Produced by:

Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh

Funded by:

British Department for International Development

DRAUGHT ANIMAL NEWS

No. 35

December 2001

CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAUGHT ANIMAL NEWS 35

Zelealem BekeleNazareth Research Centre, PO Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Melesse TemesgenNazareth Research Centre, PO Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

A.B.D. JoubertAnimal Traction Center, Department of Agronomy, Faculty ofAgriculture, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X 1314, Alice, 5700,South Africa

Bernardo Lopez YanezAgroecosistemas Tropicales del Colegio de Postgraduados enCiencias Agricolas, Campus Veracruz-Xalapa, México

Peter HeroldDepartment of Ecological Agriculture, University of Kassel, Germany

Helen BradburyLlaingaled, Llanddona, Ynys Mon, Gwynedd LL58 8UB

ISSN 1354–6953

DRAUGHT ANIMAL NEWSNo. 35

December 2001

Centre for Tropical Veterinary MedicineUniversity of Edinburgh, Scotland

ISSN 1354–6953

� Draught Animal News accepts articles in Spanish and French as well as in English.We receive articles from many parts of the world and hope that by publishingarticles in three languages we will be accessible to a greater readership. Thenewsletter is sent out to many countries and although we receive funding by theUK Department for International Development we do run on a very tight budget andare grateful to receive subscriptions from those able to cover the annualsubscription rate of £8.00.

� This issue has articles from Africa, Mexico and Europe. As we have seen a risein global tourism it has become obvious that often tourism ventures involve draughtanimals. These may be horses, elephants, donkeys etc for riding and pullingcarriages in both rural and urban situations or mules being hired by walkers to carryluggage in inaccessible areas. Operators of such ventures must be made awareof good practice in the use of the equipment they use and the availability ofaffordable equipment.

� It has been good to hear that readers who have written to us have had usefulfeedback after their letters have been published in DAN. We hope that readers findour list of Web sites useful and are always pleased to hear of any new ones thatwe can pass on in the newsletter. If you wish to advertise your site to othersworking with draught animals please send details to the Editor, Dr R.A. Pearson,Editor, Draught Animal News, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, EasterBush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RH, Scotland (Fax: 44 131 445 5099; e-mail:anne.pearson@ed.ac.uk).

� We prefer you to send us your input on a 3” disk (using Microsoft Word, WordPerfect or Rich Text Format) or via email. If you wish to include photographs,please ensure these are original and of good quality because of losses in thereproduction process. High resolution photographs saved in .tif format arepreferable (using Winzip to compress the file if necessary).

� The drawing on the front cover by Archie Hunter is taken from a photograph by PaulStarkey.

� This publication is funded by the UK Department for International Development(DIFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are notnecessarily those of DIFID.

PUBLICATIONS

Aguirre, V. & Orihuela, A. (2000). Effect of work experience and position in the plow harness on somephysiological parameters of horses under field conditions. Journal of Applied Animal WelfareScience, 3 (3), 231–238.

Alam, M. R., Sarker, R. I., Hossain, M. D. & Islam, M. S. (2000). Contribution of livestock to small farmsin Bangladesh, 13, Suppl, 339–342

Alföldi, T., W. Lockeretz & U. Niggli (eds.) (2000): IFOAM 2000 – The World Grows Organic.Proceedings, 13th International IFOAM Scientific Conference. – vdf Hochschulverlag an der ETHZürich; Zürich, Switzerland.

Aluja, A. S. de., Lopez C. A., Chavira S., H. & Oseguera M. D. (2000). The most common pathologicalconditions occurring in working horses in the Mexican countryside. Veterinaria – Mexico, 31, (2),165–168.

Ceballos, F. P., Tielves, R. V. & Brian G Sims. (2000). Comparative study of influence of animal tractionand light tractors on soil compaction in Cuba. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and LatinAmerica, 32, 19–23.

Engoru-Ebina, A. (1989). Prospects for improvement in energy use on small scale farming: the caseof animal traction. Swaziland Journal of Science and Technology (Swaziland), 10, 1, 17–28.

Goe, M. R., Alldredge, J. R. & Light, D. (2001). Use of heart girth to predict body weight of working oxenin the Ethiopian highlands. Livestock Production Science, 69, 187–195.

Gupta, J. P. & Sinha, S. K. (2000). Field performance of bullock-drawn puddlers. AgriculturalMechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 31, 36–40.

Kailappan, R., Rajagopalan, R. & Mani, A. K. (2001). A twin-purpose, light weight new iron plough.Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America. 32, 9–10.

Mahardika, I. G., Sastradipradja, D., Sutardi, T. & Sumadi, I. K. (2000). Nutrient requirements ofexercising swamp buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, from materials balance and in vivo body compositionby the body density method. I. Aspects of energy and protein metabolism in working cows. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 13 (5), 605–612.

Meas, S., Ohashi, K., Tum, S., Chhin, M., Te, K., Miura, K., Sugimoto, C. & Onuma, M. (2000).Seroprevalence of bovine immunodeficiency virus and bovine leukemia virus in draught animalsin Cambodia. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 62 (7), 779–781.

Merriam, J. G. (2000). Urban carriage horses 1999 – status and concerns. Journal of the AmericanVeterinary Medical Association, 216 (8), 1261–1262.

Ogwang, B. H. (1994). Response of draught oxen to winter supplementary feeding in Swaziland.UNISWA Journal of Agriculture (Swaziland). 3, 74–76.

Patei, A. M., Wadhwani, K. N., Parnerkar, S., Pandya, P. R., Saiyed, L. H. & Gupta, R. S. (2000).Observation on aspects of work efficiency, feeding management, income generation by donkeys(Equus asinus) in urban Gujarat. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 70 (8), 877–879.

Singh, G. (2001). Relationship between mechanization and agricultural productivity in various parts ofIndia. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 32,68–76.

Smith, D., Tesfaye, Agaji & More, L. (2000). Alleviating Poverty in Peri-urban Ethiopia by Improving theHealth, Welfare and Management of Donkeys. Proceedings of a Workshop held at Debre Zeit,Ethiopia. CTVM, Edinburgh University, UK.

Sperandio, G. & Verani, S. (2000). Comparative tests on skidding fuelwood using mobile conveyorcable, polyethylene chutes and mules – part II. Macchina Mondo, 9 (1), 20–23.

Sucre, L., Finol, H. & Perez, R. (2000). Ultrastructural changes of the Gluteus medius muscle ofuntrained crossbred draught horses subjected to ploughing. Archivos de Medicina Veterinaria,32 (1), 21–32.

Togashi, K. (2000). Special edition. The situation of agricultural mechanization in foreign countries (Part3). Draught animals and farm implements in Africa. [Japanese]. Journal of the Japanese Societyof Agricultural Machinery, 62 (5), 4–12.

Toms, C. W., Dubois, M. R., Bliss, J. C., Wilhoit, J. H. & Rummer, R. B. (2001). A survey of animal-powered logging in Alabama. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry, 25 (1), 17–24.

Yadava, G. C. (ed) (2001). Draughtability of Animals. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering,Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal – 462 038 (MP). India

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CONTENTS

Research & Development Projects Letters to the Editor ...................25Africa ........................................ 2 Short Notes and News ..............26South America ....................... 15 Forthcoming Events .................. 27Europe .................................... 21 Publications ...............................32

General Article ........................... 23 Contributors to DraughtAnimal News 35 (back cover)

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

1. AFRICA

(a) Ethiopia

Draught characteristics of a pair of working donkeys in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia

Zelealem Bekele, Mengistu Geza, 1Amsalu Sisaye, 1Abule Ibro and Teshome BulloNazareth Research Centre, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 1Adami Tulu Research Centre, PO Box 35,Zway, Ethiopia

AbstractThe use of donkeys for operations other than pack animals is limited to the Meki-Zwaiarea and where there is a lower use of donkeys of about 5 mt km/year. The mainproblems are lack of information on their draught capacity and appropriate equipmentfor use with donkeys. With the objective of increasing donkey power use, a study onpower and work output of a pair of donkeys was made at Adami Tulu. The study wasmade on three pairs of donkeys by applying four different levels of pull equivalent to10%, 15%, 20% and 25% of the combined body weight of a pair of donkeys. Pull, speed,work output, power and physiological reactions at different levels of pull were the majorparameters assessed. The results show that a pair of donkeys can generate a draughtforce equivalent to 15–20% of their body weight with no abnormal sign of fatigue. Speedobtained for this load range was from 0.6–0.8 m/s.

IntroductionIn Ethiopia donkeys are widely used and maintained as pack animals except in Meki-Zwai areas where they are used to pull carts. Usually donkeys are used singly and theiruse in pairs or more is not known. Due to their low body weight (110–150 kg/donkey),the draught force they generate is small and is not enough to enable a single animal totill the soil. A study by Crossley (1991) showed a lower use of this power. The increaseduse of this power would increase small farm incomes and improve the economicefficiency of agricultural production. About one third of Ethiopian farmers have no oxenand one third have a single ox. So the farmers have a problem in carrying out timelytillage operations. There are reports in some parts of the country (Gojam, North Shewaand Arsi Negale) that donkeys are used in pairs for tillage. The main reasons for low useis lack of information on draught capacity and lack of appropriate equipment andharnesses.

