1atract10D vas attribut-

able 1D part to l:lmi ted tuDcle throushout tbe pos'tVIIr ;reara of recover,r aD4 ret1'ellcbDeDt, to operati cnal emphasis aD4 re~raaenta clur1Ds the Jrorec War, aDd, after 1953, to an Adllinietratioa-Defenae DepartmeDt poliCJ that cUacouraaed extensiw iD"VeatlleDta 1D basic research. Al.thouah thare vas DO written 41rect1w -.a:1Dst research, publ.ic · at&tements by h1sh offic1a.'ta served to deter tbe m.1l.i'taz7 services fraiL purau1Dc research and clewlopaeDt 'Work as activeq as the7 desired. 4. Yet no poliey coul.d hide fl'aD diacemiDg miDda that a tecbllological re"VOlution vas under ¥8¥• The air-brea'tbi.Di aircraft vas approach:J.ng tbe l1ait of ita potenti&Utiea; the ball.istic JDiaaile offered new orders ot w1oci't7 aD4 r8118e; aacl epace~-thougb ODlT relucteD~ recosnized. by aaae-­vas opeu1Dg up u a new world ot adwnture. Russia bouttully pursued ad­WDced tecbDolo171 1111d there were frequent 1111d verifiable reports ot

SoTiet apace plaDs. Sale Jaericllll 'VOices wamed aaaiilst the paasi v1 't7 of the UDited States, but tl:lq had litt;Le eff'ect. In June 1955, Lt. Gen. Donald L. Putt, DCS/Dewlopllent, protested aga1Dat the "amall. size ot our national effort 1D basic research." Two months later, Trevor Gardner, Assistazlt Secretary ot the Air :rorce (Beaearch ad DewlopMtnt), aa.id tbat ~ . . . . .. .,. . -"". . ~ .... · ....... ,.

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tbe reseal"Ch 8DCl C\e'Velopment budpt ~or ~iscal year 1957 and beyond should be doubled "to ma1Dta1D GUr tecbDolosical auperiori t7." In December 1 Gardller declare4 that $2001 0001 000 JDOre vas needed U tbe Air Force vas to meet the Soviet cbal 1 ense. 5

The waruiDp rema1red unbeeded1 81ld 'IJeadquarters USAr vas caucht between the hish .cost ot defense BDd 1.1Jil1 ted bu.dpts. lD tbis same period, however, tbe AdmiDiatratioD ~orded a 8lll&ll measure o~ relie~ . b)" maltiDa uo sba.rp cl18t1DctioD betweeu "basic research" aDd . "develop­ment.'' Occaaional..q 1 . tbe latter tem could be used to oover work that vas essenti~ resevch, as was doDe with nev ensines aDd new tuels needed for aav:Lp.tlon and CCIIIIlUDication sateui tea. 6

In a more specific area ot s.paee pl.amliJ:l& hiah poliey was less lenient. OD 15 March 1955, Headquarters USAJ' is$Utd General Operation~ Requirement (GOR) 1fo. 8o calling tor a satellite weapon qa:tem. By this time RAliD bad long siDce abandoned its 1946-47 tbesis that tbe space ven­ture would be chie~ o~ scientitic 'V8J.ue. In 1m RAID proposed three feasible proJects ot milita.r;r s1gD1ticaDce--tbe .Ad:vanced Becomiaissance S)rat. (ARS); tbe KaD-iD-Space (MIS) ProJect, and tbe Ba.ll1stic Weapons Reae&l'Ch aDd SupportiD& System {BAUI.ABI8). The latter, usina Atlas, Aero-bee 1 aDd S.rpant missiles, looked toward J.alld1Dgs on the JllOOD aDd fliahts iD the vic1D.it'7 of Venus m.d Mars. 'Roth A88 and MIS were approved as pos­sible proJects. 'l'he Air. Staff also appro'Ved BWiAROO, but in Mq 1957 tbe Office ot the Secretary of the Air force required tbe deletion ot tbe iDterplaDeta:y llissioas. In its nev 8lld shruDken version BALWARDS became tbe near-space project lmo1m as tbe Bal.l1at1c Research aDd Test S)rst. (BRATS). 7

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i'he chaa&e ot aAUIABIII :I.Dto · BBA9.'S cl1d not diacoureae !WID. In Sep-. taber 1957 tbe corporatiOD :reocwencled a "111ae1le-apace prosra" ot 10 pzoJecta. AlloDg tbese ,.., tiw proJects that pertd.Ded aol.e.q to apace:. recCliiDa1aaace aatellitea,; cialuDu qatau; iDtel'plaDetar.r qat.a,; navi­ptiOD aatellltea,; IIDCl ~catiaD aatell.1tea. 8

Datma tbeae aae two or three ,eua 'befon SputD1k, YheD !eadquar­•• USAr v.- th1nldnc 1D tel'IUI ot GOR 10. 8o IID4 lWID vu propoa1Dc 1111i'tu7 space proJects, J118D7 Air Jlorce otticera 1D ~ scattered tteld UDita, ad without coordiDatecl.pl.aDa, wen l1kev1ae cODcera1Dg tbem­&elwa with the •- probJMD. Saall poupe at .Bea4quartera .ABDC, at the Balllatic Jl:l.uile ln:v1aiOD1 at JlolloNm An, ud at Wr:l.sht A1r Dewl.opaent Center (VADC) MDaed d&Dpr 1D tbe Qowrzaent'a UD1f:l.ll.:I.Dsae to give the uev tecJmoloQ' the urgent support tbq felt it deserwsd.. ActiD& :I.Dde-pell4entJl' o~ Bee4qu.artera tJBAJ' 1 the sroupa ~ prepared a DUIRber o~ papere e4wcat1Dc reeearch plaDa tbat llicht· ap&D tbe next 15 or 20 Je&n• Allons other tb'np, the propoaecl Pl'OBJ"SUU call.ed ~or· organized lipece aperiMDta "at the earliest pnct1cabl.e elate." Tbere vere d1acua­a10Da a:a..o at·.u:peadable IDd reCOftrable Berth orbiters, tbe lattel" to be both of the JIIIDDed 11114 n••nned '98Z'le'Q', a JDBDDed. apace atatioD; and 8D ~ whicle for lunar lam'raa•~

~~ prior to ·the· 1auncb:I.Dc ot Sputl11lt 1D October 1957, lfeadquartera USAP, toptl:ler v:l.tlllWID1 NAC, ARDC1 AJ'Jim1 -.oo, eDd otber f1el4 w;~ita, 11114 n:l.c1eDced a V14eaprea4 :I.Dtereat 1D u1i1'ollaut1ca aDd a aopb:l.aticated araap ot ita tecbDolo&r. a:. tbe otber blllld1 at DO lewl VithiD tbe Air

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cl.ear statement or the ul. timate obJective or a space prosraa or a qstea­atic eval.uation or the disparate aims· or the suse;ested pro.1ects.

'rbe basic goal. or any national. space prograa1 ci vil.i&D or m1l.1 tar;y 1 must inescapably be tbe establlataent of' babi tabl.e stations in apace. But to think or going beyond tbe l.::lmi ts or inter.pl.&Detaq &J;eas w1 th mid-twentieth century kDowl.edge aDd techniques would be unreal.istd.c and versins on the rantastic. Even the smal.l.-scaie en~r;prise beyond tbe Earth woul.d take man into an unlmown realm or danger and ad:'ft.Dture. It could not be attspted vi thout costq and caretul.l.y prepared expl.ora- · to17 proJects to discover tbe nature ot tbe space enviroDmeDt aDd to test the reaaibillty ot usiDS space :lDaed1$.te~ ror practical. purposes .. This idea vas aoubtl.ess present in JIUID7 lll1nds l.ons be1'ore·.SputD1k, but it had seid.c:la been expressed specific~ berore 1.957. Its absence as a guidi.Ds priDcipl.e 1D space pollc;y aq bave contributed to the und1sc1-pl.1Ded efforts Clo counter the Russian success with a· fiusal. prosra.

I'"IOlution ot· a .Rational.' Spa.ce Polley, 1.954=58 'rop-l.e'Vel. 1nd1tterence to tbe illportance of' space was ot lon& stand­

iDs. lD Dacaaber 1.9'181 Jaaes rorrestal, Secretazoy ot Def'enae1 paaaizlsl.7 rererred to .a "mil.i tary interest iD a poasibl.e Earth satel.l.i te, " but tbe Department or Defense took no concrete actions in the years tbat ·followed. ID December 1.9541 another Secreta.rT of' Defense 1 Charl.es E. W1l.SOD1 vas told that the Bussians might pl.ace a satel.li te 1D orbit before the AIDeri-: cans could do so, and he replied, "I vouldD •t -care if' the7 did. "10

Be­tween 1.954 and 1957 there were 1nD1111erable varnqs, official. and unof­f'icial.1 tbat the Soviets would attempt to laUDcb a satell.ite before the

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end of 1957 • Sputnik I therefore did DOt come U a surprise to iDfomed people iD or outside of the Govermaent. lD bia State of the Union Mea­sage delivered to Congress on 9 JanU&r;y 19581 tl;le PresideDt. hiluelt reflected tlB seneral indifference that bad previoual7 prevailed wbeD he admitted tbat "most of us did not aoticipate the intensity of the pqcbol.ogical impact upon the world of tbe lauDchins ot tbe first aatel"­llte.••11

Tbe failure to appreciate the iaportaoce of beiDa :t:irst iD apace is all tbe more UDtortUDate because tbe UDited States had alreq- under­taken to place a satellite 1D. orbit 1D tbe near tllture. :87 1955 the three services were all thiDkiDs of a possible satellite, and tbe A:r:tq and lfavy even reques~ o:t:ti.~ial approval of their Joint proJect, known as Orbiter, to use a Redstone JllissUe as a booster for a 8lll8l.l. pqlo~. At the same t:lme tbe .AdmiDistratiOD determiDed to develop a scientific satellite as 811 IIDerican contribution to tbe IDternatiOD&l Geo~sical Year (IGY), scheduled tor l J~ 1957·31 December 1958. Thil decision prompted tbe. Secretary of Detepae to disapprove Orbiter "iD tbe.intenst of IGY policies." Be tbeD directed tbe three services to sullait pro­posals for a scientif'ic satellite th&t waa dedicated wholly. to peaceful e7'ds.12

The Army aod lfavy united 1D propoaiiJ& a· aodi:t:ied version of Orbit-er1 but once again tbis was ruled out. 'l!be use of Bedatolie1 a·militaey missUe1 would create security problema aDd misht augest a motive that was Dot purely scientific. Because o:t: tbeae objections the lfavy p:ro­posed OD ita~ & backup .abicle ~bat would utilize a~fied versioa

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of the. 'V1ld.D& loD8 ·aso produced 'b7 GleDD L. lfart1D for na'¥&1 partie~ tion in tbe White SeDda ex,perimeuta. The Air l'oroe, with DO Meq,u&te . nonm1Htar,r miaaUe at ita cliapoaal, could do~ ODe ot two tb1np--.. recalllllelld · tbe p:roclu~tiOD . of a new rocket eug1De 1 111 ·1m4ertald.Da tha1i Jlliaht 1Dtel"fere with tba ball1at1c m1Ba1l.e prosr-, or INIPBt the ue of an Atl.u ICBI, vbich would be u obJec1iiOilabl.e u a Beda~. UD­williDs to r1Bk 1Dtel"ferencea v1 th the a1es1le ·lJl"'SlWL1 the .Air I'Ol:'Ce proposed aD Atlas-boosted satellite, lalov1Dg that t!le proJect would 80 b7 de:tault to the Kav •13

On 29 .luJ¥ 1955 the Prea1dent BDDOUDced that the Untte4 Statee, aa part of its IGY cODtr1butiODs1 ~ attaap'll to lauDch a D\llber o~ 21-pouDd satel.lJ.tes vit!lout tte use of ll111t&17 Jliesiles. The pl'OJect, lulow as Vaquard, althoush orsanizecl 1D t!le Deperilllen1; of De:tense UDCSer Bav JDaDa&fllleDt, vould be aiwrcecl frail lll1l.it&17 si&D1t1cance.14

The u.s. cleoiaioD to exclude the use of a lll111ta17 booater became a s1sD1fictmt · factor 1D tbe 1957 Soviet apace victol'J. . 'l!bere were two reUODs: tint, tbe lfaV turned to JfartiD tor tbe V~ modUicatioa at a t:f.me vbeD tbat caapan;y vaa eDSeseci 1D a reOq.o:LzatioD ot tbe Yilt-ins dewloplleDt te•; eecODd, the ottice ot the Secretar.y ot Detez1se caused further delqs because it had little entl:usiaa tor the space progra1 rithbeld. "first 111portaDce" status frail tbe proJect, granted "dribblJ.Dg" support, and released f'unds at 8D 1Deidepte rate.15

!r.be dq a:rter the President 8DDOUDCed VfiD&U&l'd1 tbe !!! ~ ~ noted that "the United States and .RU.aia now appeazo to be 1D a race tor

,-:·, ' l ~r:tt)£~ I 3•o•:• o•o ::.· , , .. . . . - . . ' . . .. . .

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11

the slOJ.7 o-r makiDC tbe first maJor step toward iDterpl.aDetuy tliaht• ••• So'fiet detei'Dl1Dat1oD to ech:l.ew tlds obJectiw vu BDDOUDced laat 15 April. nl.6 Most Alaericaua, bonver, were 1llper'Y1olll to tbe Bwsaiau threat, 1Dexpllcabl.J akept1c&l ot Soviet tecbDol.oQ. Tb8 UD1ted States raD ao race. WheD tille pusecl aDd VIIDIU8l'd ob'liowll7 slipped trca ita schedUle, there vu deep coucem lllldDa space protsaoaists. CDe period· ical. CCIIIIellted, 1D Jul7 1957:17

Bu.los1zed aDd ad'YWtizecl a4 D8UM1a aa 1118Dk1Dd • s greatest ad­wziture, tbere is stili Do u~Nr~~Dce tbat ar ot the VAB<JUABD att.pts v1ll be auccesstul IWriDC tbe 18 IIICDthll ot tbe IGY. It's the D&ture ot tbe stUl-JOUDI state ot tbe rocket art. lheD it VAIDJAIU) is rea41' it st111M¥ Dot be first. Beports po1Dt to a Ruaaiau tr7 v1th1D tea nets. ADd to the south the • • .['Artq Ball1st1c 111u1le ApDq · or IJJM!i/ te• /jbJ.c'i/ eve17~ tries to i8Dore mq beat e"VeD tb&t date. ID truth, as ear]¥ as April 1954 ABKA had begecl tor pemissioa to

* emp1CJ1 its Jupiter C llissUe. to lswlch a aatelllte, 1D v1ev ot Vaasuard delqs aDd 1DcreasiDs evideDce tb&t tbe Sov1ete VO'Ul4 be tint in space-­au eWDt certaiD to 11ltl1ct "serious dalap" to the prestip ot the UDi ted States. The ADQ"'s proposals were reJected b7 the Departmeat ot De:teaae, preaumabl.J with tbe ap;propatioa ot tbe Mlaizlistratioa, stUl devoted as it was to the polic)" ot exPJ.oratioD to11 dealoDstrabJ.1 peacetul purposes .18

Co1DcideDta.l.q vith tl:le reJect1oa ot .ABilA's plBD1 the 7ar Side proJ­ect, directed b7 Col. Willi• o. Davis aad DUrtured quiet]¥ vith1D the

"'Tbe Jupiter C was au experimeatal. atase-rocket device CODsiat:Lng ot a Bedstoae booster aDd two steps ot solld-p'ropellaD't l'OCkeU. WbeD :t1re4; 1D Septaber 1956 1t reputedlT trawled 3,~ miles; v1th a peak a.ltitud.e ot 650-680 IIUes, aDd could haw brousbt its ~load iDto orb1 t it the tiDal step tr&Jectol7 bad been preset tor that purpose •

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Air Force Office of Scientific Beaearch {OSR)1 ABDC, almost succeeded. It invol.ved launching a missUe traa a balloon at an alt1tucle of 100,000 feet to penetrate space f~ a distance of 4,000 ailes With tbe purported purpose of gatheriq infozmat10D of vital interest to the A1r Force. Despite cbarges of inadequa'l;e coord1DatioD1 subtertuP, liliamanagemeut, and "utter misdirection of basic research funds 1 " Colonel Davis peraeftred w1 th his plaDs. lJl the spring of 1957 be obta1Ded pel'lliasion traD the ~ Force, tbe DePartment of Defense, BDd the Atca1c Energ ~aaiou to COD­duct the operations fraD tbe Euivetok Pacific Proving Gl'CIUDd. lD Septem­ber 1957 tbe first sbot fa1led. There were five o-thers to be made. Oil 4 October tbe seccmd missile tapgled vi th the collapaing balloon at 70,000 teet, escaped traa tbe vreckase, ud reached a known altitude at 370 miles.19

'rbe next morning, newspapers of the world baunerllned tbe 184-pound Rues1an SputDik. Ifat10Dal and international coaments .on the Soviet vic-tory were not carrplillentary to tbe UDited States. Througbbut the .Americu press there vas general condeiDDation of the "partial measures, hit or miss plaDD1Dg and contused organization that have marked our • • • work 1D tbia t1eld."20

A number of high-ranlting u.s. officials attempted to bellttle tbe RusSian satellite. Sputnik vas unJmportant because it wae no surprise,; it vas a "neat scientific trick"; it was an "outerspace basketball s-e.~~i~21 Tbe same . tnought appeared to be implied 1D tbe Wbite Jbuse aunounc•ent ot 9 October that tbe United States would not becane enaae;ed in a .,Pace race with otber nations and tbat ProJect Vanguard would not be ac.cel;&r-. ated.22 This meant that Vanguard would keep to ita unburried scbedul.e.