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University Cultural Centre, UADY, Merida, Mexico

12–15 November 2002

An International Conference organised bythe British Society of Animal Science, the American Society of Animal

Science and the Mexican Society of Animal Science

Hosted by the Universidad Autonoma de Yucatan

Related themes:

How do trade agreements make livestock producers vulnerable?• Marginalisation of the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers• Socio-economic impacts• Marketing: global and domestic markets, subsidies, pricing• Consumer preferences (global and local)• Trade issues: biotechnology and welfare regulations, national and international

transmission of animal disease• GM crops as animal feeds• Animal breeds – indigenous v. exotic• Food security• Government policies

What is the ecological impact of production systems (smallholder, intensiveand extensive)?• Ecological/environmental impact• Animal welfare• Sustainable systems for smallholders• Effects of new technologies: biotechnologies, pollution, soil erosion, nutrient

cycling, silviculture, biodiversity, food safety, integrating crops and animals

What is the role of animal science research?• What research and intervention methodologies are required?• How do you improve adoption?• Systems that create opportunities to take up new knowledge• Participatory research• The roles of commercial, public organisations, civil societies and NGOs• Social structure; risk; institutional reform• Cross sectional alliances

Contributed theatre papers would be very welcome on the topic areas given bykeynote speakers or on related themes. Papers on animal science or productionthat are also relevant would be welcomed as posters. Details from:

• Mike Steele, BSAS Office, PO Box 3, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0RZ, UKTel: +44(0)131–445–4508; Fax: +44(0)131–535–3120;e-mail: BSAS@ed.sac.ac.uk; website: http://www.bsas.org.uk

• Juan Ku Vera – e-mail: gschan@tunku, uady.mx

30. 3.

The advantage of using donkeys for tillage is that they are very hardy animals,usually fit and strong and they rarely experience health problems. They are found indryer ecological regions where drought has been widespread. Experience from manyAfrican Countries shows that donkeys can be used for ploughing where soils are lightand for ridging and weeding.

A basic study on draught capacity and work output of pairs of donkeys was carriedout at Adami Tulu with the aim of improving the information available for use, especiallyfor the design and development of agricultural implements that can be used withdonkeys.

Materials and MethodsA trial was carried out at Adami Tulu Research centre, which is located in the CentralRift Valley of Ethiopia where donkeys are used extensively for different purposes. Thetrial is part of the project for the study of donkey power, harnesses, feed managementand use of donkeys for agriculture.

Three pairs of mature donkeys were used in the trials and pairing was donerandomly. Donkeys were trained for two months before the trials by pulling loadsequivalent to 10% of their body weight. Sledges were used to apply loads and donkeyswere loaded to four levels of pull equivalent to 10, 15, 20 and 25% of their combinedbody weight. However, the donkey showing signs of fatigue at 25% level of pull and 25%level of pull was left out. ‘Kenber’ was used to yoke donkeys by adding an artificial hump,which fits the donkey neck. The donkeys started work at 8 am each day and they workedfor three consecutive days for three hours a day. A rest period of 17 days was allowed

Plate 1: Donkey pulling cart in Rift Valley, Ethiopia (David Smith).

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The Fourth International Colloquium will be held at theApamee Cham Palace Hotel by the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Al-Ba’ath University, Hama, Syriafrom 21–26 April 2002

There will be one keynote session and individual sessions for submitted paperson recent developments in:

• veterinary science relevant to working equids• in the role of equids in transport• implementation of extension and development projects• animal health and husbandry relevant to working equids• land preparation and cropping with equids• experiences in training and education.

Field visits and demonstrations of equipment and harnessing will also feature.The meeting will be in English and Arabic. The registration fee will be US$100

(does not include accommodation or meals). The cost of a single room plus fullboard is US$65 per day at the Apamee Cham Palace Hotel in Hama.

Participants are asked to submit papers (Maximum 4500 words) to the secretariatby January 30 2002. Those people selected to present the papers orally at themeeting (15 minutes presentation + 5 minutes discussion) will be informed byFebruary 28 2002. Papers should be submitted as hard copy and on disk,preferably as word/word perfect files (Times new roman, 12 point).

Participants are requested to bring along posters (A1 max size) and/or anymaterials they would like to demonstrate at the meeting. These could beimplements, harnesses or health or husbandry techniques.

A limited number of scholarships are available for people who submit goodquality papers.

To attend the meeting and book accommodation please contact the secretariatif outside Syria, or the organisers if in Syria:

Organisers: Prof. Dr. Darem Tabbaa, Animal Protection Project (SPANA),Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Al-Ba’ath University, Hama, Syria(Tel: + 963 33 512 640; Fax:+ 963 33 510 514; Email: spana@net.sy)

Secretariat: SPANA, 15 Buckingham Gate, London SW1E 6LB, United Kingdom(Tel:+ 44 (0) 207 828 0997; Fax: + 44 (0) 207 630 5776;Email: SPANA.HQ@dial.pipex.com; Website: www.spana.org)

4. 29.

after the trials on each level of pull. Donkeys were allowed to graze in the field in thedaytime and were fed tef straw at night.

A force transducer was used to measure the draught force. It was attached betweenthe loading sledges and yoke. The distance travelled was calculated from the numberof rounds of the track made by the donkeys. A stopwatch was used to measure workingtime and periods of interruption. The average speed for and period of work wascalculated by dividing the distance travelled during the period by the working time. Workoutput was calculated by multiplying maximum draught by total distance travelled. Poweroutput was calculated by dividing work output by total time. The respiration rate, pulserate and rectal temperature of the donkeys were measured at an hourly interval duringthe period of work.

ResultsTable 1: Average speed, hourly average speed, work output and power output

of a pair of working donkeys at different levels of pull.

Pull (% of combined body weight) 10 15 20 Mean

Average Speed (ms-1) 0.81 0.8 0.6 0.7Average Speed during first hour of work (ms-1) 0.82 0.81 0.62 0.8Average Speed during second hour of work (ms-1) 0.76 0.77 0.59 0.7Average Speed during last hour of work (ms-1) 0.78 0.78 0.59 0.7Daily work output (MJ)* 2.18 3.22 3.26 2.9Daily work output per 100 kg of live weight (MJ)* 0.86 1.20 1.25 1.1Power output (kW) 0.2 0.29 0.3 0.3Power output per 100 kg of live weight (kW) 0.08 0.11 0.12 0.1

* 3 hours work per day

A pair or working donkeys had an average speed of 0.74 ms–1 for loads between10–20% of combined body weight was measured (Table 1). Speed decreases as thepull level increases and is highest at 10% (0.81 ms–1) and lowest at 20% (0.60 ms–1).The hourly speed of donkeys (Table 1) decreases during the first hour of work and thenremains constant for the rest of the working periods.

The average work output of a pair of donkeys was 2.18 MJ, 3.22 MJ and 3.26 MJat pull levels of 10%, 15% and 20% respectively. The work output remained almost thesame for 15% and 20% pull level (Table 1). The work output per 100 kg of live weightalso increased as the load increases from 10–20% of pull level. Beyond 20% pull,donkeys were not willing to pull and showed sign of fatigue.

Average power output was higher at 20% level of pull 0.298 kW (Table 1). Thepower output per 100 kg of body weight was also higher at 20% pull level in all pairs.However, there is no significant difference in the power output of a pair of workingdonkeys at 15% and 20% pull level.

ConclusionA pair of donkeys can generate a draught force of 15–20% of their combined bodyweight for three hours a day. As the average weight of a pair of donkeys in the rift valley isabout 250 kg, a pair of donkeys can therefore generate a draught force of 375–500 N for

INVITATION AND CALL FOR PAPERS,POSTERS AND DEMONSTRATIONS

(to be received by 30 January 2002)

International Workshop(6th ATNESA thematic workshop) on

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to be held in

Sunset Hotel & Conference CentreJinja, Uganda

20–24th May 2002

Objectives of workshop:

• Review the research, development and extension scenario regardingthe use of animal traction and transport services for enhancedbenefits to practitioners and beneficiaries alike

• Review existing draught animal technologies, management, socio-economic and gender issues and environmental implications of theuse of work animals

• Analyse present and future needs for improving the utilisation andmanagement of animal traction technologies in the region whilelearning from the Uganda’s experiences and potentials, particularlyin decentralised governance and liberalisation

• Chart the way forward to empower farmers and entrepreneurs onsustainable utilisation of animal traction and transport services for themodernisation of Uganda’s agriculture.