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aupport the interpretation. Between 8 and 15 October. there too1t place a D1llber ot biah-1ewl Qonrameat ccmt'ereDces to reevaluate the vbo1e miaaUe prosr-·. lD late October, vbeD there vu a report that the third sbot ot the lar Side proJect had peoetrate4 4, 000 miles into apace, the DepartaeDt ot Detenae bailed the eZTODeOWI cldm as proof ot a vigorous prosr• iD b~1C rea.-rcih. ADd ,.et ap.in, OD 3 aovsber tbe 1,120-~ sPutaik II, .cCIIIpl.ete with do&, vu "no 8Urpriae to t~ PreBideDt," vbo ue'YV'tbel.eaa cUrectecl .turtber cODt~ces OD ro•tr;y. 23

ID these uaeaq c1qa the Secre'taz7 ot the .Air l'orce, Jaes B •. Dou&J,aa, ce.Uecl upon. a cCIIIDittee ot 418t1Dau1shec1 scientists aDd USAF o:tticers he~ b7 Dr. B4Yvd .Teller to. propose a l1De ot poa1t"iw actioo. Tbe c~ttee•a report wu CCIII:pleted 22 October 1957. Tbough the report vent to ~ lewl.a of tbe Oow:a:Wdlt, ita recc:~~DeDdatiou tor a clo~ unified prosz-& was diareserUd 1D fa'VOr · ot a 41 "f'1ded progra tl:lat, 1D tbl op1D10D ·of uiJT, teDdad to dissipate rather tlMm cODeeu-. 24 trate the ~ ;ttort;.

1'be first maJor orpDi.zattoaal cleftl.apaeDt came CD 7 loftmber 1957 vbeD the P.rea1deut added :to tbe exiat:lDg structure b)r appo1Dt1Da Dr. J111es R. IC1ll1aD as Special AaaiataDt tor Science 8Dd TeclmolOSY. OD 12 lfovaber, Bell KcBl.ro71 the uew SecretarT ot Defense, iaaued Defense Directiw 3210.1 emphu1z1D& buic ren&l'Ch. About tbe ._. time, Me-EJ.ro;y dec1cled. "to correct prev1oua errors• b7 creatiDs a new aseuc7 to

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control_, dire~t., and relate tbe mi.asUe' aDd. space programa. It vae tbe belief of some big~ placed otticial.e tbat the Department of Defense al.read¥ bed the capabilities to do this work. Tbe need vae tor fiJ'II guidance rather thaD a complication of the OJaBDizatioo&l tramevork. The Secretary of Defense vu not con'ViDced. Atter same delq 1 while considering the Deed tor congressional. approval., McBl.roy establ:l.sbed the Advanced Research ProJects .Asency (ABPA) on 7 J'ebru.&r7 1958. 'rbe new office was beaded by Boy W. JobDeon and_, contr&ZT to the wishes of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), was authorized to direct tbe research aod developaeot proJects witbio tbe Department of Defense tbat the secretaey might aeeigD to it. 25 ID practice ARPA would thea· reusi&o I

.. ·the proJects OD a coutractual basis to tbe ~t&.r7 departaeats, otber , Go-venaeDt . agencies 1 or ci Yil.:l.an iDS ti tutions.

Altboush the White Bouse aod Department of Defeoee ·statements sbowed tbat the MmiDietration saw tbe need tor a space prosram, there was as yet no basic policy pronouocemeat to that ettect. 'rben, on 26 Jf&rch_, tbe President's Science Advisory Ccmlittee attirmed that "space tech­nology" was required by human curiosity., scientific know~qe, the maintenance of national. prestige_, aod tbe defense of the United States.26 This was the first otticial declaration by the Govel'DIIeDt that space was . ot military sigD1ticance 1 but there was still no evaJ.uatioD of space as a realm of military operations.

OD 2 .April the ~sident asked Congress to approve the establish­ment of a lation&l Aeronautics and Space .Admin18trat1on (JWJA) to condW:t

CONFIOENTJAl

OONFIDENTIAl 15

all apace act1yitiea "except thoee proJecta prf.ma:r1l7 associated with ail.ita.:q :requirellenta." !l.'bouah be did uot eq 'wbat tbese requirements were, it vas clear that tbe m1lltu7 propaa wOuld be leas iJaportant ~ thaD tbe c1 v.UiBD Pl'OSNR•

Couaresa acted with dispatch. OD 29 Ju:cy, the Preaideat aisDed the Rational. ~roaautica IIDd Space Act (Public Law 85-568) .c:re.atiDs IfASA. It be. the effect of bilectins the apace Prosr• iato llil.ita.r)t aad civil-. . -ia sesuata. The ._. law brouaht 1Dw beiac a Rational .Aeron81.lt1cs and Space Cowu:U (BASC), to advise tbe Preaideat oa space mattera, aad a C1v1l.18D-KU1taey L:La1aoa CCIIIIittee (C_:Jf.LC) as a bridge betveeD the Dl1l.i· 26 tar;y and ci vUiaa apace asenciea.

lleanwh1le 1 on 3 July 1958 · tbe latioaa.l. Secur1 't1 Council (liSC) sub-Jaitted to the Presideat a policy stateraeat o.a outer apace. The Council stated tbat Russiaa auperiorit;y 1D astro.aautica would create aD 1mbalaace of power iD fawr ot the Camnm1at bloc. Jloreoftr 1 there were ilaraediate m1l1tar;y requ:Lraeats tor veatber, cC'IW!!!aaicat1oa, IIDd electroaic counter-measure aatell1tes. In the more Mstaat tu.ture tbe armed forces mi&ht require aateJ.l:ites as balbardllleat vehicles, as mainteDaDCe aad ~ depota tor outer apace vehicles, ad as recoaiaaiaaaDCe stations. The .

. "29· Preaideat siped this paper oa 18 Ausuat. By- Jaidaumlller 1958 the Mmiaiatratioa had eat.J:tllabed a apace pollcy

tbat called 1'GI' dual prosrams, civUiaD ad m1l.itaey. Bllt tbe l1Des ot dllllarcatioa were aot sbarp aad there were certaia to be vide areas of o~lap, as well as caapetitio.a tor preatip ad.JIIIODq.

l6 ~ .OONFIBENT.lAl

Air Fdrc:e Space Policy to 1959 The expression of policy is not l:lmit~d to pollq stateMnts. It is pre8en~ too., at least by implication., 1n JUDy decisions of' an opera­tional nature. Certainly the Air Force vas moved by a policy of carefUl in-vestisation in 194-6 when it dir.ectea. !WID to a~ the feasibility of' satellites and in 1947 wben it instructed .AMC to eval.uate tbe studies. But there vas no doctrine at the time to def'ine the role tbat the Air . Force should pl~ in space.. In December 19'1-7 1 Ale's approval ot the RAID studies md recaamendation that the Air Force initiate a satellite proJect impelled Lt. Gen. Bovard. A. Craia, DeS/Materiel, to urge the Chief' of' Staf'f' to def'ine the Air Force position on space. 30 Oo 15 Jmu­BZ7. 19481 Gen. Hoyt s. Vmdenberg1 Vice Chief' o'f Statf'1 signed tbe· f'ol­loving Space Policy Statement:

The USAF, as tbe Service deal.in& prima.ril;y with a1r weepons-­especi~ strategic--bas logical res,ponsibility tor the satellite. Besearch and developnent will be pursued u rapi~ as progress in the guided missiles art justifies and requ1rtS~ents dictate. To this end· tbe problem Will be contint.tal.:cy studied v1 th a view to keeping an optimum design abreast of' the art., to detel'llline tbe military worth of' the vehicle--considering its utilit)r and probable cost--to insure development in critical components, it indicated., .{ and to.· rec<11111erid initiation. of the developaent phaa_es of' tbe proj-

. ect at tbe proper t:lme. y . . ryf ~ , . In the next nine ;years., l~ 571 the Air Force had no f'o1'11lal.l;y ap-C6' ~ ._., ~~t it ae- lost 1aterest 1D tbo poaa1b1llt7 ot \ -such a progra and never rescinded the poliq statement of' 15 JaDUaJ:7 J.9118. Consequently vben the nation 'a reaction to Sputnik made a national space progrem inevitable, the Air Force vas in a position to develop from Vandenberg's statement a policy on space missions.

17

· Air J'orce apace poliq c .. to ccmaiat or tour maJor &a~N~pt1oaa. I':Lrat, arq apace prosrea vou.ld depeDd upoa a ~ ·apace 'ttlch­aoloQ, aad tbatm turD required exteuiw reaeat'Ch ud deftlopaeat. Secoocl, because ot ita ~le 1D all operatiaaa abo• tbe surface of tbe Ba:l:th, the Air rorce held aa 1Dbeteat right to a dcwtaaat role 1D apace operat1Cils. Tbird, tor tbe sake of clarit7 1D ll111ta.ry plalla 1t vu necesaal7 .to defiae tbe Air Jorce aiaaioD. 1D apace opera~•· ADd tourth, apace vould becaae .1110re ud more en tical for the II1Utw7 aecur1tJ ot tbe aatioa. 'rh1s lut poillt bad beea tU beart of tbe 1955 GOB Bo. 8o that first called tor a aatellite veapoa 8Jst..31 Grad~ tbe llepartllleat of Detease, lllld llllll1 ~rs ot Ccmareas too, cae to ac­cept this s-.e view. 32

'rbe Air·Jorce aatur~ aoupt leadersb1p ill apace a111ta.ry opera­ti~a. ID March 1958, Gen. ~ D. White, Chief ot Statt, USAF, reverting to Vuauaberg'a tbeme ot 1948, wrote:33

Jor all practical purpo~s air aad apace aerge, tom a c~tiauoua aad 1Ddr1 visible t1e1d ot operation•. Just aa 1D the put, when our capability' to control tbe a11" pemitted our tree­dolll ot llOVSLeDt ill tbe lalld and seaa beneath, so, ·in tbe tllture, will tbe capabilit)r to coatrol: ~permit ourtreec!aD ot move­meat OD tbe surtace ot tbe earth aad throu6h tbe ataoaphere. lfeitber the Arrq aor tbe •av ai5mitted the A1r J'orce. cla:lm to pri-

macy ill apace, ~t ~adquartera ~ coaatut:IT re~ the doctriae. As a c~t expresaioa ot air-space rel~tioasbip, the Office ot the Chief ot Statt ill traduced tbe te:na "aerospace." 34- The meaa1ag ot the word was not understood 1aaecUate]¥ either 111thia the Air Force or elaevbere.35 CoD:tllaioD led. the A1r Statt to ·,eelt a definition, and

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tbe meaniDg ot tbe tezm vu ex:preaaed oUiciaJ.lt ill Alll 1-2 in Dec•ber 1959: 36

The aerospace is an o.Perat10Da.lll" 1ndi:ria1ble ..U'IB c~aist­q of the total expailae beJ'Qlld the earth • a IUZ'face. Tbe torcea ot the Air lorce cc:mpJ'iH a t-.i.q ot operat1118 878tala--a1r· •18-~~ balliltic missiles, aDd ap&ce fthicle qatce. Tbeae are the tuadwentaJ. aeroapace torcea of tJ:Ie natiaa. Logic~ tbe dOctrine of aeroapace upreaaed tbe thou&ht that at.r­

pover aDCl apace power are the ._ th1rJs and Uaul4 be wated,; II.D.&aiDsle aervice which, vbatever ita ottici&l title, .voul4 be the aeroapace force. Space whiclea voulcl be IIDOtber cate8017 ot fthiclea to be . -.pl.oyed ill the rqiona &bow the surface of the Barth to belp deter war or, tau­iDS that, to help v1D tbe · war.

Late ill 1958 the Air force •tts&pted to apecU, ita exact role 1D apace for the sake Of lozig-raap plaanina aDd 4nel.QP~eDt1 aDd Bead­quarters 11ated 1; proJects pert:I.DeDt to apece lliaaiona that aboulc1. be Air J'orce re8pOD8ib1lltie~~*37 'l'he probl• vu to baw the Jlia~ aaaigDed• A8 the time approached for .tbe tirat aeaaiOD ot tbe 86th Coa­gresa ill J8DU8Z'7 1959, tbe Air 8tatt prepared • poliC7 atateMDt that emphasized recozmaisallllCe, ofteoaiw1 ead Ct,efeaabe apace QP.V&tiona u

iiTbe. 15 miaaiooa were: ll111tazo;r reaoarat.1•aace with aatellJ.tea utiJJ.d.q optical HDlSOI's;· the ulie of milital'J aatellitu ut111s1Da 1Df1ivec1 aeo­aora; the ~t ot m111t&l'7 aatellitea tor c~1c.at1oa8J llil1tar1 recoDDaiilaance Y1th electroa1c HDBonJ veatl:ler o'banatioafbJ llil.1'tar1 aatellitea; a satellite cletuae qat.; a JUDDed maiutezumce 8DCl aupp]1' qat. tor outer-apace wb1clea; IIBDDecl deteaaiw ou.ter-apace veb1cles; maDDed bailabazodmeDt apace ftbiclea; mezmed aatel;Litea for a qat. ot detectioD1 V&rD1D81 8Dd recoaaaiaaaDC&; ~a:rdlleDt satelllte&J l.UD&r bueaJ target clroDe satellites; satellites tor el.ectrollic couoter­meaaures; aatellitea aa DavilatiOD a14a.

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essential to USQ' ·apace activities. ·ot course tbe A:t.sy aDCl Bav too ba4 apace upi:rat10DS1 ezaCl· there de"Nloped a triaervice atrugle be:tore tbe ccmareasioD&l. cCIIID1 ttees. A further CCilllpl.1cat1oa vas the roJ.e of' ARPA 1D ahap1Da 111Ute17 apace proJects to aeet tbe desires~ the Departllent ot pe:raee aDd tbe AQm1nietratioD. In llal'ch 1959 the A:l.r Force arau-' JleDts bet'ore. the coapreaaioDal cc.d.tteea vere bl.UDted b7 ~ s. JolmBOD, ARPA'• director. Be acJIII1ttecl a "poaaibl.e" llUituT need :tor lunar end plaDetuT buea, bu.t ~ 1D tbe c1ia:tant tuture, "not 1n the 8p8Zl a &1"8 VOrkiDS 1n DOVe 11

.JobDSOD nDted curreat de~a liaited to CCIPDUD1• catiOD satellites .o:r. 51 000 pouDda at altitudes ot ·221 000.JI1les end ll1ll­tarT wh1cl.es .vith IDIIDnwrabilltT to altitudes o:t ~ 600 Jlil.es. 38

BvaD 1D tl7iD6 to establish a reaea:rch end dewl.opaeDt prosra to ove1"CCOII8 the .lost opporiml1t1ea of' 1953-51 tbe .A1r Force encountered d1fticulties. Bot OIJlT 41d the rapidity o:r teclmoJ.osic&l breek.tbzoousba preclude the aaaurauce tbat f1D1 bwJaet would be ~ci.ent tor the cai-1Dg year~ but tbe A1r ·Force vas not a tree agent 1D 8UCh matters. Tl:le Bure.U ot tbe !uc\pt itself' aoul4 arb1~ impose cetUnp. Jforeo"Yer, atter .Febr\,1.&r,r 1958, autbori t7 to~ apace proJecte vas centra.Usea. 1D ARPA. The Air Force therefore coul.4 do little aozoe tl:IID 'I.11'P tund8 tor J.oDa­tem prd.1ecta; work to accelerate tbe product10D ot Atlas, titan, aDd Tbor; proceed ·as 81f1ttl1' as posa1b.le with n~apece proJects;. ucl ftaht :tor favorable policies at hish lewl.a. 39