Registration forms or workshop information from:

• Eng. Wilfred R. Odogola, AEATRI, PO Box 7144, Kampala, UgandaTel: +256–41–566161; Fax: 256–567649 or 566049e-mail: aeatri@starcom.co.ug

• Dr Pascal G. Kaumbutho, ATNESA Chairman, PO Box 61441, Nairobi, KenyaTel/Fax: +254–2–766939; Mobile: +254–733–635744e-mail: KENDAT@africaonline.co.ke; website: http://www.ATNESA.org

• Prof. Paul H. Starkey, Animal Traction Development, Oxgate, 64 NorthcourtAvenue, Reading RG2 7HQ, UKTel: +44–1189 872152; Fax: +44–1189 314525e-mail: P.H.Starkey@Reading.ac.uk; website: http://ATNESA.org

28. 5.

three hours a day. This draught force of a pair of donkeys is adequate to do all tillage workin light soil and can do secondary tillage and inter culture in other soil types. The speed ofworking donkeys (0.6–0.8 ms–1) is higher than that of Ethiopian oxen (0.4–0.5 ms–1) and sohas advantage for implements that require relatively high speeds. In this trial it was shownthat there is potential to increase the work output from donkeys.

ReferencesCrossley, P. (1991). Transport for rural development in Ethiopia. (eds) D.V. Fielding and R.A.

Pearson. Proceedings of Colloquium. 3–6 Sep, 1990. Scotland.Pathak, B.S. (1987). Survey of Agricultural Implements and Crop Production Techniques. IAR and

FAO, December 1987. Nazareth, Ethiopia.

(b) Ethiopia

Improved Agricultural Equipment for Donkey Traction

Melesse TemesgenNazareth Research Centre, PO Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

IntroductionThe draught power output of donkeys is low, usually not more than 30 kgf /donkey.Therefore, implements for donkey traction should have low draught power requirements.In some areas where the unit resistance of the soil is low, donkeys are being used fortillage. This is also a common practice in other sub-Saharan African countries. However,in order to enable more farmers to use donkeys for tillage, implements need to bedeveloped that can be pulled by a pair of donkeys. In many cases this may only requiremodifications that reduce the sizes of existing designs. The following are some of theimproved implements developed by the Agricultural Mechanization Research Programthat, with possible modifications, would have the potential of being pulled by donkeys.

1. The ‘Erf’ and ‘Mofer’ attached mould board ploughThe ‘Erf’ and ‘Mofer’ attached mould board plough has been developed for a pair ofoxen. The plough has several advantages over the Maresha, the traditional plough ofEthiopia. The new plough enables farmers to complete tillage in one pass and controlsweeds better than the Maresha. The plough conserves moisture because it improvesinfiltration through deeper tillage and reduces evaporation losses as it leaves a muchsmoother field with less surface area exposed to the sun and wind. The plough can betested with donkeys and can be modified to suit the power outputs of donkeys once dataon its performance with donkeys have been collected.

2. Winged ploughThe winged plough is a slight modification of the Maresha and is designed mainly forsecondary tillage. According to field tests carried out on the winged plough the draughtpower requirement is only 60% of that required by the Maresha. Therefore potentiallythe winged plough could be used with a pair of donkeys. However, field tests should becarried out before making any recommendation.

The winged plough involves minimum soil inversion and so helps in theconservation of soil moisture, especially during secondary tillage. Farmers have thedilemma of whether or not they should plough their fields after the first tillage. This isbecause they would be exposing the lower moist soil to evaporation, especially during

Address:RELATAApartado Postal RP–95Managua, Nicaragua

E-mail: relata@relata.org.nihttp://www.relata.org.ni

For further information contact:Anabelle Jerez

Unidad de Información y ComunicaciónRELATA

Telefax.: (505) 2663726, 2683053Email: relata@relata.org.ni

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20–22 March 2002

To be held in San Salvador, El Salvador by RELATA

The objectives of the conference are to:

• Meet and exchange experiences on systems in Latin Americawhich use working animals

• The promotion of appropriate technology in rural and urbanproduction systems

• To encourage inter-institutional and international co-operationin Latin America on appropriate technologies

• The use and management of working animals

• Small scale enterprises that service animal tractionrequirements

• Repair and maintenance of rural roads using animal traction

• Other appropriate technologies.

6. 27.

Plate 2: ‘Erf’ and ‘Mofer’ attached mouldboard plough (Melesse Temesgen).

Plate 3: Winged plough (Melesse Temesgen).

Organised by:

International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM)Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II

with collaboration of:European Commission (DG I)

Of all the domestic animals likely to take maximum advantage of the semi-arid andarid territories, the camel occupies a central position that has been forgotten fortoo long by the policy-makers, economic agents and researchers. The objectivesof the course programme are to:

• provide development agents, veterinarians and productionagents working in arid zones, solid high-level training inbiology, production and camel pathology

• analyse and discuss past experiences and perspectives forcamel production

• provide a forum for specialists in camel production wherethey can compare and contrast experiences and points ofview.

Application forms may be obtained from:

Dr Mohamed BengoumiInstitut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II

Départment de Pharmacie, Toxicologie et BiochimieBP 6202 Rabat-Instituts (Morocco)

Tel/Fax: 212 37 779684e-mail: m.bengoum@iav.ac.ma / bengoumi@iam.net.ma

Advanced Course:

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Rabat, Morocco — 4–15 March 2002

Their address is c/o Institute of Environmental Studies, Box MP 167, Harare, Zimbabwe;email: actsecre@africaonlike.co.zw and their annual membership fee is US $10.

Useful websites• http://fr.groups.yahoo.com/group/hippomobile/, a webpage for people using horses

in temperate countries.• www.albc_usa.org provides accurate timely information about issues critical to

heritage livestock.• www.howllfarm.org for a photo of hay loading with oxen.• http://www.ruralheritage.com• www.brooke-hospital.org.uk

FORTHCOMING EVENTS

7.26.

dry spells, but at the same time the weeds that have emerged after the first tillagedeplete the soil moisture through evapo-transpiration. The winged plough can thus beused to kill the weeds while keeping the lower moist soil unexposed. The winged ploughcan also be used to incorporate DAP fertilizer with the soil during Tef planting.

Plate 4: Row planter (Melesse Temesgen).

3. Row planterPlanting maize and a number of other crops in rows has been recommended by theagronomists. However, because of the large amount of time and labour required formanual row planting many farmers have not yet adopted the practice. Therefore, ananimal drawn semi automatic row planter has been developed. The row planter placesseeds and fertilizer in rows. Field tests have shown that use of the planter makesconsiderable savings in labour and time. It also facilitates tie ridging and inter-rowweeding at early stages and makes possible the intercropping of beans between maizeor sorghum rows.

4. Inter row weederThe animal drawn inter row weeder is a slight modification of the winged plough. Theweeder saves labour and time. It enables farmers to undertake early weeding. Somefarmers have used a pair of donkeys to pull the weeder between maize rows. The pairof donkeys pulled the weeder at a speed close to 1 m/sec. The work rate wasapproximately one ha per day.

5. Tie ridgerThe tie ridger is an animal drawn implement that forms a series of basins in the field tocatch and retain rainwater. A single hand operated tie ridger with lower draught power

Karla Hostetler is the director of a large US government funded programme looking atthe creation of employment for artisans in Haiti. It is hoped that the project will help indeveloping a local industry to make better-fitting saddles, packs and pads. This willmean employment for local artisans and at the same time will also help alleviate thesuffering of the local horses and burros caused by saddle sores. Although there arefunds to develop this industry, the project needs good prototype designs and patternsfor the saddles, packs and pads. Currently most of the owners use heavy, hard woodensaddles and the pads and packs are made of cornhusks, sugarcane husks, bananaleaves etc. These are stiff, dry and dirty. Thus the project hopes to help the hardworkinghorses and burros and their owners while working within local saddle and pack-makingbusinesses. If anyone can help, the project would be able to purchase prototypes andpay for shipping if this is possible. If this approach works in Haiti then the same thingmay be possible in other regions. If you wish to get in touch with Karla the address is30 Rue Goulard, Place Boyer, c/o Aid to Artisans, Petion-Ville, Haiti and the e-mailaddress is karlavt@together.net.

Jack Reece has been working as a vet in India for a small local charity in Jaipur andis hoping to return there this autumn. He asks for any advice on more humane methodsof controlling draught animals. The nose peg or pegs are used exclusively in Rajasthan,often leading to fly blown peg holes in the external nares. Information on where to finda pattern for a bridle etc for camels not involving nose pegs would be welcome. Thecontact address is c/o 56 Winterbourne Close, Hastings, East Sussex TN34 1XQ, UK.

Robert Bowen in Maputo for VETAID writes that they are developing some new projectideas and are thinking about the use of animal traction in the processing of agriculturalproducts such as sesame or sunflower seeds. These crops are being grown more andmore by local smallholders in Mozambique. The smallholders process either by handor just sell the unprocessed seeds and there would appear to be an opportunity for theuse of an animal traction powered oil traction press. Robert is wondering if anyoneknows of such a thing or where else VETAID might find out about it? His email addressis VETAID Moçambique, Avenida Amílcar Cabral, No 54 r/c Biarro Central, Caixa Postal1707, Moçambique, e-mail: vetaidmz@virconn.com.

SHORT NOTES AND NEWS

African Conservation Tillage Network is in the process of starting topical groupdiscussions under the subjects/issues listed below:

1. Green manure/cover crops/mulch2. Weed control in CT systems3. Impact of CT on soil quality4. CT implements5. CF dissemination approaches6. Curricula for schools and tertiary learning institutes7. Links to input/output markets from both manufactures and farmers

perspective.

8. 25.

Plate 5: Single hand operated tie ridger (Melesse Temesgen).

Plate 6: Donkey driven water pump (Melesse Temesgen).

poverty are commonplace for the horse owners. What is clear is that the drivers havea strong incentive to improve the condition of their horses.

Another incentive for keeping horses healthy is that Gonder is a tourist town. Atpresent the tourists don’t use the gharries but either walk besieged by street childrenor ride in air-conditioned buses. If the condition of the gharries was improved and thecarts themselves smartened up the tourists could be persuaded to take them and thegharry drivers could gain access to a new source of income.

This is the first step. People are willing and the incentive for change is strong andsuch changes would improve the lives of the horses.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Barney Muckle has written to the editor with an update on the information sent earlierthis year following his article ‘Making ploughs that donkeys can use’ published in No 34of Draught Animal News.

Many minor modifications have been found to be necessary to suit differentconditions and heights of users, especially female. Several suggestions by Frank Inneshave now been incorporated into the design. Progress is still being made and 12 artisanshave been trained to make both the plough and the harness and preparations are beingmade to monitor the few farmers during their second rainy season of use of the plough.It is hoped to develop and test the conservation tillage tool for one pass ripping andplanting to be in line with current trends. Barney Muckle’s address is Triple WEngineering Ltd., PO Box 176, Naro Moru via Nyeri, Kenya and his e-mail ismuckletb@africaonline.co.ke.

Xoán Carlos Sánchez Couto, Casa Familiar Rural de Açailândia, BRAZIL asks ifsomebody could send details for the construction of multipurpose implements for animaltraction? Exact dimensions of the parts, features of the materials, assembly details anduseful tips would be welcome. The e-mail address is fra@ieg.com.br.

William Brenchley has contacted us asking if someone could provide details ofcompanies that supply animal traction implements (and spares) in South Africa – ifpossible close to Cape Town. His e-mail is billy_brenchley@hotmail.com and addressis: Mr W A Brenchley, 69 Castletown Road, Wynberg 7800, South Africa.

Steve Vinson, an Egyptologist and ancient historian at the State University of New Yorkis currently working on an Egyptian agricultural account from the third century BC. Thisaccount includes costs for plough oxen and ploughmen. In the account it can be seenthat the cost of hiring a team is set at 10 times the cost of hiring a ploughman. Steve iscurious to know what the modern ratios are, and what the factors are that influencerelative prices for draught animals and for a ploughman. He would also be interestedin finding out what the typical daily output of a man and a team might be, especially onrecently flooded, alluvial soil as found in Egypt at that time. If anyone has personalknowledge of these issues, or if anyone can recommend some good sources on theeconomics of animal traction Steve would be most grateful. His address is Departmentof History, SUNY-New Paltz, 75 S Manheim Blvd, New Paltz, NY 12561–2499, USA; e-mail: vinsons@newpaltz.edu.

9.24.

requirements has been developed following farmers complaints about the incon-venience in operation and the higher draught power requirement of the previous model.

6. Water lifting devicesA device known as a chain and washer pump has been developed that can be operatedmanually or driven by animals. The pump lifts water from rivers or shallow wells fordrinking or for small-scale irrigation. According to field tests the pump can lift about 180litres per minute from a depth of 4 m manually whereas with a pair of animals it can liftup to 300 litres per minute from a depth of 7 m.

(c) South Africa

Cash crop production in South Africa on a small farm using animal power andsmall scale irrigation

A.B.D. JoubertAnimal Traction Center, University of Fort Hare

AbstractA development project at the University of Fort Hare, aimed at producing vegetables andother cash crops on a commercial basis using animals and a small low cost irrigationplant, has produced realistic figures which indicate that small scale farmers, cultivatingfrom one to five hectares under this system can realize a substantial net profit and anannual income which will allow them an adequate living standard.

The project has been run in a manner similar to the communal grazing systemcombined with the small, cultivated lands practised in the communities surrounding FortHare University. It has shown that with comparatively low initial investment costs andminor running costs, such a system ensures that a small scale farmer can keep loanrepayments down and realise substantial net profits on his cash crops as a result.

IntroductionCrop production in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa is currently at an all timelow. Several factors favour the re-emergence of small scale commercial farmers in thearea, for example there is high unemployment and access to food products in the ruralareas in the region depends largely on imports from other regions Gebeda (1999). Thereare other factors that make food security difficult in the rural areas. Farmers are agingand most are retired, farming is not their profession but more of a part-time occupation.Most of the youth have migrated to the urban areas where expectations of employmentare higher. They do not see agriculture as a viable career opportunity. Crop productionin the rain fed areas is a high risk venture as rainfall is low and erratic, livestockencroachment on lands due to lack of adequate fencing is common and there is a lackof a proper agricultural infrastructure. Crime, particularly theft of livestock and agriculturalproducts, is rife and the land tenure system is insecure.

The scope for irrigation in parts of the Eastern Cape is high. Many large rivers flowfrom the high mountain regions, where rainfall exceeds 1200 mm per annum, throughrelatively dry areas with low and erratic rainfall of below 500 mm per annum. On thebanks of these rivers lie numerous arable areas of land ranging from one to 10 or morehectares in area (Pearson et al., 1999).

factory and taken to the market where it is sold in sacks to the drivers. It has littlenutritional value. The rest of the ration is made up from furushka, a by-product of thelocal seed oil industry. Best described as oil seed cake it contains 17% Nitrogen and isprobably what keeps the horses alive.

The horses are rarely taken to the government vet and even then it is only as a lastdesperate measure, when the horse can no longer work. Often the horse has alreadybeen treated by the local healer. There are two main practices carried out and theconsequences are easy to spot. Many horses in Gonder have what looks like a gridburnt into their flesh. This is caused by the red-hot irons placed on the top of the leg,believed to cure lameness. Other horses have a punctured eye; although this issometimes due to rough handling it is also caused by a procedure called ‘peeling’.Opthalmia or Moon Blindness is a condition causing the eye to become white and swelloutwards. The local doctor takes a razor blade and cuts through the eye peeling backthe white layer, which is called ‘fat’ from the eye. It is a delicate process and it is easyto cut too deeply.

There are very few cruel drivers. Most of the Gharry drivers are fathers with children.They are poor and they treat their horses as their father’s treated them and as theircolleagues treat them and they just do their job.

I met and developed a good relationship with the Gharry Association Chairman andCommittee. He informed the drivers of what I was doing so that in general my questionswere met with good humour. Together we put into place some practices, which willhopefully continue.

We started by using garlic for deworming. Garlic is effective against roundwormsand is a cheap and familiar food. We also started using honey on wounds. Honey hasantibacterial properties and removes water from the wounds. The drivers were delightedto find that foods that they had in their homes could be used. They were not hard topersuade, as there is a strong cultural tradition of using local plants and herbs fortreating illness. The drivers also then began to suggest local plants that could be used;we all agreed that Aloe Vera could be used to repel flies from wounds.

There is a strong belief among the drivers that too much water is bad for the workinghorse. Using the skin pinch technique I know that most of the horses showed some signsof dehydration. Despite their misgivings a number of drivers agreed to make wateravailable in the stable at all times. The food is very dry and unpalatable and when it waspointed out that they would need a great deal of water if eating this food, they laughedand agreed to try.

We also began the search for a fly repellent to deal with the particularly viciousstrain of horse flies that swarm around the lower leg of the horses biting continuously.The ingredients included local spices, local fly repelling trees including Eucalyptus andAloe Vera. As an interim measure the leaves of fly repelling trees were hung and strewnon the floor of the stable.

At our final meeting the chairman was late as he had been in the market warningdrivers of a disease that was sweeping through the horses. Twenty had died in a week,the local vet did not know have a diagnosis and had tried an injection of antibiotics butthe horse had died anyway. I do not know the outcome of the disease and at the timewas amazed how calm the drivers were; they have no insurance and if their horse diestheir livelihood is gone. This philosophic attitude is probably because tragedy and

10. 23.