USAll' Plana and Projects, 1951-59 Within a matter o:r veeka atter ·Sputa:lk tbe A1r Force vas eD6apd 1D

two JD&.1or undertak.1ns• rel.ated to apace. Tl:le first vu to establish a

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Belldqwu'tera USAJ' aaeaq to supervise the vazoioua proJects &1.reac%r ex-1st1D6 oa paper. Tbe. second vas to plact tbe prev1o\la:q proposed pro3-ects in a ~omal. proar- to be sanctioned by- hisbest author1t7 .4o ID aeitber effort was the Air Jlorce succeaatul. There came to be a p~a­dox: the JIOre attempted the less accCIIIPliabed. Directorate ot .Advaaced Teclmologr

In Rowmber 19571 Col.. v. Y.· Adduci, Aaaist&Dt Director, ottice ot Legislative Liaison, urpd the Air J'orce "to 3\lllP tbe gun OD tbe probl• ot astronautics b7 appointiDS ei tber a Director or Assistant Cbiet ot Staff tor Astroaautics. 11 ID view o~ the growing apposition vitbiD Head­quarters USAJ' to tbe turther creation ot aasistat chiefs ot staff there vas little probability- ot placias the apace qeaq at tb&t le'Vel.. . eoa .. ceivab~, it could have been located in the ottice o~ the Assiataat Chief· of Staff' tor Guicled Missiles, where there v8.a alread¥ aaae cepabUity tor the worir.;. 1'he Chiet ot Statt decided, hove'Ver, to place the aaenc7 under tbe Deputy Chief ot Statf' / De'Vel.opneat. OD lO Dec1111ber1 General Putt aDDouaced the establisl:mellt 1D tbe DCS/DevelopHmt ot the Directorate of Aatl'Oilaut1ca, to be headAid 'b7 Br:1g. Gea. Baaer A. Bousbq. 41

'rbe Departmeat of Deteaae reacted adversel.T to tbia action. Willi• lfoladair, Deteaae Director ·ot Guided Missiles, public]¥ stated that the Air Force "waated to srab· the l:lmeJJ.aht and establish a poa1 t10D." Tbe Secretary" ot Detease expressed his oppositioo to use o"t the te:nn "astro­nautics]' which seemed to h1m an Air Force bid tor popular support. StroDa pressure oa Headquarters USA? trail above, verbal. rather tbaD written, made it a4viaable on l.3 Deceaber for Oeaeral. Putt to cucel bis memorandum of 10 December. 42

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21

ID tbe weeks tbat followe41 Bead.qwlrtera z-ne1ned awaN t4 tbe Deed tor central cODtrol ot tbe M:vanced BecODD&isa8nce 87atem IIDcl ita eubQ"a­tems aDCl of otber epace proJects tbat 111sht be 8811CtiODe4. But ~ prospects of setti.Ds DeparilleDt of Defense approval tor tbe &&eDC7 vere poor for the U. beizl6. SiDce apace vehicJ.es were•depeDdeDt upoD bal­listic missiles, Bea4quartera adoPted t~ t.porU7 ilolutioD ot author­iziDa the Aaaiatst Chief of Staff tor Gu1c1.ed MiasUea to coordiDa.te USAP apace activities. 43

Not until 22 JulJ 1958, after tbe lational Securi'tJ' Council detined the space pol.ic;y of the .Adm1DistraticD, could tbe Air Force obta:I.D OSD approval of a USAP apace a&eDC7. lhen tbeD it appeared that the use of "aetroDaUtica" would be mpolitiCo Accozod.1Dsl¥, YbeD GeDeraJ. White es­tablis~ the. n~ office under DCS/Dewl.oplent em 29 Jul.;y1 effective 15 Juq, he called it the ])1rectora~ of Advenced 1'ecllloJ.ocT. 44 GeDeral Bouabe;y becae director ot the new oftice, with tuDct:loDs as toll.ova:45 To ~Nperviae at the Air statt level. tbe tol'IIUlatiOD ot the Air Force .AdVII.Dced 'lecbnolopcal. Propw.,; provide teclll1cal 1D­fomatiou aDd advice to tbe Air 8tett OD the process of· ·develop­meDt,; ma:1Dta1D cocrdiDatioD with ARPA, tbe Depa.rtmeDt /iii/ ot Ar:lq" end lav 1111d other interested govel"DIIeDt apDcies,; 8DCl ma:I.DtaiD llaiaoD Yith civU:J.an eclucatiOD&l. :lDstitutioDa1 i.Ddua­tl'T, ad repreaentati,es ot tore1p soveraDeDtl f1Q8118ed 1D re­search and developMDt activities. .

Doubtless Headquarters hoped to .lUke the Directorate of Advanced Tecbnolog" the cODtrol point. tor aU Air J'orce space proJects. Bovever 1 siDce the apace projects were depencleat upon DlisaUes, tbe apace pro-graa would necessarily involve .AJ'BMD, which in tu1'D vaa ill ccmtact rith lfeadquartera tbrouab tbe· Aasiataot .Chief ot 8tatt tor Guided MissUea.

~ ·.,. .

... \ : . . .. : ... ' .~ \i'.. ! " . . . I ... ! CONFIDENTIAl 22

UDder tbe circumatauces 1 t vas iJiprudeat to se-ver all. ties between tbe guidecl Jliaaile. otftce and tbe space prosra. A consequent divbioa ot autbori 't7 between the Allaietaat Cb1et ot · sta:tt tor Ouided JUeeilee 8Dd tbe D1rectorate ot Ad'YBDCed 'l'ecl~Dol.CQ · reiNlted 1D a uuaber ot

46 abarrueq ll111Wl4erataad1uas clur1D6 the ncceedias J10Dtb8. U8AP Space P1'os!'• 8114 ABPA

At tbe 8 .. ti.Jie that the Air force,.. attaapt!Dc ~ set up a BeedcJurter• ~~pace ..-cr, tbe Air 8tat:t studied tbe llil.ite.:q illplicatiooe ot Sputnik. Tbe eppz'08CbiDc apace as• could well dauDd a Dew etrateg, tor ewD~ utroaautic eupreaaq ll1abt .. au * cootrol ot all the iud ad •• areu ot the Barth. 'lbe :rree World could Dot concede auch a coatillpDq to the Soviets u4 auni-ve. It',vu U. tor a ~aic ~t10Del. propwa tbat vould briiJ6 with it the reco'VV,Y ot Allerican lee4er­sbip. ID Bo'Valber 8Dd Dec.UV 3.957 the Air ·::rorce drloted IIUCb. tbouaht ~

. to t!IU aeecl.

OD 1 J81N&l"T 1958 the Departaeat ot Deteaee requested the t~ aenicea to list their proposed .space proJects. It llq· be tbat the Departaent ot Defense 1DteDclecl to uae this 1Dtonaatioa OJll1 to ue1st .ABPA 1D UlisDiDa devel~t ll1111110D11 1110DS tbe l.zaT1 Bav, and Air lorce~ Tbe Air lorce, however, at least at the etatt level, interpreted the request quite difterentq and bellewcl tbat the Depa.:r1DeDt ot Defense 118 intended. to appro-ve a USAF apace prosraa.

DCS/D8wl.oplent ~ted the reply 1D two veeke. It listed 5 qa­tau aDd 2l aubqataU or proJects that eDCCIIp&Baecl a ftrietr ot IIU1ta.ey lli•llioaa "ueential. to the aaiDteDellce ot our natiODal. polit10D aDd

.. GONR.DENTIAt · ; . . . .

~ ...

23

preatip." TJ:Ie A1r Poree boped to keep these miasioaa 'tor 1taelt'1 aud the paper, aisDed b7 B:iahard B. Hemler, Aaaiataut Secretaey ot the Air l'orce (Research and DewloplleDt) · ~ded "that tbe aatroaautical. prosra be appro'ftd and the aeceaaa:r,y resources aouaht to Dlplemeat 1t. ~'* Kr .. BoJ.adlv receiftd tbl paper OD 24 Jaauar.r but made DO CCIIDeDt or repl7. Tb1a aUence OD tbe part o't OSD was a d1aappo1D1aent to

'iTbll proposed procr- ccaaieted of the tollov1Ds qatea aDd subsystems: I. 6o91 Ballistic Teat aud Belated S,ateu 1. BRA'r81 Space Beeearch aDd Bxperilileata 2. Aerial Surve7 aud Target LocatiDa 87etem (Becou)

II. 4471 llaDDed ~raoaic Research S,..tem 3· X-151 Space Beaevch aDd IJiperiaeDt 4. Ad"'IIDced B)per~ic Besearch Aircraft (Mamled Space Plisht1 Space PAD)

III. 464, n,na Soar 5. Kamled Capsule Teat (Maimed Space lliaht) 6. Co.Dceptual. Teat (Kazmed Space lliaht, at>) 7. ·Boost G~ide Tactical (WeepoD Del.i'ftZ';Y) 8. Boost Glide IDterceptor (Coun~measure) 9. Satellite Interceptor ( Couatermea.aure) 10. Global Recozma.iaaance 11. Global Baaber (Weapoa Deliw17)

IV. WS-U7 L Satellite Syatera 12. Advanced Recozmaiaaance Satellite 13. Beco"Verable Data (Pboto Capsule) (Becoa) 14. 24-hou.r .BeCOD.DaiaaaDce ~tell 15. MaDDed Stratesic hatioa (Welll)OD Dev ~md Becoa)"" 10. Stratepc CcmauDicatiOD& statioa (Data TraDIIIliasion) v. 4991 Lunar Base S;ystaa

17. Mazmed Variable TreJectoJ7 aDd Teat Vehicle (Becoa aad ~r) . 18. Nuclear Rocket Tut (Space Becoa aDd Bxper) 19. laD PropulsioD Teat (S,pace Becon azad lxper) 20. Lunar Trezlaport (Jiamaed Sp.Ce PJ.1Sht1 Becoa aDd Exper) 21. Xamled Lunar Base (Wea;pcm Dev &Dd Becoa)

GONFIDENT1At

General Putt and h1s sta:U 1 san ot vlxa tel t tbat the plan bad been piaeqabol.ed to die--to be "ow:rtakea b7 eveata," u vas not iatre~ said ot otber Air Statt proposals. 49

Peas:lmi• in the Air Staft deepened u the pollc1es of ABPA cae into a1lbouette durins the ~riDs ot 1958. It vas evident· soon atter 7 l'ebJ'U&Z'7 tbat Jo:tmson, with tbe approval. ot Secret11Z7 11cnro7, would

· orsmize and operate the aaeacy u a "fourth service" or poas1bl:f as a "special t&ak torce" rith1D tbe DeperillleDt of Defense. In either case JohDacm vould be' 1Ddependent ot service v1ahea, but c1rc1D8taacee would DOt pemit h:Sa to .escape the role ot arbitrator ot service dit'terencea. Jol1Dsoa'a'.mtbor1ty" vu further 1Dcreued vbeo tbe.Pree1deat decreed t!Jat ARPA vould ccmtrol c1viliaa u well u 11111ta.rJ apace proJects until D8A. bepa twlct1on1Ds.50 Between 7 :reb;ruar.y and l October 1958, ARPA act~ aervec1 u the "national" apace aaeocy.

oa ,2:1 March, JohDSOD 1Dtormed·. the Secretaries ot the Arrq, llav, aDd Air lorce that 1D order to "cut red tape" be voul.d i&Dore DOmal.· chazmels ot cCllllllUDicat1oo, b7P&&s tbe service chieta, aDd deal dil'ectl1" v1th the Am:¥ Ballistic IU.aaile Apaey; tbe laval O:rdllance Test ~t1on (liO'l'S) 1 at InJokerD, CaUt o J aDC1 the Air Jleae~h and De'Y8lopaeat Cclm­

Jil8Dd1 1Dclud:LD& ArliiD aDd otber centers. 5l · Certa:l.D:cy- tbe · services did DOt relish tbe suapeos1cm ot estab­

Uabed ce~~DUD1c&t101l aetboda. Tbe out-ot-cbMMl approach, tbongb aooa mod1t1ed iD iKae respects, saw ARPA a measure of control over Artq, Bav,r 1 Uld Air J'orce uai ts wol'kiD& on apace proJects. But as ta:r as the A1r Ioree vas concemed, JohDSOD •s break.dow ot apece proJects and b1s

GONFtDENTIAl I· .. • .

; :. -~ ·-·r;.~-"-~t "

. . .... ~·- -~~.--.,.;;:-:.: .

. . ,., .

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25.

distribution ot spl.1Dtered parts were even more disturbing, J'or example~ 1n Karch 1958 he Clirected the Naval Ordn1112ce Teat station to devel.op a mecbazlical ground-scazmiDa qat. to supplement tbe

52 lawlcbiDs of tbree lunar probes assisned to tbe A1r Force. In this and o-tber installces, JohDBOD abaodoDed tbe tested principle ot concur"­renc,' used by .AI'Bm 1D tbe rapid a"VJtlo~nt ot bR1Uf.]1c uqssUes after -1953. Johnson, ot course, saw tbe problem from the poin~ ot view ot his own :position and responsibilities~. 1112d presumab:cy be vas also under strong pressure trail each ot the three services. ~ explaDatioo of his decisions is d.Qubtless 1D ARPA tiles. It seemed to tbe .Air Force tbat

_ ~ his. d1 vision of proJect caaponents obtained tbe efficient production ot ' parts at the expense of greater efficiency for tbe wllole J tbere seemed 5.3 also a probable loss of time. ·

Despite the turo of events tbe .~r Fo_rce continued to bope and work tor a.-space program ot its own. Dur:I.Ds Karch and. April, Headquar­ters USAJ' va1nl.y sought approval b7 civilian authorities of a prop-am that,. 1D add1 tion to tbe Advanced Becoonaiasance S,stem, would include a three-pbased Jll8Diled satellite to send consecuti'Ve~ a 8ll18l.l animal, a large an:lma.l, and a man into space; a bJdrosen-oxygen engine of * 1501 000-pound thrust; a 1, 5001 000-pound-thx:ust engiDe; and a nuclear 54 . propulsion qstem.. 'rbus tbe A1r Force showed a k.eeo consciousness ot three importaDt aspects of space exploration--continued reseazoeh in

*lle,.1ected by ARPA as tal.liog withio the area ot IWlA responsibilities, and desisnated Bo'¥8.,

. ' l ' . I . \ 'i ...... ~ . . . . ' .

-~ONFlDENl\A\: . -... ~

the nature ot spo.ce~ plaDs tor the conqp.eat. ot BPeCe bT JI8D iD apace, aud the deftloplleDt ot propula1on qatau tbat vould be 1D4epelldant ot ~ 111aa1le prosr•. BetWeen J'IDU&t"1 and Juq 1958~ Beadqgartera USAF tonrarded

rnaeroua requests~ proposals,. aud draft space prosr- to -llo:r."DDtr wi:t;h the hope tbat he -could obtaiD OSD concurreace. But Bomer did not CODviDce hie superiors ot the peed tor the propoeed PrQ61'&• :rew ot these sugeat1ona got 'be;yoDd bia ott1ce~ vbere:,.1t seemed to 55-Beadquartera USAJ'1 tbq were "owrteken bT .e"ftttltl."

Jewrthelesa the UBAP proposel.a were not lost to the mil.itary' tbough reabuttl.ad b7 ABPA. In the apriD& ot 1958, JobDSOD took owr the A1r J'orce proposal. tor Space 'rrack, a 1~ !)00 1 000-pcnmd-thruat a1Dgle-chaaber ezi&iDe~ aucleai- propul.aian~ tbe .A4":11Dced BeoODDaisaaDce s,ataa~ aud the three-phased aatell.1te tor 11a11 iD apace~ al.oils with * otbera ·trca tbe Ara3 and. Bav,r. Altbouah :be redistributed tbe pro~ecta

thrbe proJects tnaeterred to ARPA~ aDd the elates~ were as tollova: Pro.lect 1. Arpa (uy.cl.ear explosion iD exosphere)

Date ot !l'rarlater to ABPA 4Apr5$' 2. Satelllte aDd. OQter· Space· Prosr-s 1Dclud1Dg Vaasua;rd . 3- ll1sh Pertol'JIIIDce Sol14 Propell&Dta 4. JI1D1trilck Doppler :renee 5· Arlq and Air l"orc.e Ballistic K1as1le De1'enae Pro3ecta 6. Stud.1ea ot tbe lttects ot Space Weapcma lb,pl.cvment on Ji111tarr llectron1c 87atema 7. Buclear »cab-Propelled Space Veb:l.cle 8. Buper-'l!llruilt Bocket J:DsiDea 9· WB-ll7L

The distribution est apace proJects 'b7 •A toiiovs: Project l. SouncliDs Bock.eta aDd Ground IDatNaelltatiOD tor Arsua ·

lila¥ 58 7 Jun 58

20 Jun 58 20 Jun 58

20JuD58 20 Jun 58 20JuD58 30 Jun 58

Assigned to

AJ'fNC & APC.RC

(contd) .. -£0NRDENnAL .

I :~ :.· ..

UONFIDENTIAl - · .