An investigation into food plot production at irrigation schemes in the centralEastern Cape, by W. van Averbeke et al. (1998) has showed that irrigated plots of2 ha are large enough for agriculture to be the major source of income. This is providedthat farmers adopt farming systems which suit small scale agriculture while at the sametime generating adequate profits. The use of animal traction is cited as a viable poweroption for such farmers.

Taking into account the factors sited above, the Animal Traction Center (ATC) atFort Hare University initiated a project in 1996 to consider ways to increase cropproduction by complimenting animal power with a small scale irrigation plant. This paperreports on the findings and the results obtained so far.

Project purposeThe project was undertaken to ascertain whether it would be possible to use animalstogether with a small scale irrigation plant to produce cash crops, mainly vegetables, ona commercial basis on a small farm.

Methods and activitiesA small land area (1.46 ha) was divided into five fields. The outer perimeter was fencedto keep out free-ranging livestock.

One of the goals was to cultivate the little farm with two oxen, using only a lightmouldboard plough, a two-piece diamond spike-toothed harrow, a ripping device (whichis attached to the plough beam after removal of the mouldboard), landside and share,as well as a cultivator that can be pulled by a single ox fitted with a specially designedyoke.

Thus all crops were produced by preparing the lands with oxen and by sowing andplanting by hand. A Golovan (one-ox cart, costing R3,000) was bought for the cartagework. Weed control and harvesting was done with a combination of oxen and manuallabour. A knapsack sprayer was used for pest control. While no artificial fertiliser wasused, kraal manure was applied at 30 t/ha – put down by one inspanned ox, thenploughed in.

The only real innovation – and one that made a huge difference to output – was asmall irrigation plant costing R9,500, which was used only when rainfall was poor orerratic. The irrigation equipment consisted of the following: engine and pump completewith a 4 m suction line mounted on a wheelbarrow for mobility and flexibility; a 50 mlength of black polyethylene pipe, 75 mm in diameter; eight stand pipes with sprinklerattachments supplied by 15 units of 6 m galvanised 75 mm irrigation piping and thenecessary fittings and connections.

The total cost of all the implements, three oxen (at R1,750 each), ploughs, spades,hoes and hand tools and fencing was just under R30,000 in 1996, when the trial started.This figure includes the price of trek gear for inspanning – yokes, skeis, strops, trences,riems, chains and harness. While no job required more than two oxen, a third was keptas a kind of spare wheel. Only three people were needed to run the business.

Each field was rested for a short period (one season only) and only to ensure thatenough supplementary fodder was produced each year for the draught animals whichgrazed on the research farm in a manner similar to the communal grazing practised inthe surrounding rural areas. They were fed supplementary oat hay only when necessary,which was usually in the dry winter before ploughing, and in spring when working.

compared leather versus nylon with an integrated tractive power damping system. Theresults will serve for ecological and energetic as well as for economic evaluations.

Working hypothesis and discussionAs research work still continues, results are still being collected. However, some workinghypothesis can be given. It is expected that the modern horse-drawn implements willhave a higher output and lower demands on the horses than the old technology, namelythe fingerbar mower. The nylon trace system will lower the demands on the horses andthus raise the potential output compared to the traditional leather system. The use of anengine powered mower will facilitate a higher output due to larger possible working widthand lower draught load compared to the ground drive system. Energy balance of horsework will be much more positive compared to tractor work, even if an auxiliary engineis used on the hitch-cart. Work quality of double-knife mowers will be better than thatof the disc-mower, giving higher yield in the second and the third cut. Output of tractor-drawn mowers, especially the disc-mower, will certainly be higher than that of the horsetechnology.

ConclusionsWith the development of modern horse-drawn machinery the use of draught horsestoday is something completely new and not just the repeat of an old traditional way offarming. Taking into consideration investment costs as well as ecological effects, it isexpected that the results will show modern horse-drawn technology to be a realalternative for certain tasks in organic farming. Public interest in this environmentallyfriendly form of agricultural production is growing, but also policy makers are realisingeven more than ever the significance of modern draught horse use.

GENERAL ARTICLE

The Gharry Horses of GonderHelen Bradbury

Gonder is a town in the North West highlands of Ethiopia and was the capital in the 16thcentury. Round-topped hills rise up to the Simien Mountains in the North. It is beautifulbut life is very hard. Statuesque castles and monasteries are scattered in amongst amish mash of Italian colonial buildings from the 1930’s and shanties. Beggars vie withwomen selling vegetables beneath the ancient stonewalls.

The Gharry horse is the town taxi, transporting goods and people. These horseswhich are slight and generally undernourished, quite willingly pull far in excess of theirbody weight up and down the steep streets of Gonder for seven hours every day.

Their harness is made of car tyre strips and this can cut into their skin forming bigopen wounds. Their shoes are also made from car tyres nailed on roughly with pairs ofpliers. Many of the horses are severely lame from the injuries they sustain in falls whenthey are forced to go too quickly down the hills

Their food consists of the by-products from the local brewery. Guliver is the outerhusk of barley and dust from the factory cleaning process. It is bought in bulk at the

11.22.

Plate 7: Carting manure to the field in Eastern Cape, South Africa (B. Joubert).

Plate 8: Ploughing before planting cabbages, ATC, Alice, South Africa (R. A. Pearson).

there is no data on requirements for operation and performance. This seems to be themain obstacle for a wider introduction of this environmentally friendly technology inorganic farming.

Material and methodsIn a two years’ field study different horse-drawn and tractor-drawn mowers werecompared at Kassel University‘s research farm, Hessian State Domain Frankenhausen.Three different double-knife mowers (working width 1.65 m, 1.90 m and 2.40 m) madeby Messrs Mörtl, Germany, worked on a modern hitch-cart. This hitch-cart, the PintowPower Cart made by Carthorse Machinery, UK, is equipped with three-point hydraulicsand power take-off (p.t.o.). It is pulled by a team of two Ardennes geldings. The 1.65 mmower is powered by ground drive from the hitch-cart’s rear axle, the other two mowersby an auxiliary 18-h.p. engine placed on the hitch-cart. These three mowers werecompared with an old horse-drawn fingerbar-mower (working width 1,30 m) and a85-hp Fendt tractor with the 2.40 m double-knife mower and with a 2.90 m front disc-mower are being investigated.

The experiment has a randomized block design with 8 treatments and 4 replicates.Each plot is sized 141 m long and five times the respective working width. Operationswere carried out three times each year (2000, 2001 and 2002) in the hay making season(late May, early July, late August). Parameters for assessment are demands (draughtload, power requirement of p.t.o., fuel consumption), potential output (working speed,effective working width, worked area per hour), demands on horses (pulse, breathingfrequency, body temperature), work economics and quality of work done.Additionally, the effect of two different trace systems for the horse-drawn machines

Plate 11: Draught horses being used on a farm near Stuttgart, Germany (R. A. Pearson).

12.

Minimal veterinary care was necessary; the major cost was dipping the animalsagainst ticks once every two weeks in summer.

The cropping systemOats were sown by hand and harrowed in after the lands had been ploughed andharrowed. Ploughing depth was on average 180 mm, and it took about three workingdays of six hours each to complete 1 ha of ploughing.

Row crops such as maize were planted after the soil was ploughed, harrowed andripped with the ripper tine, to produce straight furrows into which the seed was sown byhand and then harrowed over with the spike-toothed harrow. It took the two oxen fourhours to harrow 1 ha.

Seeding of potatoes was done by hand behind the plough every fourth furrow, andthen harrowed over. Ridging was with an animal-drawn ridger.

Seeding of pumpkins was done using the ripper tine to produce straight rows in apreviously ploughed and harrowed land, and then planting in rows 2 m apart with an in-row spacing of 2 m. The seed was covered using a hand hoe.

Cabbage seedlings were planted in rows (800 × 800 mm apart) so as to have rowsup and down as well as across the field to facilitate cultivation in both directions. It tookabout five hours per hectare to cultivate a crop of cabbages ‘one way’ up and down thefield.

Weeding was done with a small cultivator and one ox.

HarvestingThe maize was harvested by hand. Cobs were stripped and loaded into the Golovan andtaken to the shed where they were shelled using a hand sheller before being baggedin 50 kg bags. These were sold to local customers at R50 per bag.

Maize stover was cut and fed to Fort Hare cattle. The oat hay was cut with a horse-drawn mower and then raked and baled using a tractor. It was then used assupplementary feed for the oxen, and the balance was sold to the research farm forR12 a bale.

Cabbages and pumpkins were harvested by hand. The potatoes were harvestedusing the potato ridger to lift them, after which they were hand-sorted and bagged. Allvegetable crops were sold to local shops or individual buyers on site. Cabbages andpumpkins were sold loose and potatoes were sold in 10 kg pockets.

Silage was cut using a tractor and silage cutter and sold to the research farm atR250/t. Some haymaking had to be done with a tractor, tractor-drawn rake and balerbecause there were no animal-drawn implements available for these tasks. However,buying an animal-drawn rake will allow the fodder to be cut with the existing animal-drawn mower, to be saved as hay fodder in haystacks.

ConclusionThe development of this small farm has taken place over a period of four years and therecords detailed in Table 3 are for this period. During this time it has been ascertainedthat all the activities can be carried out with three oxen (two are the maximum used foran activity but the third is by way of being a ‘spare wheel’) using the equipment listedabove. A minimum of three people can provide all the manual labour required. Anattempt has been made to allow short resting periods for each of the fields over the four

AcknowledgementsThanks to the Postgraduate College of Agricultural Science, Campus Veracruz; TeresaEspín I. MC and Clorinda Sarabia B. MC, students of the Veterinary School from theUniversidad Veracruzana and especially to Violeta Pardiú PhD for helping in bloodsample determinations, Pernilla Fajersson PhD as a friendly forced reviewer.

ReferencesAluja, S.A., Bouda, J., Tapia, P.G., López, G.A. and Herrera, G.S. (1998). Estudio de Valores

Bioquímicos en Sangre de Burros Antes y Después del trabajo. En 3er Coloquio InternacionalSobre Equidos de Trabajo. UNAM, México.

McCracken, Anderson y (1994). Diagnóstico Participativo (DP): Un Manual de Técnicas. Curso1993. UADY, Mérida, Yucatán México. 36 pp.

CEPAL (1989). Economía Campesina y Agricultura Comercial (tipología de productores del AgroMexicano). Editorial Siglo XXI, 4ª. Edición. México. 339 pp.

Pearson, R.A. and Ouassat Mohammed (2000). A Guide to Live Weight Estimation and BodyCondition Scoring of Donkeys. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University ofEdinburgh.

Ramaswamy, N.S. (1994). Draught Animals and Welfare. Rev. Sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 13(1), 195–216.

21.

Author e-mails:Bernardo Lopez Yanez (baly954@starmedia.com or lopezyanez@hotmail.com)J. Morales Burguet (jmburguet@hotmail.com)

3. EUROPE

(a) Germany

Draught animal power in organic farming in Germany. A comparison of horse-drawn and tractor-drawn mowers

Peter Herold and Juergen HeßDepartment of Ecological Agriculture, University of Kassel, Germany

Based on a presentation given by Peter Herold and Juergen Heß at the 13th InternationalIFOAM Scientific Conference – vdf Hochschulverlag an der ETH Zürich, Zürich,Switzerland. Anyone wanting further information contact Peter Herold at Department ofEcological Agriculture, University of Kassel (GhK), Nordbahnhofstr. 1a, D 37213Witzenhausen, Germany: e-mail: herold@wiz.uni-kassel.de

IntroductionWhile the use of animal traction still plays an important role in agriculture world-wide,the development and production of horse-drawn machinery in Europe stopped in the1950s and 1960s. In those days, horses in agriculture were nearly completely replacedby tractors. This transition on the one hand constitutes enormous progress, on the otherhand, it is connected with considerable ecological and economic burdens. Thesignificance in its complete profundity is only gradually being recognised.

In the US – and to a certain extent also in Europe – however, draught horsetechnology was and is still being developed continuously so that today modern horse-drawn implements are available for nearly every kind of agricultural need. The existenceof this modern horse-drawn machinery, however, is not well known in Europe. Moreover,

13.20.

year period, usually for one season only and to ensure that each year sufficient fodderis produced to provide the supplementary feeding requirements of three draught oxen.Some hay making activities have been carried out using a tractor, tractor drawn rake anda baling machine. This has been necessary because there have not been animal drawnimplements available to do this work. There are plans for the acquisition of an animaldrawn hay rake, in the near future, which will allow the fodder to be cut with the existinganimal-drawn mower and then to be conserved as hay fodder in haystacks.

The experience has been a learning process, which started on a small scale, withthe production increasing as confidence was gained. During the three years a grossprofit of R72,426 has been realized with the total inputs amounting to R20,329, whichleaves a net profit of R52,097 over three years.

With the information gained from this crop production programme it is now possibleto plan a crop and fodder production programme for the farm, which will provide a grossincome of about R35,000 per annum off the 1.46 ha currently under cultivation. The inputcost for animal traction, seed, pesticide and for the irrigation would then be aroundR5,000 per annum leaving a net annual income conservatively of about R30,000.

It should be possible to increase the area under cultivation to about 2 ha in thefuture. This would mean an increase in the above figures to a gross income of aboutR48,000 for an input cost of about R6,850 per annum leaving an annual income ofR41,150, assuming that the labour is provided by the family.

It is planned to continue with the study for the foreseeable future, attempting wherepossible to increase production levels and to continue collecting the results for analysisafter which they will be presented in the form of an annual report.

ReferencesGebeda, Z. (1999). Management of animals in the Eastern Cape – The way forward. In:

Management and feeding of animals for work (eds) R. A. Pearson, S. Wythe, B. Joubert, D.

Table 2: The initial capital investment required.

Item Quantity Unit cost Investment(Rand) (Rand)

Oxen 3 1,750 5,250Plough (Maun) 1 450 450Harrow (two piece) 1 850 850Ripping attachment 1 set 350 350Cultivator (Maun) 1 475 475Golovan ox-cart 1 3,000 3,000Trek gear For 2 oxen 450 250Breaching/Golovan 1 set 150 150Spades and hoes 450 450Hand tools and axe 450 450Irrigation plant 1 Unit 9,500 9,500Fencing Perimeter 8 8,000Knap sack sprayer 1 450 450

Total 29,625

are now taking better care of their animals and the rabies vaccination offers moresecurity than anything else does.The second study shows a body condition average of 5 in 200 tested donkeys (hereit is necessary to remember the open invitation to participate in the study and, asa result, no sick or thin animals were shown to the investigators).

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5Bandera La Puerta Xocotitla

COMMUNITY

Box Plot (Donkey 2001,STA 20v®194c)

HGCOutliersExtremesHTCOutliers

Figure 3: HTC and HGC found in ‘health donkeys’.

Bivariate Histogram (Donkey 2001,STA 20v®196c)

56

48

40

32

24

16

8

Bandera La Puerta XocotitlaCOMMUNITY

Figure 2: Ratio between male and femaledonkey numbers

found in three communities.

MALE

FEMALE

SEX:

The oldest animal found was a 17 yearold jenny with an excellent body scoreof 5, this was unusual because theJennies are not well taken care of andtheir life expectancy is less than 15years.

Statistical analysisSome of the data collected are show ingraphical forms. The first one is the relationbetween number of male and femaledonkeys in the communities (Figure 1).

Health could be observed using moreparameters, but the minimal data requiredinclude normal physiology data, bodycondition score and a blood test looking athaemoglobin concentration (HGC) andhaematocrit (HTC). Figure 3 shows thedifferences between donkeys from differentcommunities in haematocrit andhaemoglobin concentration in healthydonkeys brought for sampling from eachtown.

14.19.

Table 3: Crop production record for duration of trialLand Mech. cost Seed Insecti- Transport + Total Gross Net

Date Land area Crop of oxen cost Irrigation cide packing input costs Yield profit profit(No) (ha) (Rand) (Rand) (Rand) (Rand) (Rand) (Rand) (Tons) (Rand) (Rand)

1996/7 S 1 0.5 Maize 61 18 92 20 191 12 Silage 3,000 2,8091996/7 S 5 0.26 Maize 32 9 51 5 97 4.5 Silage 1,125 1,0281997 W 1 0.5 Oats 43 68 111 4.26 2,376 2,2651997 W 5 0.26 Oats 23 34 57 3.17 1,620 1,5631997 W 2 0.15 Cabbage 18 164 775 65 20 1,042 4.5 1,794 7521997/8 S 3 0.2 Pumpkin 24 498 204 193+16 935 6.8 3,414 2,4791997/8 S 4 0.3 Potatoes 32 1,623 775 48+345 2,823 4.98 5,475 2,6521997/8 S 1 0.5 Maize 61 18 18 5 102 Failed Nil –1021998 W 1 0.5 Fallow Nil Nil Nil1998 W 2 0.18 Oats 16 35 51 2.4 1,309 1,2581998 W 3 0.25 Oats 22 40 62 1.4 764 7021998 W 4 0.3 Oats 26 50 76 1.76 960 8841998 W 5 0.26 Oats 22 40 20 82 1.25 682 6001998/9 S 1 0.5 Maize 61 21 673 19 774 1.75 1,750 9761998/9 S 2 0.18 Cabbage 21 198 316 38 20 593 9.7 4,100 3,5071998/9 S 3 0.25 Maize 31 10 51 5 97 1.5 375 2781998/9 S 4 0.3 Cabbages 48 320 850 79 25 1,322 7.4 4,268 2,9461998/9 S 5 0.26 Fallow Nil Nil Nil Nil1999 W 1 0.5 Cabbage 59 474 950 125 25 1,633 9.25 4,816 3,1831999 W 2 0.18 Cabbage 21 190 408 70 20 709 5.15 2,500 1,7911999 W 3 0.2 Cabbage 24 237 438 33 732 6.35 3,444 2,7121999 W 4 0.3 Oats 26 50 51 127 1.75 1,036 9091999 W 5 0.26 Oats 23 50 10 83 1.48 885 8021999/20 S 1 0.5 Fallow Nil Nil Nil Nil1999/20 S 2 0.18 Potatoes 19 1,080 120 55 30 1,304 3.41 4,470 3,1661999/20 S 3 0.2 Cabbage 24 210 375 85 20 714 5.05 2,615 1,9011999/20 S 4 0.3 MaizeResearch 27 12 – 96 – 135 0.32 400 2651999/20 S 5 0.26 MaizeResearch 34 15 – 78 – 127 0.72 900 7732000 W 2 0.18 Oats 20 25 – – – 45 1.06 480 4352000 W 3 0.2 Oats 22 28 – – – 50 2.38 1,080 1,0302000/01S 1 0.5 Potatoes 75 2,500 – 350 2,925 6.33 7,596 4,6712000/01S 4 0.35 Potatoes 55 1,000 – 95 1,150 1.58 1,738 5882000/01S 5 0.35 Potatoes 60 1,520 – 125 1,705 5.20 6,760 5,0552000/01 2 0.1 Cabbages 25 180 236 34 – 475 0.76 694 2192000/01S 3 0,2 Fallow Nil Nil NilTotal 20,329 72,426 52,097