..oD& tbe tbree eerv:lcee, be d1d eo on a contractual. baeie. ABPA reta1Ded tecl:mical control ot the lf0rk1 and the proJects were organ-56 1zed and know aa ARPA'a p~.

Tbwt A1r Force plana tor a apace progra bad been taken over by ARPA by the tiM that tbe Directorate ot Ad:YaDced TecbDoloQ c ... into bein&. The new asenC7 had little to aupen:Lae otber thaD &e"Yen * apace atudiea and a tew Dear-apace activities. Tbe v1111Dgl'eaa1 indeed tbe detel'lliDatioD, ot .ABPA to reassign JIO&t ot the tomer USAJ' apace proJecta to Air J'orce field uni ta on a . contractual baaie d1d not

57 soften tbe fact that lfeaclquartera USAI' bad lost ita apace prograa. Cbt of the aore important ot ABPA • a earq deciaiona wu to continue

dewloplent of Saturn~ 'l'bia Arlq project prcaiaed to be ot sreat aipiticiiZice for i'u.ture llilitaq and civUim apace proszomu. It vas l1knise one to which the Air force had earlier llacle 1Dd1rect but

(&iitd) 2~ We8iJOn S;ratea to Control lbetUe Satellites 3· lu.clear bb-Pro,pelled Space Vehicle 4. lftects ot Space tlea:poar ·on JUlitary Bl.ectronic S,..teu ' 5· W8-ll7L 6. lAmar Probes 7. :Reentq Studies 8. lrish JIDer&r Propell.antP aQd Liquid lb'drogen• Liquid Qxypn PropelliSDta 9. ProJect Score ( concei '9e4 1D 1958 to broadcast the President' a "VOice fraa apace) 10. 1,500,000-pouad booster 11. Jfeteorolosical. Satellite 12. IDtlatable Sphere

ARDC ABDC

* The se'ftm iteu ot the space etudl p:rogra were: Strategical Orbital Studies. (SR J.8l), Strategic Lunar S;yatea Studies (SB 192)1 Global . SurveuieDce studiea ( SB 176) 1 211-bour :Reconnais&aDce Satelll te (SB 1811.), Lunar Obaenatoq St;v.q (SR 183)1 Strategic IDte:rplanetary studies (SR 182) I and Satellite Interceptor 87stea Studies (SR 187).

CONADENTIAl . '~ t'!fJt .. ,f;o.;~' • '' , . "\' 1, . :; ..... •.'

"'l..L. . . ~~.· ... ' l-. •

,:

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•

iapcn'taDt contributions.

In tbe tirat decade ot the postwar period the Air Force had sponsored the aerodJnaic, a1r-breatb1ng lfavabo miasUe to be equipped also with a rocket booster. The latter was designed and produced by Borth .AmericBZl Aviation, Inc. TJ:Ioush Kavabo vaa c8Dceled 1D Jul.7 1957 · the booster eusiDe vas of h1sh excellence and its moditied versions becsae . the booster tor~and Jupiter as vell aa Atlas and Tbor. Saaetime. before Sputnik tbe Artq Ordnmce 'Missile Camaad (.A(J(C) hit upon the idea ~f using yet another -version of the !lavabo engi.De 1D clusters of eight to create a tbrust beJODd: tbe requireaents of warhead del1ve1'1• In this W&¥ Saturn was a step towwd propulsion units intended apecifi-

' cal.J.7 tor apace vehicles. In 1958, .ABPA aaaumed the technical direction ot SaturD but reaasisned tbe project to .ACIIC tor actual. devel.opaent. ARPA-XASA Partition of Projects

In July 1958 the m1l1 tar,y services found tbeir apace prospects disbearteDius. Tbey bad lost D181lager1al coiltrol ot the developaent ot the vehicles. Still greater diacOllZ'eaement was at halld. Through the end ot fiscal -rear 1958 the wbol.e progra had been kept within the Department of Defense. It vaa now certa1D that ~ Januar,y 1959 tbe new civilian egeney, RASA, under tbe direction of ~. T. Keith GleDDao aa Administrator, . voul.d cla:la not only tbe noDIII.Ui tal'1 proJects but also those of borderline :lllportaDce to both the lllil1 tal'1 and ci vUian proglWIB. Tbe time bad cc:JDe-1 as ~ President and his scientific advisers had previousl.y detemined, tor the services to surrender all space activities except the tev that vere "prlJaaril.y associated 111 th 58 . mili tazT requirsents."

. \i

CONFlDENTIAl

In ·the spring at 1958, ARPA, actiDg u tbe natioual. apace eaency pro tempore, had orpuized ita apace proJects 1Dto tour prosr.aa--I: MisaUe Defense Ap.inst ICBI's; II: Jlllit&1'7 RecODD&isa8Dce s,.te·l-

* Utes; m: Developae~~ts tor Application to Space TecbDoloSY; and IV: .AdvaDced Research tor Scientific Purposes. f It vas the iDteDtion ot ARPA to transfer ODJ.y Prosr• IV to 1IASA vbeD tbe latter c•e 1Dto be iDs, but tbis hope BUttered a serious blow. 59

On 28 July tbe President decided to aapbaa1ze tbe ci v111an apace prosraa by s1 viDs to liASA such n0DIIl1.li t&17 pro~ecta u luDv probes and scientific satellites initiated by J.'§A, aJ.oDs with ProJect V&D­guarq.. In accordance vi th Bxecuti "ftl Order lfo •.. 107831 the tr~ster began 1Drlediatel.y after the activatioo ot RASA OD 1 October. 6o Under this arr~mgement IABA. sot Prosram IV end cut deeply' into Program ni.

' by cl•'•1Ds all those pro~ecta pertainins to Man in Space (redesisnated Pro~ect Mercury), 1pecial eDSiDes, satellite tracldng, COIIIIIUDicat1al81

*Program m 1Dclud.ed e~ projects: . 1. · Man 1D Space 2. Special Engines 3· Special Caaponents tor Space S)"ateu 4. Project Arsua 5· Satellite Track:tns 8Dd Mon1 toriDs Syatelu 6. Satelll te CCIIIIIUD1cat1ons Rel.q, MeteoroloSical. Report1ns, .lfavi­sational Aid 87Bteu 7. ::Ballb-Povered Bocltets 8. Solid fropell8Dta

fFrognll'l IV included tour proJects: · 1. ABAA/J'J!L Prosram tor lour Sc1mtitic Space Vehicles to be Launched 1D 1958 . 2. AFliiD Prosrar.a tor Three Imlar Probes 3. 110TS Prosraa, a ooe-trae television with a mecbaDical scanner to set "a tirat look at the Otllfno aide ot the moon" · 4. lollov-.on Prograa, vasuel.J detiDed as "more ot the same"

CONFIDENTIAl

.•

30 ... : , . _·· --,-.. (

~ • ....... ~ ~ J •

meteorol.OQ, 8Dd naviptioa. The .ARPA lllil.i'ta.r7 prosr- tbeu cousisted ot uothiu& more tbaD Prosr• I, Prograa n, ad the plaDs tor a

61 uuclear-bcab-povered· rocket, as a rsanant of Prograa m. Iu Septeber 1958, abo~ before tbe acti vatiou ot DSA.,- AIWA

redefined tbe Ad:'1811Ced BeCODDai888DCe System 8Dd broke ::. t down into separate pro~ecta with ditterent deai&Datioua. Tbe recODDa1&88Dce aspect becmae Seutr;y. Tbe vehicle teats, bicaedical. tl.ights, 8Dd reco'Ver.,y experiaenta were grouped togetber as Discoverer. ADd tbe

_ _/'

intrared seDsiug. ayataa becaae IUdaa. In tbe last JIODtha ot 1958, .ARPA aaai&Ded tJ:Jeae three proJects to ABDC-AFBID with tbe usual coutrac-tual. ~ts. Between 19 December 1958 rmd 29 April 19591 lfASA. requested ARDC to accept reapoaaibW t7 tor Space Traelt research rmd deve1opaeut, the desi.n1 ot rm euaine teat stead at Bdval'da .AFB. aud the couatruction - . . ~-ot t'acil.i tie a at J:gl:iD APB tor vertical. apace p:r:obea.

At t!Je end ot' June 1959 tbe Air J'orce vaa still without a space prosr• ot 1 ts ow but vu obligated to support a large part ot the ABPA * program and scae RASA pro~ects as well. Tbe work llfl4e serious dslanda

* Space proJects wbo~ or pa:rtl.y entrusted to APJIO) ·by llid-1959: 1. Discoverer 12. Willow 2,. Seutry" 13. Ou.ter Space Weapou- Test 3· JUdas 14. Centaur 4. 6-Hr CCIIII. Sat 15. Saturn 5. 24-Br CCIIIIl Sat 16. JlaDDed Sat & IDtcp 8Dd 6. Deep Probes IDspec l;retell 7. Transit Bav Sat 17. Geo-Aatro-~ic&l. hosr• 8. Tyros Cloud Co-ver 18. lilstler lag1ne - 9. Courrier Paaaiw Artll.y Cama Sat 19. AeroJet lo4 ED61De 10. BIL'I8 20. Delta ll. Kercu17 (MIS) 21. Vee;a·

:; -~

of : ..... < ~ j';

GONFIDENTIAt upoa t11e pereonae1 and tac111tiea ot AI'BID, vbich, to tbt concern ot ita cCIIIIDander, bad. no 118Dap::-ial. control over the 2l apace pro.1ecta ... being developed tor ABfA and KASA. 63

!!a..1or Beadjua1alellts, .AprU-Decaaber 1959 ID the aprins ot 1959, Yideapreed diasatietaction vi th the pro­

gress made b7 tbe apace procre J.ec1 to ctu~D&es in organization that were ot tar-reachiaa consequence. OD 13 .AprU 1959, Headquarters UBAJ issued tbe equivalent ot a cb&rter tbat gave the Directorate ot Ad:vanced 'l'echDolOQ autbori v 1;o cool'diDate vi tbiD the Air Staff all USAJ' apace activities. The Aaaistant Chief ot Statt tor Guided IUs­sUes retailled no space respODaibili 't7 except the coorcl:S.Datioq ot requiraaeDts tor ballistic missile resources 1Dclwl1Da boosters,

64 static test tae1lit1es, and nqe and launch facilities. Still another cbqe occurred on 9 lfovaaber 1959 vben OOS/

De~opient redea:S.snated tbe Director ot Advanced TechnoloD aa the Assistant tor Astronautic S;yatss. Tbe Cbiet ot Statt approwd ·the

\

\

sl:d.tt to Aaaistant statue in Deceaber but would not pemi t uae ot the term Astronautic B7stema. In his new position the Assistant tor Ad­'Y8Zlced TecbnoJ.os7 had overall respooe1b1lity within DCS/Developtent tor pol1c7 guidazlce and p J:0SN1 direction in the broad areas ot bal­listic missiles or vehicles, ballistic missile warning and defensive 17stems 1 and vehicles and. 171teu to operate 1D apace, including those tor detecting and tracking. 65

Simultaneous:cy- Yith these USAF organization changes, ditf'erences among the m1lit&r7 services cee into the open. In late April 1959 the Chief ot lfaval Operations, "in a bo;J.d bid tor a maJor abare" 1n the

CONFIDENTIAl '<, > • ·, • s ""$·

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..;·

32 '0

0 ll1l.i'tar7 apace proar-1 urpd the JCS to sanction a siD8J.e Jli~itar,y space ageucy to coordinate all pertineDt · faclli ties aDd 0 tlmctions. 'rbe Arlq concurred on the theo17 that apace acti v1 ties would transcend tbe exclusive i:Dtereets ot aoy one eemce. Tbe Air Force· Chief ot Staff found the proposal con'trVr 1io 't12!e es~iebed practice ot . 66 integrating weapons withi:D unified CCliiDIIDda. lD the midst ot these discUSBioDS ARPA recCIIIIeDded 1D June a llei'CUrT Task J'orce to assist lfASA., and tbe Secretary ot Defense requested JCS advice 1:D aasigni:D& nnAr&ting responsib:Llitieso tor several projects, incllldiJJi

• ~ 0

~ M1cla8 aDd Sentr;r--tbe ~atter soon to be redesipatecl as samoa. ID tbe DIODtba tbat followed, the HmcD beJ.d their positions. 'l'be !ray and Hav wanted a Mercury Taek J'orce aDd a DefeDee Astronautical Apncy 0

~ to control tbe apace qsteu. Tbe Air lorce obJected to both. The discussion contiDued through the BUDDer ot 1959~ In SeRteaber tbe Secretary of ·Defense JUde three iaportallt decilions •. lfe disap­

proved the proposed DeteDse Astronautical Agenc7. Be quaebed tbe move tor a lfercur;y Task Force but as a subst1 tute selected Ka.1· Gen. Donald B. Yates, USA!', At~tic .IUasile BaDse CaiiiiiiDder, to "direct

* 69 m1lit&a7 ~port" tor tbe project. · Aa4 tiD~, Jfc3l.roy reversed (

hie eatabliabed policy on ABPA by d1Ticl1n8 the Jlilitar:Y apace prosr• IDOlli tbe tbree· services. True 1 advanced research for llissile defense remained with .ABPA, but booster dewloplent went to tbe Air Force, and the dewlopleDt

0

of space pqloada vas assigned to the

*B,r 19601 General Yate·s bad drawn up his plan8 tor a JCercur1 support organization tbat was a task_ force 1D everything but n811e.

. ~ . . : . .-: .... j.' ·,· t ........ ~·;.,

. . J~ONFIDENTIAJ?3 Arrq1 Bav., arJd Air Porce OD the basis of ccapetence and prilllar)r interea~. Under this arransement, ll1das and S.Os were marked for t)le A1r Force, al.tbou&h formal. transfer aid not foUov s-cuately, Likewise 'rraDs1 t, a JDOre recentl,y plalmed navigational pro.)ect, would go to the Bav and a lfotus f&llliq of four cOIIIIIIUD1cat1on aatelli~s 70

to the A:rrq.

The ruling practic~ removed ARPA traa participation 1D . .utroDautics. The . ew1.Da of the pea4W:Ia vas almost ccaplete traa Februat7 1958 vbeD the agenq had possessed sole responsibility for the natiODal apace prosraa. The rul1ng also remo"fed the Arlq trail booster developaent. Presumably 1 therefore, SaturD would go .. ·to tbe 7J. Air Force.

For three reasons copnt to Adain1stration lea.ders1 the Air Force did not get Saturn. Firat, tb6 ~ta;ey space prosraa bad retained no specific requirement tor an qine witb a 11 !)001 000-pound thrust. Second, the civilian agenc;y could place better cl.a:lJIIa on Sa.~ as needed for long-tem de'Yelopaenta. And tbird1 tbe nature of liASA' s cl.a:1ra satisfied the Bureau ot the BwJaet that there would be no 1DID.ed1ate demands for increased allocations of :tunda. The Joint Chiefs of Staff ursed that Saturn be kept vi thin the Depaz1;aent of

Defense 1 but in vain. Oa 21 October 1959 the Deputr Secretar;y ot Defense, Tbcaas s. Gates,. sisned an. agreement with Dr. GleDD&rJ ·tor

72 the trans~er of Saturn to HASA1 and the President gave praapt approval,

'.rbe actual transfer ot Samoa and JUdas occurred in late lovembe~ . 1959· 'l'o the surprise ot 11181J71 ~A also. relinquished ProJect

CONF: DENTIAL

0 '· .. ·~ • . . OOHF\DEtt \ '"'-i. i ; .

Diaco'VU'er to tbe A:Lr Porce, acaethi.D& Dot mentioned iD tbe Septeiber 73 dec1a1oDa.

Bip1f1cmce ot X-15 aDd Dma Soar

Dur1Ds tbe two critic&l ,aara ot 1957-59 tbere ~ frequent ref'erencea to tbe X-15 aDd DID& Soar 1 proJects intended oJ"ia1Da.J.l1' to e11pl07 the boost-slide principle t9 take IIIID to the friD&es ot apace and retUl'D b1ll aat~ to the Barth.

Tbe concept had beeD auaeated 1D ~ course ot World War II by

Dr. EupD siiDaer·aa a possible means tor the GeDUIDa to ballb Rev York. 8ooD after the war, the Air J'orce bee- interested 1D t11e priDcipl.e aad 1Jua.asurated the X aeries ot research aircratt . with a ..U

pl.lme, the X-l, to teat the appl.1cab1l1t)r ot the tbeory. ID tae,

otJ:Ier X a:lrcratt served the aaM purpose. 'lbe.- ..:U planes, equipped v.1 th rocket eJl8:1Dea, were taken alof't b;y larp balbera aud rel.eaaed

·,

at h1&b &ltitudes to reach :ret hi&ber &ltitudes under tbe1r own power. WbeD their fuel vaa exhausted the research &ircraf't sJ.ided back to . Barth. ID 1954 the Bav; tbe Air J'orce, and the llat1oual M:viaory

* Ccaaittee f'or .Aeronautics (R.ACA) si&Ded a ·eontract with .Borth

Allerican tor the x-15. thneiled ib October JS58 tbe X-15 wu destined to set Dew records iD speed 8Dd altitude tor II8DDed aJ.rcratt. ID less thaD two years, teat nights established a speed ot 1101"8 tllaD 2,000

mph, and m .al t1 tude ot approxillateq 25 miles. Tbe Air J'orce hoped

tbat Den, ensiDes would pemit a speed ot 4,000 aph and aD altitude

*BACA. waa absorbed b7 liASA 1D Oct 1958.