people in central Veracruz, this is reality; they need their anim

als and abuse is notcom

mon. E

very day the activities include three hours carrying water from

a deepcanyon as far as 2 km

or less, it means a half hour travel carrying a child (45 kg)

and a one-hour return with 100 litres of w

ater and most of the tim

es the child as well.

The farm

activities include travel to the land being cultivated and carrying the owner

and equipment for 5 to 7 km

. The donkeys are then left to look for forage on their

own. D

onkeys are not used very much in agricultural activities except for carrying

herbicides, fertiliser products and in harvest activities. In total this results in less thansix hours of use each day. T

he donkeys are fed 1 kg of corn seed per day and giventhe chance to forage. S

ometim

es people also cut grass or papaya leaves as feedfor their donkeys. T

he body condition in the donkey population found in this part ofcentral V

eracruz is over 4 and under 8. Except in sick donkeys in w

hich case youcan find anim

als in the categories of 1 to 3.

(d)H

ealth an

d care q

uestio

ns. A

re donkeys healthy in these comm

unities?O

f course they are not, people never used deworm

ing products or vaccinationbefore 1999, w

hen people of Xocotitla learned about the relationship betw

eenthem

selves and their donkeys. It means a slow

learning process of how to keep their

animals healthy w

ith a few health and feeding practices, but the process of change

has been initiated and people now include ethnoveterinary activities and form

alpractices looking to keep their donkeys healthy.T

he land condition, narrow and deep canyons, provides caves for vam

pire bats andit is com

mon to find bites in donkeys because people leave the anim

als in openplaces during the night. A

s a result rabies is one of the biggest problems, but people

Plate 10:

Use of donkeys in rural transport in the state of M

exico (R. A

. Pearson).

15.18.

O’Neill and T. E. Simalenga, pp 5–8. Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of FortHare 20–22 April 1999. Lovedale Press, 33 Garden Street, Alice. 5700.

Pearson, R.A., Joubert, B. and O’Neill, D. (1999). Summary of working group discussions on issuesof management and feeding that require further consideration. In: Management and feedingof animals for work (eds) R.A. Pearson, S. Wythe, B. Joubert, D.O’Neill and T.E. Simalenga,pp 146–147. Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of Fort Hare 20–22 April 1999.Lovedale Press, 33 Garden Street, Alice. 5700.

van Awerbeke, W., M’Marete, C.K., Igodan, C.O. and Belete, A. (1998). An investigation into foodplot production at irrigation schemes in the Central Eastern Cape. P 203. Report by the WaterResearch Commission by the Faculty of Agriculture and the Agricultural and RuralDevelopment Research Institute (ARDRI), University of Fort Hare. WRC Report No 719/1/98.

2. SOUTH AMERICA

(a) Mexico

An approach to determine the status of the donkey in Central Veracruz, México

B. López Yáñez1 and J. Morales Burguet2

1Postgraduate College of Agricultural Science, Campus Veracruz and 1Universidad Veracruzana

AbstractThe present paper attempts to define the real value of the donkey in farming and ruralactivities looking at it in the context of the Agroecosystems approach. Central Veracruzdoes not have well developed agricultural activities and donkeys make the differencebetween subsistence agriculture and cash agriculture. PRA (Participatory RuralAppraisal), and formal and informal interviews, were used to obtain the owners’ view onthe importance of the donkey in Central Veracruz. The results show that animals wereselected by sex; the preference for use in papaya cultivation being males more than3 years old and not measuring more than 115 cm (11 hh). Because of this preference,the ratio of males to females is 4:1, potentially causing a problem in breedingreplacements.

IntroductionIn Veracruz Mexico, as in all developing countries, agriculture plays a central role. Theinhabitants of the rural areas in central Veracruz are characterised by their low incomeand lack of use of technology. In order to cross the line between subsistence farmingactivities (corn crops) and cash crop activities (corn and a second crop such as papaya),donkeys are used as pack animals and oxen (yoke) as draught animals.

Central Veracruz is located in a tropical area in the rain-shadow of the north-eastmountains, which cut the winds causing a semi-arid climate. There is about 1000 mmof rain in an irregular distribution with a rainy season from June to September and a dryseason during the rest of the year (with less than 15% of rain during the dry season).

Historically donkeys came to Mexico from Spain and North Africa to be used aspack and breeding animals (mule production). The original idea was to provide ‘Indians’with help for trekking goods from the coast to the capital and from mines (between 500and 700 km inland). However, the hierachy introduced by the Spanish was to bepreserved, described well in the short sentence: “The horse for the Spanish gentlemen,the mule for the Mestizo (the sons of Spanish ‘gentlemen’ and Indian women) anddonkeys for Indians.” The species was not bred to achieve improved animals and 500

selling the female donkeys is the perception that ‘Jennies cause problems and do notwork well’. This is a perception held by the people of this area because the males arenot being used to best effect to take advantage of their extra strength. The reasons giveninclude poor control of jacks. For example, if a Jennie comes into oestrous, all the malesaround respond and if the female is being ridden by young people, the risk of an accidentis very high. On the other hand the Jennie with a foal by her side cannot be used easily,since the foal reduces the ability of the mother to carry out work. The most importanteffect of this is the low reproduction level and the lack of replacement donkeys in thestudy area. The results are the high price of donkeys and the risk of a gradual depletionin the donkey population and the loss of donkeys in this region.

Some questions became apparent as this study was carried out, the most importantwere:

(a) Cultural questions. Are donkeys a partner or only an extra force in agriculturalactivities?The 1999 research shows us, the real importance of donkeys and how people know‘how thin is the chain’ when they are working in cash crops and the importance insubsistence agriculture, water or wood transport. All of them said, “If I do not havea donkey, I cannot prepare land for papayas and I would only be able to preparehalf of my corn fields.” It would mean the return to subsistence farming as stated inthe CEPAL documents (1989).

(b) Husbandry questions. Why do people not like Jennies and their foals, if they needto replace their donkey?Donkeys in México have a life-span of about 15 years, about 10 years less than thelife expectancy of donkeys in England. At first people said, “I cannot kept a Jennieon my small property, because I would lose space for cattle and reduce milkproduction. Alternatively, it would mean losing some land for crop activities andthereby reducing my income. I prefer to buy a donkey when I need it.” Only oldpeople, who have the largest properties, have Jennies and produce foals. The resultis a 4:1 (male:female) ratio of donkeys in the whole area. People said, “If a Jennielives 15 years and produces 10 foals in her life, five should be males and the restfemales;” “I have the chance to change my donkey and Jennie five times in 15years;” and “I have the chance to sell some donkeys or give it away as a gift to myfamily.” It appears logical but the reality is they cannot make this choice at themoment and sometimes they need to buy a new donkey. With few of them availableand even less for sale they are going to be very expensive for this type of farmer.The price of a male donkey in 1980 was about 300,000 old pesos (50 ¢US), whileat the present they cost nearly to 1,500 pesos (150 $US).These farmers will have to accept the first animal they find because it is reallydifficult to obtain a good one near their village, or it will be very expensive. So, forthese producers, reproduction is not important in their donkey husbandry practices.However, where will they go to find a new donkey (especially a mature male) asstrong as they need or want?

(c) Productivity questions. Are donkeys under or over-used in rural activities?Humans and their domestic animals are mutually dependent and a popular notionof animal welfare includes protection from abuse (Ramaswamy, 1994). For the

16. 17.

years has produced a degenerated animal with small size and thin bones (Aluja et al.,1998).