. . I ' • ..,.

74 . . -:-'"""

, , J ... 1 •• ~.r -- . ~ . ,;..

o~ 50 ail.es or JDOre.

As early as Ma;r 1955 the Air J'orce bad issued GOll Bo. 92 calling

tor a masni~ied version ot the X-15~ Dnelopaent began under three

Qeparate pro3ects kDo1m as the Bc:u.ber JUssUe or Bcm11 soon to be

redesigDated as the Rocket Bclllber or Bobo; the ver, h16h altitude

recODDaissance weapon qsta kapWD as Brass Bell; and the boost-glide

research vel:licle called lqwards. On 30 April 19571 Uea4quarters USAF

directed that these . three pro3ects be brought together under· tbe single 75

D .. ot D,yaa Soar, derived trcD ~aic soariaa.

Sputnik bad its e:ttect here, too, and on 25 Bo'ftmber 19571

Dewlopaeilt Directive Bo. 911- authorized .ARDC to proqeed with tbe wprk.

Tbe boost-glide aystaa p~sed a breakthrough be)'oad. tbe speed,

rqe1 and altitude ot existiag aircraft to accaapllah DUIDDed Jlissions

ot strateaic reconnaissance and bombing. After several months o~

turtber pl.ezmiaa the Air Fore~ announced on 16 June 19;8 its selection

ot tbe Boeiaa and Martin caapanies as dual contractors -ror tbe D.vna Soar 76

early design pbaae. J1 that time the Air Force could foresee tbe 77 . importance of' D.vna SOar:

It 1s intended that the l1.fiiA ·SOAR program Y1ll conatitute a maJor Air J'orce ettort to develop a weapon 1J7Stel to succeed turbojet-powered 11811Ded strategic baRber and reconnaissance qstems. Weapon statema sroWiD8 out of' tb! DXBA SOAR program stiioul.d caaplcent other weapon qateu pl.amled .for availability in the same time period and altbouch the progrma is to be undertaken with tbe 'strategic lliasion primar~ in view, other lllisaion potentials sboul.d not be overlooked. Weapon 8)"8teeu that evolve f'ral the DIRA SOAR developDeDt could operate as aeroc~Jzuimic 1 boost­glide vehicles, as short term sa~tes or satelloids1 or as satel­lites 1D relatively stable orbits. J'urther1 thq could be manned or unmanned and1 it nmanned1 recoverable or unrecoverable. Caabi­nations of' any of' these vehicles coul.d be included. in tbe tinal DYHA. SOAR. weapon s;ystem.

~ . -cONFIDENTIAt . ,. " "

I

.• In brie~, D,yua Soar, tbou&h not then specific~ a space Vehicl.e, could contribute tecbDiquea, c0111p011enta1 and equipaent to the man-in­apace ayatell as well as aerial recoanaiaaance systems beyond the capab1l.1t1es of the X-l.;. At the same tilae1 D,yna Soar would continue to sene the traditional strategic missions ot tbe Air :rorce.

Tbe new interest 1D Dyne. Soar l.ed to a tel.eacoped scbedul.e tor the project. Yet troubles raained. In addition to tbe ever preaeat 78 probl• of f'und.ina1 there was· ARPA 's detemination to take over USAF apace proJects and the certainty of ARPA-DBA part1 tion ot the apace progra. Thus there vas the poasibUit7 in tbe suaaer and autUIIID of 1958 that Dyna Soar Jli&ht be taken traa the Air Force, and even pass caapl.ete~ from mlli t&l7 control.. Such a abitt vas· averted b7 the tact that Dyna Soar, tboush probab~ capable of orbital velocit;y, was nevertbeleaa of illa.ediate :laportance because of ita suborbital aspects. 79 as a llili tar)' research vehicl.e.

Heftrtheleaa, the earl;y clUi&lll. submitted 1D A.pz:il b;y Boeing aud Jtartin aboved the tull potentialities of Dyna ~ as an aerospace vehicle, aud the ScientUic Adviaoey Board (SAB) lent tull support to the project. Graduau;y opposition dwindled, both within the Department ot Defense aud outside 1 aud the Air l'orce was less constrained in its · ad:vocac;y of the boost-gl.ide principle. By the late autuam of 19591 Dyna Soar had emerged as a possible operational. vehicle that misht meet 80 tbe aerospace requ.1relllents of. tbe Air Force.

DyDa Soar was drawu as a JlaDDed, del.ta--wiDg, aeronautical vehicle that ·could be boosted into orbital. vel.Ocit;y witbout loss of maneuver­able reentey and controlled landing. These cbar89terist1cs appealed

-eONRDENTIAt

1 . ~ • , • i ·~: • '1- : ' t .. J ·.

37

strongly to tbe Air Force. They meant that D,yna Soar could be Jllallned and utilized for reconnaissance, offensive, and defensive purposes at altitudes bey-ond the atmosphere--and if necess8.17 reUiD al.ott iDdeti-.

· nitely as a satellite. Moreowr, tbe wbicle'is capacity for sate re­entry- and its use of conwntional landing gear would permit it to

use the vast empire of ground facilities constructed by- tbe Air Force before tbe beginning of' tbe space age. In brief' 1 Jl1Da Soar Jliaht serve as a transition between the existing Air Force and the Aerospa-:e Force of the not so distant future.

The ewr increasing· value of' Dyna Soar gaw the Air Force much the same potential f'or the future that the atomic submarine-Polaris sy-stem gave the Nav;r. But in 1959 there was still no adequate booster

. that could meet tbe aeronautical, missile, and space requirements of' the vehicle. In some wqs Saturn seemed a logical booster candidate, but the Air Force preferred the 11 5001 000-pound-thrust engine, On

the other hand, the Arrq was eager to ma.rr,y Saturn a.od Dyna Soar1 since the big booster had no defined miss.tou iD 1959 bey-ond its early developuental soots. Wemher von Braun made several proposals to

seal this marriage, and as a result the Air Force almost lost Dyna . . ~ Soar to NASA when the latter took. over Saturn in October 1959. With tbe passing of tbis hazard1 it seemed unlikely that the Air Force would lose Dyna Soar in· the future,

Up to this point there had still been no. selection ot a contractor tor tbe· manufacture of the Dyna So~ 1 and the proJect seemed stalled in negotiations between USAF asencies and interested industries, In

CONFfDENTIAl the midst of tbeae deJ.a¥a, General. .Whi-te expressed dissatist'action with tbe lack of prosress, .and directed tbat the pro"'ect ''set ott . 82

tJ dead center." Within a matter of 4a¥a1 lover ecbelona resolved the remainillg contractual. difficulties, and oil 9 Kovember 1959 tbe Secretaey ot tbe Air F~ce &DDOUDced once more tbe choice of Boe1Dg and Martin as contractors, this tiM to maautacture respecti ~ the vehicle 81ld tbe booster. Tbere vas widespread aatistaction within tbe

·Air Force and elsewhere at the turn o~ events. All one ci v111an writer exp~aaed :t~, the Air ~orce "soared back" iri~ utrcmautiC?B with an ae~amic and maneuverable space ship that would orbit the Barth at a velocity ot J.:4, 000 mph, meet the .needs. ot recODDaiasance and bQmbins ~ssions, intercept enear,y aatelli tea, aDd pert om a succesatul . 83 reentry and sate lauding at tlle will ot the pilot.

Funding the Space Prosra, 1951-59 The :tundiDg ot the space Procraat tor fiscal ,-ea:rs 1958-60 was

very ccaplex. Since Sputnik C8118 ~ the fiscal year 1958 appropri­ations were al.re~ 1D ettect, adJustaenta to the nev requiraaenta were difficult. L&ter on, c0111plexitiea increased with the lllulti})li-cation of space acenc:~.es and the transfer of :tu.Dda ~ theal.

Even within ~ Air Force 1 t vas ditticul.~ to unravel tbe tansJ.e of tunci1D6 because ill preparins the buclget lfeadquarters tJSAI' did not

· distinguish the space progra w1 thin the ave;r:oal.l USAJ' program tor research and developlent. lor did tund1Ds plaDa clrav a •barR .line between aeronautic aud aetronstic projec.ts. .And tina.lly, the space prograa1 tboush distinct trcD the missile prop"SI1 vas dependent upon

GONAD ENTIA[~

. ~,· . . COWADENTIAL

·;~···

, .. 39

the uae or ball.istic JaissUes. !rhus the apace and missUe programs 81. owrlapped.

Altboush tbe Air J'orce bad long entertained space plms1 up to OctOber 195711ttle JIOil8f had beea allocated. to the projects. Throu&h 3l JuDe 19571 1WJWm8 (BIW.'S) bad :receiftd hardl.1' BDTthiDs; tbe AdVBDCecl BecODDaissaDce *7Btell got $4.7 a1111oa 1D fiscal ;rear 19% aDd fl3·9 aillioD 1D 1957· DllriDs these sae ;years tbe predecessors ot D;yna Soar--Ba11-Bobo1 Brus Bell, aDd JJ;ywa.rda-­

:receiwd aiDor &l.locat1aas. Tbe 'bud&et tor tiscal ;year 1958, whiCh bad ce~~e into et:rect tbree moDtba bero:re the advut or Sputnik,

allocated $l. allJA.oa to Br&ta, $3 m1111oa to D;yna Soar aDd $65.8 rd.ll.1oD to the .Ad'YIIDced BeCODD&issaace S;yeta--aa approxilllate total

* ot $70 111l.l10D tor apace IID4 uear-lipece.

1D Ja.DU8.1'7 1958, three JIODths atter Sputli1k, vheD tbe Air J'orce preeeuted 1 ta tirat qsteu.tic plalls tor a apace prograa, Headquarters proposecl tbat aD ~r& $3.55 a:SJ 110D be added to the or1g.lnal $70 mw.iOD to make a total ot $~ Jll1.111on tor fiscal. ;year 1958. · 1'be add1 tioD&l. $155 llillioa coulcl be obtaiDed tl'GR a :reor1eatat10D ot leas import.ut aeronautical projects, traa tbe DOD emergeucy tuDd, aud trcill supple-: meuter,r appropriatiODs ot $61 •1111oa. Bowewr, sizlce OSD isDored the plaD, the proposal waa or Ut.portaDce OllJ.¥ 1.Dsotar u it iDUcated the

85 . treu~ ot t18AJ' tb1 nk1.Ds aDd vbat might baft bee'D.

b -.ergeuce ot .ABPA 1D !'ebruar7 1958 chazlsed all these bopes. Tberea:tt.U the Air J'orce could do ·no work OD its cnm 1D space resea:i-ch

*CO~diDg Am;y and lav atat1at1ca baw not beeD available.

aud c!ewlopaeut without specific appro....:L frc;la ARPA. The ODl,y

exceptions to this pneral. rule were studies coatiD& less thaD

$5001 0001 and the tunding ot scae tacili't7 it.s such as bu1ld1Dgs. :Between Karch aD4 October 1958 all the true space proJects ot the

*86 Air Force, together with tunda, passed either to ARPA or RASA.

Conaequent17 the tJSAlP budget al.l.ocations to near-space and space proJects tor tiscal. .,ear 1959 tell traa tbe total Ot f500 •' J J 1on hopetul.J.7 proJected 1D March to a ~~ere $8.7 Jlill.ion. About balt ot this INIIl vae a.Uocated to DJDa Soar and JIW.'81 8DC1. the Nl&inin& ..... 7 •' l l 'on to apace studies aDd lesser i.,._.. ror tiscal. )'ear 1960 tbe total

87 . tell ~~ this time to a p&ltr.Y f2.2 •Hl'oa. · • 11\mdiDg was s111ple cluriDg the plaDDiD& step tor the fiscal )'ear

1960 budpt ~ause ARPA and DSA cowred alJiost the entire national space p;rosra. 1'he oJ.'IIIDizatiOJlal chaD&es ot Septaabe~-October 19591 . however, caused a hea'VJ shitt 1D 1960 110111es aong tbe agencies. At oace, JIASA tundiDg vas alJIIoat doubled, ABPA t\mdi.Da vaa reduced b7 near]¥ tour-:tifthll1 aDd- A:1r J'orce apace f'uDding vas multiplied b7

iiJ!b8 tabulation ot IASA tuDd:lDs tor fiscal Je&r 1959 tollova: Inherited traliACA fl011 1001 000 Sappl.elleDtal7 appropriaticms l.26,laoo, 000 ~-at~ trca ARPA 611~1000 'rraDsterred trta USA (Jet Propulsion Lab) Ja.,ooo,ooo 'rraDst~ traa U8l (VUSUU'd) 251 5001000 'rr&Dsterred traa USAr 57,8oo,ooo

$384,000,000

. . ~ . . ,.._,,

..... :";~~~~w 'f'·

~·~ . .. ·. ': . \ . • o# ....

41

88 approxim&te~ 120. Tl:lese sae ratios he1d ror the fiscal year 1961. 'bu.diet, as sbown ~ the tollowiDg table tor the tour-year period 1958-61:

Apncy

l'av.y

n 1958

0

0

n 1959

0

0

FY 19(?0

0

0

n 1961

0

$ 11300,000 Air Force $701 0001000 $ 81 1001000 $ 21 2001000 249,700,000 ARPA 83,000,000 331,700,000 3011 0001000 67,000,000 BASA o 384-,000,ooo 535,6oo,ooo· 915,ooo.,ooo

54,000.,000 (nuc roCket prplD)

AP.PA 1 s total allocations tor fiscal years 1959 and 1960 were ~20 million 8Dd $445 million respective~. Tbe differences between these totals and tbose Us_ted in tbe above table represent tb8 work done by AWA in r1elds not related to astronautics.

'l'be budaet figures do not give an adequate picture of the total contributions made by the Air Force -to space work and to the national space program. In :fiscal year 19591 AWA reassigned nearly $300 million to ABDC tor work oa the Advanced Reconnaissance Systan and

* its subsystems and tor applied research projects. Easential.ly the same thins waa plaDDed ror fiscal. year· 1960 before the breakup of ARPA responsibilities. ~ing tiacal year ·1960, NASA likewise reimbursed the Air Force to the extent ot approxima~ly $100 Jlill1on

*In tbe same year .ARPA reassi&Ded only $64.Jiill1on to the Arl1rf and $24.9 m1ll1on to the lav.y.

42 CONFJDENT:AL '

' - ~

.... ' 1 \"'} ./- 1 : ~ i:_ '

tor au:pport ot varioua proJect& ill tbe civ1l.111D prop-.. In addition, the Air Force carried on tbe :tol.lowiDg acti v1 tias that bordered Qll the space prosra:

PrOject n: 1959 n 1960

Dyaa Soar $29, 5001000 $35,000,000

BETS (BJperaonic BDviroiiDent Test Sy'atem, tomer]¥ Jmovq as BIWrS) 4,100,000 3,900,000 s~ Bec;J.Uil'eM!nt Progra 2,9()0,000 3,300,000 Applied Jesearch 1D Aerospace 21,aoo,ooo 42,600,000

Total $64,300,000 $84, eoo, ooo In :turtber evaluatiDg USAr apace activities, t1:le illportaDce of the

contribution Jlade b7 the b&ll1stic llissUe p1'0Sl'8l aust be recosnized. · For fiscal years 1954-59 the ballistic missile prograa budgets, iD­cludiDg Atlu, Titan, aDd X1Duta.an, totaled aore thaD f5 billion. For this .. e progr• the 1960 budaet wu aore thaD $2 billion end for 15161 about $2 billion. Bav JIIUCh ot tbeae euu aq be considered direct support ot aatronmt:l.ca is quite :lapoaaib1e to calculate.

11'1Dall71 tbe Air Force ll8de avaU&ble. to ARPA and RASA the vast USAF facilities tbat had been brought into exiateDce to meet the tech-nological requirements ot aircraft and JlisaUea. Again, aD estiaate of ita proportionate worth to the apace progra 1a illpoaaible, but witbout tbia illlaenae capital iD-vestaent--near]¥ $600 Jlillion 1D the Atlantic JUsalle Bange alone--the space progr• would bave been serious]¥ bazldicapped.

CONFIDENTIAl

.... :, ..

.... .._.; •. . ... When all tbese factors are taken into consideration it is clearly'

illpossible to attempt even a rough financial estimate of' what tbe Air

:Force contributed to the natioual. space progr• prior to 1960.

Space Pr9gram in December 1959

The record shows that between 1945 and the time of' Sputnik in

October 1957 the 111l.1taey services were less conservative 1D their

attitude towNd space tban either ·tbe Of'tice of' the secretaey of' De-

f'ense or tbe. Adrainistrat1on. Likewise 1 the Air :Force seems to have

been &bead of' both the Arlq and the 11'av;y in apace plaDs, I1' the projects

urged b7 RAID, AJI.C1 and ARDC, and ·b7 8Cile of' the latter's ~velopnent

centers, could have been generously supported the Soviets would

probably not have won first place tor theuel vee 1D apace.

Tbe record shows also that ewn atter Sputnik there vas . no 1Daedi- V' ately invigorated national. space program. Konths passed 1D which the

polic7-J181t1Da of'f'icial.s of' nevl7. created agencies adJusted to new

reaponai1?1Ut1es. It seemed to tbe Air Force that the militaey space

requiniaenta could aeaDYhUe have been aet 'b7 tbe Department of' Defense

through existing capab1U ties and that there vas no deaonstrable need

to aegaent tbe program 'b7 the 1Dtroauction of' RASC, BASA.1 ARPA1 and

other agencies.

~ to these cca.pUcations vas the apparent UDW1ll.ingne~s of' the

Governraent to accelerate tbe program_ autticien~ ·to qit the United States

was in a race with the Soviet Union. Jforeover1 the. (loverament 1Ds1sted

that the apace program abould remain dedicated in .large measure to

. science, a pollc7 that severel7 lizaited the miUtar;y projects. And

• • ~ i

.: J. ~.

. . . ~ ' .. ~ .. ~ ····~: ...... ... · ...

CONFIDENTIAL tiD~, the Mministration • s tight reiD on :tuDela prevented azi accelerated production ot avail.able boosters, sl..oved. the devel.opaeut . . 89 ot new boosters, and iD general retarded tbe whole progra. L1mi-tationa on tunda also beld back research in such vi tal aupporti.D& areas aa nuClear-propelled rockets, l:rfdrogen-QX18eD second-stage eng1nes, 90 and plaallla and ion tecbooJ.os1. These prosras were of great 1Dlportaace tor tbe tuture.

lD tbe tirat tvo ,-ears that followed ~tn1k1 bove'ftr1 tbe 'American space program auttered aoat frc::m lack ot autticieot thrust to lott large p~loads. ot the 6 SoY:I.et whicles launched dur1D& tb&t time-·tbt ICremJ.iD newr admitted mal.t\mctions--the 'P~t¥load increased traa a 111Di-1Dl of ~ poun48 to a~ on tbe aeao.Ddshot ot l,l.20 pouncls. OD the otber hand the Americana attempted 37 launchiDgs ot which 19 were eitber successful or partia.:L:cy' successful. But the pql.oada ru&ed trcD a mere 3. 5 pounds on the tirst sbot in December 1957 to a JI&X1mil ot ~ 372 pounds iD 1959. J'urtbel'IIOre not one ot the 19 American lottinp could .equal tbe spectacular nature ot the 6 Soviets shots. The Russians could claim to b&'ft . been first iD space 1 tirat to send lite into space 1 tirst to send a misslle into the d.eptba o~ the solar s;ystea., tirst to iJ!wact the Moon, aud tirat to photograph the tar side ot the 91 Koon.

'l'be l\18siaD tril.IIIIPba bad great ps)'Chological-political aigniticance. Dr. Glennan admitted as ~cb when he said on 24· Sept.ber 1959 that Americans still "pl.q second fiddle iD this apace business~ " The President and the Security CouncU expnssed · the saae view otticial.l.)"

-teNfl~.,

. . . . . . ·· ~ ' .

.· · , .. "\1C> ): • 11 ~:\~'.A

~.: .. : . . ·... ~ ,/; .. (.

coatributiozis to space science. Tbeil' success was due largely'· to the

iqeDuit)r .ot BASA, ARPA, J.rfq, Bavy, Air J'orce, and iDdustri&l.

scientists vho devised lliDiaturized 1Dstrumeats to fit the 8lll8ll pqload

capac1 t)r ot ava:U.able rockets.

The 19 lottiDas were d1~ unevenly' mlOD8 fiw projects-­

Vaaguard1 Explorer, PioDeer, SCore, and Discoverer. ~1r first

launch:il:aas were attempted respect1 vely' oa 6 December 19571 31 Jaaua.ry

19581 17 Ausuat 19581 18" December ~9581 aad 28 !'ebruat7 1959· Vanguard

alone bad received ottici&l. aw»roval before Sputnik and was iDteDded

to sene sol.ely as a scientific contributioa to IGY. Only' 3 of 1 ts

11 shots were successful. Explorer va.a basti]¥ coaceived by the

Department of Defense 1 primar1l.y ss a COUDterbalaace to -the Ruasiaa

success aDd alJIIost 1DcidentaJ.l1' developed as a. means ot gatheriDs

sCientific 1Dfol'll&t1on tor IGY. Actual.ly the project va.a essentially

that ad:vocated by AlJIA before Sputnik, Dalieq orbitiDg a 8lll8ll satel­

lite with a. Ju;piter C Jli.ssile. ot 8 attaapted J.auDchiDgs, 5 were

success~. Pioneer was plalmed or1g1Dall.y by' ARPA as a. 5-shot lunar

probe to match the spectacular Soviet achiev.eats. The tirst tbree

shots wen= contracted to the Air J'o:rce. The first JD8lt"uDctioaed at

lmmching, the aecODd penetrated 70;000 Jli.les iDto iDter.planetaey space,

CONFi-DmtfAL . ; : :.= .••• : .··• , .J

CONR·DENTIAL aDd the third me.l1'wlct1oned al.eo but not before trawliD& 963 lld:J.es toward the Moon. Ot tbe two shots contracted b7 tbe A:I:rrq 1 the first vehicle fell back into tbe atmospbere and burned atter reachiD& an altitude ot nearly 67,000 miles, and tbe second bn>uaed tbe Moon and entered eol.ar orbit. 'l'hereatter Pioaeer came under 1USA contJ."Ql, and in Bowaber 1959 a sixth abot ended iD mal1'unction at tbe tilDe. of l.&UDchiDg. Score vu a siDgle shot proJect, a.lao conceiwd b7 /tBFA for propaganda ~es to broadcast the President 'a voice 1D a Christmas message f'ral apace. Although Score waa certe.iDJ¥ not a Jllilit&ry" project, it waa not trana:t'erred to li'ASA., and, unlike Vanauard, it vas pemitted to use a militar.Y rocket, the nev Atlu ot the Air 93 l!'orce.

ProJect Discoverer was ot a ditterent order. Separated ·traa ARB b7 .ARPA 1D 1958, with AFBm as contractor, 1-t repreeented an ila­portent stride torvarcl 1D tbe Dl1lltary" apace progr•. It was painatakiDgl.y planned to perform space .research 1D support ot advaDced · m111tal7 recozma1aaance. It cou111 also be be1ptul in prep&Hilg the wq tor maD-in-apace proJects vbether civilian or m1l.1tar;r. It bad six maiD obJectives: test of tbe satellite airtr~~~e and gu,idance qatem; teat of satellite atabUization equipment; control of satell1 te irlter,aal environment; bicaedical. experilaeDts v1 th mice and saall primates; devel.opaeDt of capsule recover:r techziiques; and test of ground support . 94 . e~pment and personnel proficiency.

There vas considerable overlapping 1D tbe pfll'loe4 1Dstrumeat-..t1on ot tbe 19 lo:tted capiUl.es. In general. the five proJects gathered. scientific information ot great value. Knowledge was acquired on such

: .·Q6N,f1DENT1Al 47

aub~ects as cloud cover of the Earth; podetic configurations; density-

of llic~teoric ~~&tter; the solar-Earth heatiDg processes; the

JUSDetic fields ot the Barth and Xoon, 1Dclwi1DS the diacowr;y of tbe

Van .Allen rad1ati9D belts; a fide fiel.d ot radiatiOn phenaaena--collliic

rqa, ioQiziDs radi&tion, and X-nq rediation trca the sun; erosion ot

exposed solar· cella; shifts 1D tbe ·external and internal teaperatures

ot tbe capsules; and. biCII8dical eoviroDIIIeDt.

bre were even greater praaisea tor the American program 1D 1960. Vaosuard and Score were f1D18bed1 but Pioneer and Diacowrer were still

important, and there were plana tor additional Explorer at~. liASA

contracted the Air Force for furtber Pioneer &P.Lee probes. Tbere vas

a scheduled lauDcbiDa of a Tbor-propeUed planetoid into solar orbit

1D Karch. It Vas to "Qe sensitively instrumented to serve as a apace I

laboratory to expand the lmovlqe gained · tlJrousb. the work ot the two

previous; years. Conceivab~, Pioneer V, as it would be known it it

·wem auccesatul., Jl1ah1; beCCII8 one ot the great "firsts" 1D the hiator;y

ot science. fhe Air Force, independent nov ot .ARPA, would continue

tbe10rk vi th Discoverer to pertect tbe tecbpique ot recoveey aDd otber . 95 aspects ot the advanced recODDa:iaaance prosr-.

There were numerous other lauDchiD&s scheduled 1D 1960. The Arlll¥'• Botus or Advent, aa it had caae to be lmova., operatins satellites on

equatorial 24-bour orbitll, would supp:cy- a reliable, all-weather, J•­proot caaun1cation s;ystem. The Bav's Trallsit would tulf'iU the need

tor an all-weather tventieth-centur;y version ot celestial navigation,

rel;y1Da on az"titicial satelli tea rather thaD stars. ADd lfASA' a Tiros

·~;;r-·-... •·

.. !:.

48

woul.d g1 ve new d1mens1on• to meteoroloQ'. Ali tbree proJects would extend into space the range of t1Jie-llonored activities. previously eai-tbbound. Tbq wen sure to be of inestimable value both for 96 civillaD end ailitar;y purposes.

~n vas aJ.so a moat bopetul outlook for ac:ae of tbe purely lllili tary projects of 1maediate aigniticence. b Air Porce SaQa and Midas were needed for reconnaissance, to ~P inBUre against aurpdse attack by photosraphing unusual. ena11 activity and bJ detecting with infrared techDique the launchings of ene117 ICBK1s.

Yet the abadow of too-little-and-too-late cootinued to darken tbe national prosram as a vbole. Pram the apriDg and 8\llllller of 1955 untU October 1957 the Soviet UnioD and the United States wen both supporting satellite proJects, but the United States avoided a race with Russia, end tbe Russians took first place. Between October 1957 and Dec•ber 1959 tbe Soviet Union end the United States both supported JMaerou.. space projects. .AgaiD the American Government dUa'VOIMd the idea of a race with tbe Soviet Union. And since the latter bad the great adWDtage of hish-thrwlt rockets, the Kremlin was able to be first in maDY outstand1Dg ventures. As 1959 drew to ao end the United States aod tbe Soviet Union were both »lamling to place a JII8D in space as a step toward tbe ult1Date aim of a manned space station. It could only be hoped that Russia would Dot once more be first.

Inevitably, and seemillgly against the desires of tbe .Americao Goverament, we bave been drawn 1Dto a race for apace. The Bussiao cbaJJenge cannot be ignored without forteitins our position as the leader of the Free World. Tbe prize is within our reach, but to grasp it we must bave tbe heart for the race.

: .•

.... :;a)1',4 -;r~,r

';. ,.

CONFIDENTIAL

1. For a diacaaa1Dn of' thia problem., see Jobn L. Chapnan, Atlas, the Stoa of' a MiaaUe (Rw York, l96o ), p 24. . 2. "Research and Rocket Roundup,n Miaeilea and Rocket., Me.r 57; Martin Caidin, Countdown tor 'lWrr5nr (New York, 1958), pp l39-50; Stud7 b7 Mary Selt, AMC Hiat Div, 'l'he Dtrl'elopaent of' Qlided Missiles, dtd 1950 •

.3. RAND, RA-150ZJ, through 15032 (S), Feb 4.7. 4. Ltr (S), Brig Oen Alr:len R. Cravtord, Cbief', Engr Oiv, AMO to DCS/M, Hq USA.P, subj: Project RAND, Satellite Vehicle, 8 Dec 47J ltr, Ral.Jil C. Lens, Jr, D/Flana & Ope, WADD to Col C~e D, Gasser, SAB, Hq USAF, subj: Air Force Ss-ce ~gram, 7 Apr 60, ani Atch 4, Rpt (U), WADC Plana tor Space T~cbnolog; 1955-58, w7App A (a brief' histo17)r Preas Conferences with Charles E. Wilaon, SOD, New York ~. l3 May and 7 Oct .53 and 16 Dec 54; Fact.• on [ile. 5-11 Jan 53; Addressee by" Sen Stuart.~. Qonmsaipnal. Record, 23 Jun 5.3 and 21 Jul 54, and statement in Hearings Bef'ore Senate Qate on Armed Services, 24 Feb 55.

5. New York TiMe, l4 Jun 55; .Addresses bJ Trevor Oardner, Asst SAF (R&D), lfer York Times, 12 Aug and 9 Dec 55. 6. DOD Rpt. .to House Cmte on AppropriatioM, Procurement Policies and Practices, 21. Feb 56.

7. ARDC Rid' Project c&rd (S), Abbreviated Syatsn Developaent Plan, 10 Oct 57; Lt Col F. J. D1l.loD Jr, Pro.1ect Mercm, Houae Rpt 1228, 86t.h Cong, 'rl Jan 60; memo (S) f'or Richard E. Homer, Aaat SAP' (R&D) f'raD Herbert. F. York, Chief' Scientist, ARPA, subj: B.AIJfARDS Vehicle, l3 Mq 58; DOD st.~ (S), RecarmendatiDn Against Trarlaf'er of' OJ!llTAUR to NASA, 5 Mq 59; memo (S) tor Hq lRDC tram Hq tJSAP', aubj: BAUIARDS, 15 Mq 57; ARDC stu:JT (S), BETS, 18 Ma7 58. 8. RABD, IM/2002 (S), 26 &,p 57 •

9.· WADe Rpt (SRD), 'ftle WADC Research Approach, 56 WCRA-504, Aug 56J WADC Rpt (SRD), AD Approach to Space FJidea~r in Relationship to CUrrent and Future C&pabllitiea ot the u.s. Air Force, 57 WCRA-.38, Jan 57; WADe Technical Notes (SRD), An Eat•te of' Future Space Vehicle Capabilitr, WADC '1W 57-224, Jul 57; WA.DC Rpt, WADC Plans tor Space Tech, 1955-58.

10. Facts on File, 26-.31 Dec 54; Wllaon press conterence, New Ior1c Tillles, 17 Dec 54.

50 CONfiDENTIAt 11. Victor P. Petl'OT ,. "~ Rot So Secret," Mi!eU.e rf Rockets. Mar 58;· Report ot the Teller ec.d.ttee, 22 Oct 57 (sa Jobn c. Schmidt, •CIA.-lrel &Dd Earl of u.s.,n 'Atl\i!pre Spa, i2 Jun 60. 12. MfiiiO (C) tor Secye of Arll\r, RaV7, and Air Force tram WUeon, eubj: Earth Satellites, 28 Mar 55.

l3. Memo (S) tor Aeet SOD (R&D) traa Bobert W. Ca:lma • Cbaa., Coor41-nat1ng Cllte ot Oen Sciences, eubj: Scictitic Satellite Prosru 1n the Departaent of Detenee, 4 Mq 55; JIIIIIIO (S) tor SAP baa O&zodner, nbj: Scientific Satellite, 17 Mq 55; lpt; b7' 8umQ'8 and l'm'eeti­gatiDDa statt to Howle f)nte on Approp:r:latione, "Project Vaqaard.," iD Hearings Before·~ ot Roue Qate on Appropriatiaa.e, 86th Cong, let Sue, Demrtaept of Deteaee ApwopriatWu! tor 1960. p '·

14! RSC 5520 (S), 25 Mq SS; Kw Yorlc 'fiue, 30 Jul SS· 15. Memo (S) tor Seqe ot A.rrq, Ia~, aDd !11" Force troa Ruben B. Robertson, Jr, Dep SOD, aubj: 'fechDolo&ical P1'oi£Ul tor RSC 5520,. 9 Sep 55; memo (CJ tor Alet Sl (BleD) traa Gardner, aubj: Air Force Missile 'lramms Ccter, Patrick APB, lO Jan 56; Wemer Buecller, 'l'.be 1ntemat1onal Oeo~aal I!K (lfew York, 1957), pp 49-52; H!Kmp, "Project 1 '*:"fr7York ~· 6 Oct S?; Clifford c. Purftae (to:nner Aeet 800 'LBW; l955=S7, 1D I!! IorJc ""', 16 Oct 5?. . 16. l!ew Ior)c 'l'!mee. 30 Jul 55.

17. "Piooject V&Dpard.," MieeUea aiJd Rockey. Jal ss. 18. Lt Gen James H. GaTm, USA (Rtd~ Wv and Pees 1n tb• Smce Ap (Hew York, 1958), pp 14-15; 'featimoDT b7 Maj Oen Jobn B. Med&rie, USA (Rtd), in Hearmp Before Houae Qnte OD Science and Aatronautice, 18 Feb 60.

19. Memo (S) tor £?J Field, D/BMJ tram Col W1l.l.i&m O, D&Tie, Dep ea.lr Ope, AFCSR, aubj: FAR SIDE Project Jutitication, l2 J\11. 57; Aeronautics s,.t.-, Inc., Pub C-100 (C), CoDduct of Par Side Pbue n El:perSmente, 16 Sep 57; S.1. ·Sinpr, "9popt1a BDaket Obaern.tkme ot the Upper Atlloe}lhere,tt Nature• 20 Jul 54;·.-o trola S,F, Sin&e:', ns, 24 Feb 56, 1D AFOSR fUee; illiiiD tor Col £'(] ll.1cld.npr t1'0IIl Col w.o~ Davie, nbj: Project MOOSE, 30 Jul. 54; ltr (s), Brie a. H. F. Greao17, Coalr, A.FOSR to Maj 0an w.M. Morpn, Caaldr, CRC, 111, 17 Apr 57; AP'OSR statu of Reaearah Projeot.a (8), Jul. aDl Oct 56; ltr (s), Col w. o. Dam to Ccmclr, ABDC, nbja Coordm&t• of Project FAR SIDE, 25 ()qt. 57; ltr (C), Bri& Cen Altrecl D. stubird, IIQ, ~ to Colldr, AFOSR, ne, 17 Apr 57; ltr (C), J ... B. ~~ SAF, to Seqe of state &Dd l'Dter1Dr, na, 3 Jan 57; lt.r (c), S/S't,ate to SAF, na, 21 Jun 57; Ar03R lfanac....t. Rpt. (C), PAR SIDI, 10 Oct 57,

GoNFlD~NTl~ .... ~- ···. ~ ..

51

20. Aatropautica, Nov 57.

21. lew York Times, S-6 Oct 57.

22. White House Press Releaee, 9 Oct 57.

· 2), Facta on File, lo-16 Oct 57; Waahing!;on Post, l Rov 57; Facta on File, 31 Oct-6 Nov 57,

24.

26.

Rpt of Teller Qnte, 22 Oct 57; ·m.., (S) tor Lt Gen. John Gerhart., 'OOS/MP hoot Bria aen w. Martin, Dep D/Plana, na, .31 Oct 57; Aast C/S(I), Special Air Intelligence Eat !ate, 'rhe Soviet Earth Satel­lite, 22 Oct 57; X.., tor Record, D/Plan.s, ne but quoting ABMA'• pzopoaal1 "A National Integrated Miuile and Space Vehicle Dwelopaent Program, 10 Dec 1957," 4 Mar sa. Trevor Gardner, "We Are still Laging," Lite, 4 Nov 57; A.K. Wechsler, "How Good Are the Pentagon 'Czars'?", Space Aeronautics, Feb 59; Teatimon;y by Dr T. Keith Glennan, Admin1atrator, KASA., 1n HeariJl&a Before Preparedness InveatigaUq Subcmte ot the Senate Cmte on Armed Services, !.fi.ssiles and Space Actirtties, .30 Jan 59; maao (S) tor SOD tram JCS, aubj: Department ot Detenae Special Projects AgeDC)", 25 Nov 57, and JCS Memo (S) same aubj, 6 Dec 57; PL 85.-.325, l2 Feb 58; DOD Directive 510'),15, ARPA, 7 Feb 58.

The President's Science Advi.eory Clllte, 1ntrod.uct1on ~~Space, 26 Mar sa. 27• Message ot the President to Congress, New York T:lmes, .3 Apr sa. 28. Ltr, Hezi,ert F, York, Defense D/B&E to Charles F. Ducander, Chief Counsel, House Clllte on Science and Astronautics, na, .30 Dec 59. 29, NSC sal4/l (S) 1 U,S, PoliCT :ln Outer Space, 18 Aug ,58, .30. Ltr (S), Bris Gen lld~ R. Crawford, Chief, J!'ngr. Div, AMC to DCS/M, Hq USAF, aubj: Project RAHD, Satellite Vehicle, 8 Dec 47; memo (S) tor VC/S trom Lt Gen H.A. Craia, DCS/M, aubj: Earth Satellite Vehicle, 12 Jan 48 • .31. Statanent by Joseph V. Cbaryk1 U-sAF, 1n Hearinga Before House Cmte on Appropriation•, 22 Mar 60. · · .32. Ltr, York to Ducander, .30 Dec 59; statement by Roy w. Johnson, D/ARPA, in Hearings Before Houae Clllte on Soience &rid Astronautics, Exec Session, 23 Mar S9 •

.3.3. Gen 1bomaa D. \ibi.te, C/S USAF, n~ and Space· are Indivia.ible,n Ml, Force. Mar 58 •

.34. statsent by Gen Wbite 1n Hearings Before House Clllte on Science and Astronautics, .3 Feb S9. •t ~ .. ..,.. .......... ~ •• •. .. .. -; ~-: ..... . . .,

-eDNFIDEN.RAI: .

52

36.

38.

39.

.... ·. CONFIDENTIAL. . -.: .. · . ..._.

statemenill by Lt Oen Sa.muel E. Anderson, Coadr, ABDC, and Brie Gen John A. Barclq, USA, CG/APMA~ in Rearinge Before Rouae Qat.e on Science and Altrqnautics, 3 and S Jeb 59. Memo (C) tor DCS/P&P fl"'Ol COl 87dney G. P1.8her, Ant D/Po'Ji.!:T, eubj: Defini~ion of Aerospace, 20 Mar .59; JlelllO (C) tor DCS/NcP traa COl Richard H. Ell1a, .bet D/War Plana, subj: Definition of A.-oapace, 26 Mar 59; AlH l-2, Aeroapace Doctrine, l Dec .59, p 6. Memo (S) tor Gen Gerhart troll Brig Gen Hamer A. Bouhq, D/AT, eubj: Air Force Miasiona In Space, 7 Jan .59. Memo (S) tor Gerhart. fi'CIIIl Lt Gen R.C. WUaon, DSC/D, nbj: Air Force Mieeiona in Space, l2 Jan 59; Air statt SUDD&r,r Sleet (S), aubj: USAF in Space, a Poli07 Statement, 30 Jan 59; me1110 (S) tor DCS7D from Maj Gen Hewitt Ttlheleaa, D/'P'JAM, IIUbj: Air Force Objectives in Space, S Feb 59; Hq SAC brochure (Sl, strategic Air Coaaand Space Concept,•, l3 Aug 59J ltr, ltaj Gen R.J. Friedman, D/Budget., Bq USAF to Kel.J3 Campbell, Starr Aaet, House Cmte oil .lppropriatDs, na, 9 Oct .59J Jobnaon statement u cited in n 32. ASSS, 30 Jan .59; a• cited in note above; memo (S) for Gerhart from l':bel.eaa~ aubj: Aeroa~&-ce and Hat1Dilal Securit7 1960-1970, 17 Jan .59; memo (SJ tor Gerhart tram l{&rtin, Dep D/Plana, aubj: USAF Reapcmai­bilities in Aerospace, 17 Jan 59; ltr (S), Gerhart to Lt Gen bl.ett O'Donnell, Jr, DCS/P, u, 1.5 Jan 591 m.o (S) tor D/ABPA trom Malcolm A. MaclntJ", u-sAF, subj: .ldftllce Program Areas tor M1litar, Sp.ce S;ret_., 14 Apr 59, aDd 2 :blcla: Purpose of Requirementa &1111 R~• for Milit&rf Space Program; ltr (S), Gen 'ftalu s. Power, Camr, 3AC to GeD White, ns, 9 Feb 59; ltr (S), Lt Gill B.A. Scbrmer, Comclr, ARDC to wu.m, u, 1.5 MQ' 59; !alldna Paper (S) for DCS/P&P, re Oen Power• a ltr, 19 Feb .59; ltr (S), Willtcm tO · Schriever, na, 8 Jun 59.

40. Memo by Col Aaa B. Ql.bba, aubj: Astronautics 1n the Air Force, nc1 but evidentl7 written abortlT atter Sputnik. 41. HSDO (C) for VC/S !'rom COl V.Y. Adduci, OL'L, DB, ~ loY .57i DlelllO (S) tor Maj Gen Jacob E. a-rt, Ant VC/S baa Lt Gen Donald L. Patt, DCS/D, subj: Eltabl.iahme.nt ot a Directorate of Aatrouautica, lO Dec 57.

1Dt'omat1oo 42. New York 'l'imee. 14 Dec 57; ~ fi'OIIl office o~ C/S tbroqb Col John L. Martm, D/AT, ~ Jul 60; aemo for All Directore J1 !l• trom Putt, aubj: Cancellation of the MaDDranclulll ot 10 Dec 57-, dtd. l3 Dec .57.

43. Memo (S) for Air staff from Aaat VC/S, nbJ: Space Projects ImolviDg ImM/IREDl•a, 4 Mar 58; memo (S) tor Smart from Jf&j 0111 Jobn HUla, Asst DCS/D, subj: A Directorate ot Advanced WeapoiUI, l2 Mar SS.

"···coNFIOENTIAt · ···

44• Memo tor SAP .from Brie Gen Robert H. Warren, MUitar,r A.set, Dep SOD, subj: Directorate ot Advanced Technolou, 22 Jul .58; DAF

46.

47·

48·

00 14, aubj: Eatabliabment ot Directorate ot Advanced Tecbnolou (AFDA.T), 29 Jul S8.

Maao tor All DiN !1 11· from W1l.son, subj: EltablJahment of AFDAT, 29 ~sa.

Memo (S) ~or C/S tJSAP trom Bouahq, D/AT, mb~: Function ot AFDAT, 8 Dec 58; IIUliiiO (s) for Aset VC/S ham Jla3 Gen ·Charles M. McCorkle, Aut C/S (<H), aubj: 1'\mct~n of AFDAT, 13 Jan 59.

)lemo (S) for !eat C/S ((J() from. Bouahq, Dep D/TWJ, aubj: Missile Hearing, 6 Dec 57; memo (S) for C/S USAF from J.H. Doolittl~ ChilD, SAB, aubj: SJ:-ce Technol.og, 9 Dec 57; White, lifu and Space Are Indivisible."

Ltr (S), Col Spencers. Hunn, OOS/D, to COIIIdr ARDC, eubj: Astronautics Program, 5 Feb 1958; Cc:lm.ents by William Weitsen, Dep tor Developnent, Aaet SA.F (BlD) to H.L. Bowen, 12 Aug 60; tel,eplone COIIV'enat:lon with Brig GeD Bc:laer .A. Boushq, Comdr, Arnold ~eering Dw Center, b7 H. L. Bowen, 25 A.uc 60.

49. MllllO (S), tor WilHam Hol&da.T, Detemie (J(, t2'CIIl Richard E. Homer, Aaet SAF (MD), eubj: Air Force Astronautical DeVel.opnent Program, 24 Jan 58; 8ouahq co~tion, 25 Au&· 60. so. statement b7 Neil McEl.roy, SOD, in Rearhlp Before Roue Cmte on Appropriations, "'lhe Balliatic Missile Pro~t" 20-21 Nov 57; DOD Directive 5105.151 ARPA, 7 Feb 58; IHIIIO. (S J tor 90D fl'CIIl. President Dwight D. ·m.cmhower, aubj: ApprOw.l. of Ad~ed Space Projects, 24 Mar 58.

51. Meao tor Seqs/J.rmt', Nav, and Air Force from Jolmson, ns, 27 Mar 58. 52. ARPA Order (AO) 1-58, 2-58, aDd 3-58, 27 Mar S8; ltr (S), Johnson to the. President, ns, 19 Mar 58: ltr (S), President Eieenbower to SOD, ns, 24 Mar 58.

53. Hiat, ARDC, l Jan-31 Deo 58, Vol I, Sec I, p lS; memo (S) for Gerbart tram BoUhq, subj: Air 11'orce Minion in S:s-,ce, 7 Jan 59.

54.. Heillo (S) for Gen Anderson, ARDC trom Bouhq, eubj: Astronautics Program, l3 Feb 58; memo (S) for .SOD baa SAF, Sub3: Requelting OSD Appl'OTal of the Air Force Program a:a Presented l2 Nov 57, dtd 1 Feb 58; memo (S) for SOD tram SAil', sabj: Request for Approval of Plan · to Initiate Five Astronautic Projects, 14 Feb 58; memo (S) :for OOD trail Aast SlF (R&D), subj: Request that USAF be Made Executive Agent for Some Aapecta o:f ARS, 21 Feb 58; Dl8IIIO (S) tor Ifol.ada}' :f1'CIIl

CONFIDENTIAl ·., . ~' .,'

CONFiDENTiAL HaclntJre, aubj: Requeat tor Autllor.ls&timi to Proceed with AblatiDD loee Cone, 21 Feb 58; ..., (S) tor SOD ti"CCIl Bomer, subj: Requet tor App!'Oval of W8-ll7L PlaD8 to Put Serlu of Uawmecl Satelllt• in.OI'bit, 21 Feb 58; 111a10 (S) tor Bol.adq. froa Bomer, nbj: '!lpl.anation ot USAF Space Program, 28 Peb 58; .., (S) tor SOD ll"GGIl SAP, INbj: Pro&ftlll .tor Detcae Apm.t Iall•a, 4 Mar 58; llliiiiO (S) tor Saarti bora Bowlbq, nbjt USlP Aat.J'CD&ut1cal Program, 2 Apr 58, and mel: propoaecl aaao tor Director, ARPA tram Bomer, .... aabj. 5S. Memo (S) tor Sllart. tram Col L.r. IMBch, S.:,/AJ:r St&tt, DB, 9 Jun .ss.

56. Memo (S) tor D/ARPA tram Borner, aubj: Ideatit'icatiDn of USAF Reaearch and Developaeat ProDUt-Aatrcautica, 10 API' 58; DOD Directiw 3200.5, Aaaia- 111t Of .Advance!J Reaearch PJoojecta to ARPA, 19 Mq 1958, and aubaequent uaipleDt incloaurea; AD 4, 28 Apr 58; AD 6, 10 Jun 5~1 and ..... 1, 2, &Dd 3 on 16, 19, and 20 Jun · reapectiveq; AO 9, 30 Jan .sa. . S?. Memo (S) tor Col teem Booth, Special Aeet, OOS/D baa Lt Col Prancia J. ~ Jr, nbj: Air Staff Orientat!ml, 10 Sep 58; JUIIIO (S) tor Col L ?.J ..:.vans f1'CB Lt Col Jolm R. R,an, Jr, Ant tor Space 9,rlttma, ARDC, aubjl Air Force Sp.ce Propwu, 29 Jul. 58; AO•• 10, 12, 13, l4, 1&, aDl 19, dtd 25 Jul., 25 Jul, 23 Aug, 15 Aug, Zl Aug, 29 Aq 58; AO 17, 4 sep 58 •. and ADDl 3:, 29 Sep 58. 58. Ltr (S)t Gen Oartie '1. LeM&71 VC/S to ADderaon, ARDC, DB, 9 Ma7 58: aemo (SJ tor D/Bqat ti'CIIl Bowlbq, llllb~: Air Force Space Activitiea, 8 Jan 59. · · · ·

60.

stat..t 'b7 Dr Yol'k, Chief Scicttat, ARPA, in Bearillp Before Sabemte ot lbiH Olte on Appropr1at1Du, 23 Apr 58. EDcnat1.,. Order 107«3, 1 Oct 58; AD 28, 29 Sep 58, and .Aimd l, 6 Oct .sa.

61. •lfa:t Decade 1n Space-Special ~ on BlSl Propua,• Arlat!pp !!!L 22 Jan 59; AD 2, AmDd 5 I 6 Oct 58; AO 12, jzmd 1, 6 Oct S8; 40 10, Amn4 17, l3 Apr 59; AO 17, Allllld 51 l3 Apr 59 •. 62. H.o tor Cclallr, AmiD traa Johaeol), .,mj: Becl8t1Dit1on ot WS..U?L, 10 Sep 58; ..ao (S) for SAP from Johuon, aabj: PoliCT Relating to the otticial. I4eatiticat1Dn of msconm:R, sam, aDd MIDAS, l2 Feb S9; A01a 38. 41, 48, SO, 58, 66. aDd «3, dtd S BoY, 17 RoY, 16 Dec, mll9 Dec 58r 22 Jan, 10 l'.ar, aDd 29 Apr S9. 63. Keao (S) tor SAP traa.BrJ.c Qea Robert. E. Greer, Aaat C/S ((I() aubj: Space P:ropua aD4 Projects., 4 Au& S9; ltr (S)., Scbr18ftl' to Coadr, ARDC, nbj: HAS.l aDd ARPA ~oe Propua 1lequiremlata • ll Peb 59., aD1 1at iad, Allderaon to c/s USAP, 12 Feb S9 •

.. . ·"J4 .... ,. -: ;~·~ ·, .. \

,..._,. \:.;r•1,

ss

64. H.m (S) tor DeputiM D."IJ..tzaa·au.rt., 8Ubjr Reepcmdb111t7 tor Bpace Projects, 6 Apr 59; "lfOI 21-14, .ubj r D1rector ot A.dw.Dcecl !ecbnolDg, DCS/D, l3 Apr 59. 6S. Ltr, WU8on to All D1reoto1'8 !l !J:I; subj: J8tabl1•baeat ot the"" !aailtant tor Aatl'OD&utioa s,stsaa, DCS]D, 9 lov 59; DIP CJ) 4, 14 Jan60.

66.

68.

70.

Memo. (S) tor JcS fi'GI CHO, nbjr S1DaJ.e MW.t&r7 Acena7 to Coordi­aate Fao:Uitiea aDd Function8 1n the rield ot M111tary Space, 22 Apr 59; On.!& z..u, ... "7 B:IU to C&ptve Major SJ&ce Role,• AVttigp Wf!k. Zl .Jul 591 lll8DO (S) tor JCS tram C/S 1&, aubj: Coordiaat!Dn ot Satellite aDl Outer Space Vehicle Operatimw, l3 ~'AT 59; 111110 (0) tor OOS/PitP !1"'0Il Wbeleu, D/Flana, aubjr Coordi­aatkm ot Satellite and Space Vehicle OperatioDa, ll Mq 59; lll8DO (C) tor JOB .tr«a C/S 080', 8\lbj: Cocml1Dat:Son ot Satellite and Space Vebicle OpemtiDDa, l3 ..,.. S9. Ilotea by JCS Secretariee (C), 11Ub.1: Coo:rdilation ot Satellite aDd Spt.ce Veh1cle Operatiou, 25 Jan 59. · Memo (C) tor Dep D/Flana trom Col C.J • Butcher, D/PJaa, IIUbj: Ooordiaat:lDn ot Satellite and Space Vehicle Operat:Sona, 7 Jul 59; Dl8IDO (C) tor JCS baR C/S tmP, aubj: CoordiD&tiaa ot Satellite Space Vehicle Operatiou, 10 Jul. 59; JUliO (S) tor SOD tran SAP, subj: Coord!Dat:!Dn ot Satellite and Space Vehicle Operations, 17 Jill 59.

Ltr (s), T. Keith GleDDaD, Administrator, NASA, to Beil McElroy, SOD, as, 25 Mq 59; memo (S) tor Ma.1 GeD Ralph P. S1rottord, Jr, Asst OOS/D trom Bousbey, subj:" Global Trackq, l JUD 59; Col Otto Baney, D/Dev Pros, CCIIIIIleDts on Letter ot Dr. Glenaan to SOD, 25 ~ 591 dtd 4 J\m 59 (c); ltr (s), Maclnt)'re to D/AIWA, subj: Proposed Reply to Dr Gleaaan Concern iDs DOD Support tor. ProJect MERCURY, 9 JUD 59; memo (S) tor D/ARPA. trafiJ Cbar,yk, Asst SAF (R&D), subj: World Wide Tracking Facilities, 23 Jun 59; memo (S) tor ASst SAl (R&D) :traa JohDsoa, subj:· World Wide Tracking Facilities, 24 Jun 59; ltr (S), Tballas s. Gates, Deputy SOD to GleDDan., NASA, ns, 30 Jun 59; Memo tor Record {S) by Col J. L. Martin., D/AT, subJ: Proposed Organization tor Support ot PrOJect MERCURY, 17 Jul 59; draft .DOD directive., subj: Assigmeat ot ResponsibUity tor DOD Support ot Project MERCURY, 24 Jul 59; Washington Evenil'lg Star, 3 Oct 59· · Memo (C) tor JCS from McEl.ro71 eubJ: Coordination of Satellite and Space Vehicle Operations, J.8 Sep 59; memo (S) tor D/AT from Wheless, D/Pla:D.s, subj: Air Force Responsibil:l;~ee to Otber Elements ot. the Department ot Defense tor Space Syat.1, 21 Sep 59; DOD News Release, subj: Space Transfer to Services Planned, 23 Sep 59.

CONFIDENTIAl: .

71. Memo (S) :tor JCS :traa Gates, Actin8 SOD, aubJ: BeeponsibUit:y aZJd Organization :tor Certa1D Space ActiVities, 8 Oct 59; c1.ra.ft memo (S) :tor SOD :traa JCS, eubJ: Beeponsibilit,- and Orpnization :tor CertUD Space ActiVities, 19 Oct 59· 72~ Memo (S) :tor Gen Martin, D/Plana, OOS/P&P trail Col Robert R. Bow­land, Dep D/Pollc:y, sub~: Agrea.ent on Super-Boosters, 13 Nov 59· 73. Memo, :tor Ass.t Se~ DOD (Caaptroller} :traD. Gates, Deputy SOD, ns,. 1 Dec 59·

74. "TechDical -port S,sta. fbllaa.r;y," 10 .Apr 5,; !!! York 'l'1mea1 9 Jun 59; DAP White lfou8e Intomat1on Brief, l2 1aJa b(f: 75· A1UlC PAP Pro~ect Card (s), lO Oct 57; GOR 92, l2 May S5· 76. Memo tor R.:cord (S) b;y Lt Col BenJamiD H. l.errer, DCS/'ri, subJ: Boost-Glide Concept, 4 Bov 57; 008/D Development ~rective 94 (B), sgd by Bousbey 1 subJ: lf3personic 'Strategic We~.· System, 25 Nov 57; memo (S) :tor VC/S .:f'ral Swo:t:tord, Aast OOS}D, aubJ: Accelerate DINA SOAR Program, 14 Feb 58; memo (S) :tor C/S USAJ trcm MaclD't7re, ns, 5 Jun ·58; ltr, MaJ. Gen W. P. J'1sber1 Dep D/OIL to Rep •. James P. s. De~reux, ns., J.6 Jun .58. 71. Ltr (8), Swo:t:tord1 Acts OOS/D to Ccadr1 ARDC, subJ: Selection o:t bt~tor :tor WS-464L (DYHA SOAR), 25 Jun 58. · 78. Ltr (S), Anderson., Caadr1 ABDC to Wilson, ~/D1 ns, 24 JUl 58· 19· Memo :tor Record (S) b:y Col :rerrer., D/AT, aubJ: DDA SOAR Meeti.ns with Mr. Borner on 2 Oct 58, dtd 6 Oct 58( memo (S) :tor C/S USAF · f'rom DousJ.aa, SAF1 ns, 15 Oct 58; memo (SJ :tor All Directors et al. trca Col J. R. 1Pinton1 Exec., DCS/D, subJ: DntA SOAR, 29 Oct 50; -memo (s) tor SOD trail Johnson, subJ: DmA SOAR, 7 Nov 58. · eo. Dra:tt memo (S) b:y D/AT1 23 Oct 59, to be sent by SAF to BOD, subJ: Required Action on DnfA SOAR. ·

81. ..,..o :tor Record b:y Ferrer, subJ: DnlA SOAR DeciaioD, 29 Sep 59; ltr, Col Georse B. Munroe, Jr, Tech Exec, D/lll, :to 008/&, l8 lov 591 with 5 atchs and sussestion that DIBA SOAR item be submitted to C/S USAJ'.

8~.. DIIA SOAR Cl:n'onology, 1n D/AT !Ues • . ' .

83. James ~~ "DllfA SO.AB Puts Al Back -in Space," Misslles ~Rockets, 16 Nov 59~ ;

..... ,~ v i '· . .

l

57

84. stat.ent b7 Wilson, 008/D, in Bear1Dp Betore Bouse Omte on Science and .Aatrcmautica, 4 J'eb 6o. · · 85. Mello (S) tor Boladq traa BorDer, 24 Jan 58, Tab B. 86. Mello (S) tor Swottord frail Col Martin, D/A'I!, aubJ: Breaentation tor CCIIIIIaildera' Ccmterenc~, 5 Jan 5~.

87. Mello tor .Record (S) by Bouabey, subJ: luDc11Ds tor IIASA, 29 Jul 58. 88.

9().

91.

92.

Waa~n Space Lette§t 2 Jun 59; IASA, Appropriation a,.aey rt 1959-1 ; ARPA, n 1 1 Buaaet Prosr•; lll8IO b7 KaJ Gen a. J. Friedlllm, D/BwJcet, USAF, aubJ: ~atitication ot n 1961 Bu4set lilatilllate, 15 Ja 60; Tbe !udget ot the United States Government tor J"l IDdiDa :P JuD 196(), Jfouee Doc 151 Pt I, 66th COD&, lst Seas; Tb,e Budpt ot the United States Goverament for n Endipg 30 JUD 1961, . Bouse Doc 255, Pt I, 86th Cons, 2d Seas. Test:Jaony by Medaris in BeariDsa Betore House Cmte on Science and .Astronautics, J.8 Feb 6o. ·

Astronautics, Oct 591 pp 20·!50; Proceedings ot 2d Western Bational. MeetiDS ot the .taerican Aatronautipal. Sa: iety, Loa qelea, 4-5 lws 59; Horace Jacobs, . ed, A4"f8Dcea in Astronautical Sciences, Vol 5, Advanced Propulsioa and Power (lev York, 1§60), Pt II. Jfanson lel*iD, "Jiesl,ected J'actor 1D the Space Race," Bew York Times :r:azine, 17 Jt~D 60; Jaaes Baaert7, Jr, "u.s. Progr• Bas Gone lar in Months," special "J'li&ht" sec 1D W.ton Poat, 22 Nq 6o; Clarke BevloD, "We Ca Catch the Russians 1n ~ .. 11 Missiles and Bocketa, 14 Dec 59·

Ltr, York to Ducander, Bouse Cmte on Science and As~tics1 30 Dec 59; George P. Sutton, Chiet Scientist, ABPA, '''lbe Militaey Space Progrem tor 19601 " Astronautics, Bov 59; BSC 5918 (8), subj: u.s. Policy on Outer Space, appr by I8C 21 Jan 6o and b7 the President' 26 Jan 60. 93. RASA, lDterDat10Dal Satellite aDd Space Probe ~mnft.t7'1 .l' Jul. 6o; ~ Prosre•• Report (C), 1 Jan-1 Apr 6o; IASA1 United States aDd Russian Satellltes, ~ar Probes and Space Probes 1957-19;8-1959· 94. .AFBMD, SUDaa.r7 ot Air J'orce Ballistic MissUe DivisioD Activities in Space, J\Ul 6o.

95. Mag 39509, Allla> to Hq USAF, 7 Jul 6o. 96. Sutton, "The M:U1tar;y Space Progr• tor 1960."

AliiA .AD:: AFBMD .AFCIII AJ'08R 8111Dd AO ACJ4C ARPA ABS &tell

claD cmte CRC

IJIA DOD

GOR

intcp

MIS mis

NACA BASA KASC nav NOTS ns NSC nuc

OLL OSD

·. :: ..

GLOSSARY

Arfll1 Ballistic Missile Agency Atomic EDerQ" ec.aiasion Air ~orce Ballistic ·Missile Division AasistaDt Chief of Statt1 Intellisence Air Perce Ottice ot Scientific Research amendment ABPA Order A:rtrq Ordnance Missile Cc.aand AdvaDced Beseuch Projects A&enc7 Advaaced Reconnaissance 9Jstem attacbll.ent

Ballistic Weapons Research and Supporting System Ballistic Missile Test SJ&tem Ballistic Research aDd 'l'eat S,..tem

Cbail'IDSD cOIIIIIli ttee Cambridge Research Center

Division ot MUita:ey .Applications Department ot Defense

General Operational Requirement

Hypersonic EDvironment Test S,rstem

interceptor

Man In Space missile

National Adviaor,y Committee tor Aeronautics Bational Aeronautics and Space .Administration Rational Aeronautics and Space Council navisation Baval. Ordnance Test Station no sub,3eat National ~curiti Council nuc.lear

Ottice of Lesislative Liaison ottice of Secutar,y ot Detlmae

prplD

recoD

SA 8AB SAF a at 81 SOD sa

. S/State

U-SAI'

WADC WADD WDD

propul.a1CD

recODD&iaauce

Secretary of tJ:B Ar.w:f Sc1ent1t1c M:v:l.aoey Board Secretary of the A1r lorce aa~Uite Secretaq ot the Bav,y Secretary of Defense Stu.d¥ Bequi.r.-1; SecretarT of 8tate

Under Secre.tar;r of tbe .Air lorce Wri&ht Air DewloplleD~ CeDter Wrialit Air DewlopDeDt D1 via1CD WeaterD Dewl.opaeDt D1 viaioD

59

* Satellite LaamcMnge

4 Oct 1951 to 26 Bov 1959.

Source Code ... LBunch Date Success USSR SputDik. I ~Oct 57 Orbital USSB Sputll1k II 3 llov 57 Orbital •v Vqwu:d (1)- 6 Dec 51 Marltuncticm Arlq BxpJ..onr (1) l 3l Jan 58 .Orbitalf ·~av Vqu&rd (2) 5 Feb 58 lfal1'wlct1on X.A-Araf: lCxplo:rer (2) 5Jial' 58 JfaltuDctiOD •av Vquard (3) I 17 Mar 58 Orbital+ .JRA-A'I:Iq kpl.o:rer (3) II 26Mar58 Orbital. llav V81J&U&l'd (4 ~ 28Mar58 lfalfwlction · USSR SputDilt III 15 !flit 58 Orb1tal. .. ABPA-Bav,r VaD&\Uil'd (5) 21Kair58 Jlal..t'wlctiOD .ABPA-llav VaDpri (6) 26 J\1D 58 Mal..tuDcticm ABPA-Alfq. ,)

Bx;pJ.orer (4) m 26JuJ.58 Orbital -~USAI' PioDeer (l) 17 Au& 58 Mal.:tuDction JI.IRA-Am7 Bx;plmr (5 > ~Au& 58 MaJ.rwlction ARPA-Bav.r V~(7) 26Sep58 Mal.tunction ABPA-USAJ' Piol;leer (2) I ll Oct 58 101 000 mUes ABPA·Azw¥ Beacoo (l) 23 Oct 58 Jfa.l.tu.llct1on

ABPA-USAl Piaaeer (3) II 8 lov 58 Mal.:fuDction at 963 JD1les ABPA-Arlq PiODeer (4) m 7 Dec 58 66,6,. miles .AiPA-USAP Score 18 Dec 58 Orbital

US8B I.ua I 2 JIID 59 Solar orbit+

(cOilt.d)

61 (contd)

Sourc:e CocSAt ·-

Launch Date Success IIASA-llav VaDgUal'd (8) II 17 Feb 59 Orbital+ ARPA-USAI' DiSCO'Verer (l)I 28 Feb 59 Orbital .ARPA-Arlq Pioneer (5) · IV 3 Mar 59 Solar orbit+ ARP.A-USAP Disco-verer (2) n .13 Apr 59 Orbital RASA-Ba'¥7 Vazasuari (9) 13 Apr 59 Malt'ullction ARPA-USAI' Disco-verer (3) III 3JUD59 Ma.l.tunction BASA-•v Vansuard (10) 22 Jun 59 Maltw:Jction ABPA-USAI'. Discowrer ( 4) IV 25 JUD 59 Mal.tu.nction ABPA-Arrq hplorer · (6) J.6 Jul 59 DestroJ'ed ABPA~USAI' lxplorer (7) IV

Orbitalf (Pa4dl.evbee1) 7 Aua 59

ARPA-UBAI' Disco-verer ( 5) V 13 Aug 59 Orbital+ ARPA·Ar1111 Beacon (2) 14 Aua 59 Mal.twlction .ARPA-USAF Diacowrer (6) VI 19 Au& 59 Orbital U8SR Wllik II l2 Sep 59 Impacted MooD .ARPA-Bav,r TraDait (l) 17 Sep 59 Mal.tuDctioD liASA-•v.r V&IJ6U&l'd (u) m 18 Sep 59 Orbitalf

USSR Iwlik III 4 Oct 59 Pboto of tar side ot Moon lUSA-UBAJ' Explorer (8) V 13 Oct 59 Orbital. ..

USAr Discoverer (7) VII 7 lfov 59 Orbital USAP Discoverer (8) VIII 20 :lov 59 Orbital+ IASA-USAI' Pioneer (6) 26 llov 59 MalfuDctioD

*Arabic figures represent firiDgs; &maD figures successtul results except for Disco-verer. Tbe Air J'orce carries BaDaD figures regardl.ess of results. ~Still in orbit at tbe close of 1959·