At present the donkey is ‘the horse of the poor’ and the main means of crossing theline in the agricultural process from subsistence agriculture to cash agriculture.

The most common role for donkeys is as a pack animal moving crops, firewood andwater from farms and fields into their towns. Donkeys are used to carry water for cattlefrom town to the field over dirt and narrow roads for distances of 3–10 km. When packingthey travel up to 100 km in a single trip and sometimes more than 120 km in otheractivities, eg. during the harvest season.

The area of study includes three communities in two counties (municipios); Pasode Ovejas and Soledad de Doblado. Both have small hills and deep canyons, the soilis heavy and the land is full of rocks with a thin layer of arable soil. The land is markedlysloped and the average size of property is 13 ha or less under ejidal1 property regimen.The narrow and dirt roads have made mechanization difficult.

People from these communities use a modified system where herbicide replacesburning in the otherwise traditional agricultural system (RTQ: Roza Tumba Quema). Therest of the agricultural process is still carried out as their ancestors used to do it. Theprincipal crop is corn and the area used for this is about 1 ha, sometimes they use therest of their land for cattle or a small part for cash crops, such as beans, chilli or papaya.

Plate 9: Donkey carrying feed for livestock in the State of Mexico (R. A. Pearson).

1The ejido is an area of land which under previous agrarian law was common land, where eachfarmer had the right to use it. In the early 1990’s the land was privatised and the land propertybegan to be offered for sale.

All the towns have a similar structure and the size of the population depends on howold the village is. These villages consist of 80 to 100 families and each of the familieshave one or more donkeys for their own use.

The objective of this investigation was to determine the health status of the donkeypopulation, the criteria used for selection of animals and the kind of care given to them.An underlying question to be answered through this research is whether or not donkeysin this region have remained unselected for more than 500 years.

Materials and methodsThe materials and methods were organised in different categories, as described below.

(a) Study design. The study was carried out in two phases. The first in July 1999 wasa participatory diagnosis and the second, from May to December 2000 was aquestionnaire asking how and for what kind of activities the donkey were used, whathealth care they had been given and how they had been managed.

(b) Study animals. The first step of the study was carried out in Xocotitla only. The aimwas to determine the relationship between donkeys, people and their farmingactivities. During the second part of the study, animals were selected from threesmall towns: Xocotitla, La Puerta de Mata Anona and Bandera de Juárez. The firstand third towns were in Paso de Ovejas and the second town in Soledad deDoblado. The selection method was an open invitation to all the people in eachvillage to participate. A free rabies vaccination given to each donkey presented wasan incentive for the owners to join the study.

(c) Measurements and sampling methods. The animals in the second phase of thiswork were measured and their body weights were registered. Profile of face, heightand thorax perimeter (hearth girth) were taken; colours, body condition score on ascale of 1:9 (Pearson and Ouassat, 2000) and age were also registered. The latterwas carried out by people with previous experience in assessing the age of donkeysin order to reduce bias.

(d) Blood examination. Blood (5 ml) was collected from all donkeys into vacutainertubes containing EDTA(K3). This was processed in an automatic cell counter(Celldyn 3500, Anchor®). Measurements of haematocrit (HTC), haemoglobin (HG)and red and white blood cell counts were made, looking for subclinical infection andeffects of endoparasites.

(e) Collected data analysis. The data collected were stored in Excel97® and analysedusing analysis of variance (Statistica V-6.0®) to determine the relationships betweenthe different factors. Blood and faecal samples were processed in the same way.

Results and discussionThe first part of this research was concluded in October 1999, with a very simpleanalysis. The perception of Xocotitla farmers about their donkeys shows the realimportance of the donkey in subsistence and cash agriculture. It was clearly shown thatthe donkey is necessary for papaya as a cash crop and likewise is of fundamentalimportance for cattle activities such as watering, transport of milk and repairing fences.It is necessary to point out that at the same time the real problem with donkeys in thisarea is the small number of Jennies that the producers have. One of the reasons for

16. 17.

years has produced a degenerated animal with small size and thin bones (Aluja et al.,1998).

At present the donkey is ‘the horse of the poor’ and the main means of crossing theline in the agricultural process from subsistence agriculture to cash agriculture.

The most common role for donkeys is as a pack animal moving crops, firewood andwater from farms and fields into their towns. Donkeys are used to carry water for cattlefrom town to the field over dirt and narrow roads for distances of 3–10 km. When packingthey travel up to 100 km in a single trip and sometimes more than 120 km in otheractivities, eg. during the harvest season.

The area of study includes three communities in two counties (municipios); Pasode Ovejas and Soledad de Doblado. Both have small hills and deep canyons, the soilis heavy and the land is full of rocks with a thin layer of arable soil. The land is markedlysloped and the average size of property is 13 ha or less under ejidal1 property regimen.The narrow and dirt roads have made mechanization difficult.

People from these communities use a modified system where herbicide replacesburning in the otherwise traditional agricultural system (RTQ: Roza Tumba Quema). Therest of the agricultural process is still carried out as their ancestors used to do it. Theprincipal crop is corn and the area used for this is about 1 ha, sometimes they use therest of their land for cattle or a small part for cash crops, such as beans, chilli or papaya.

Plate 9: Donkey carrying feed for livestock in the State of Mexico (R. A. Pearson).

1The ejido is an area of land which under previous agrarian law was common land, where eachfarmer had the right to use it. In the early 1990’s the land was privatised and the land propertybegan to be offered for sale.

All the towns have a similar structure and the size of the population depends on howold the village is. These villages consist of 80 to 100 families and each of the familieshave one or more donkeys for their own use.

The objective of this investigation was to determine the health status of the donkeypopulation, the criteria used for selection of animals and the kind of care given to them.An underlying question to be answered through this research is whether or not donkeysin this region have remained unselected for more than 500 years.

Materials and methodsThe materials and methods were organised in different categories, as described below.

(a) Study design. The study was carried out in two phases. The first in July 1999 wasa participatory diagnosis and the second, from May to December 2000 was aquestionnaire asking how and for what kind of activities the donkey were used, whathealth care they had been given and how they had been managed.

(b) Study animals. The first step of the study was carried out in Xocotitla only. The aimwas to determine the relationship between donkeys, people and their farmingactivities. During the second part of the study, animals were selected from threesmall towns: Xocotitla, La Puerta de Mata Anona and Bandera de Juárez. The firstand third towns were in Paso de Ovejas and the second town in Soledad deDoblado. The selection method was an open invitation to all the people in eachvillage to participate. A free rabies vaccination given to each donkey presented wasan incentive for the owners to join the study.

(c) Measurements and sampling methods. The animals in the second phase of thiswork were measured and their body weights were registered. Profile of face, heightand thorax perimeter (hearth girth) were taken; colours, body condition score on ascale of 1:9 (Pearson and Ouassat, 2000) and age were also registered. The latterwas carried out by people with previous experience in assessing the age of donkeysin order to reduce bias.

(d) Blood examination. Blood (5 ml) was collected from all donkeys into vacutainertubes containing EDTA(K3). This was processed in an automatic cell counter(Celldyn 3500, Anchor®). Measurements of haematocrit (HTC), haemoglobin (HG)and red and white blood cell counts were made, looking for subclinical infection andeffects of endoparasites.

(e) Collected data analysis. The data collected were stored in Excel97® and analysedusing analysis of variance (Statistica V-6.0®) to determine the relationships betweenthe different factors. Blood and faecal samples were processed in the same way.

Results and discussionThe first part of this research was concluded in October 1999, with a very simpleanalysis. The perception of Xocotitla farmers about their donkeys shows the realimportance of the donkey in subsistence and cash agriculture. It was clearly shown thatthe donkey is necessary for papaya as a cash crop and likewise is of fundamentalimportance for cattle activities such as watering, transport of milk and repairing fences.It is necessary to point out that at the same time the real problem with donkeys in thisarea is the small number of Jennies that the producers have. One of the reasons for

15.18.

O’Neill and T. E. Simalenga, pp 5–8. Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of FortHare 20–22 April 1999. Lovedale Press, 33 Garden Street, Alice. 5700.

Pearson, R.A., Joubert, B. and O’Neill, D. (1999). Summary of working group discussions on issuesof management and feeding that require further consideration. In: Management and feedingof animals for work (eds) R.A. Pearson, S. Wythe, B. Joubert, D.O’Neill and T.E. Simalenga,pp 146–147. Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of Fort Hare 20–22 April 1999.Lovedale Press, 33 Garden Street, Alice. 5700.

van Awerbeke, W., M’Marete, C.K., Igodan, C.O. and Belete, A. (1998). An investigation into foodplot production at irrigation schemes in the Central Eastern Cape. P 203. Report by the WaterResearch Commission by the Faculty of Agriculture and the Agricultural and RuralDevelopment Research Institute (ARDRI), University of Fort Hare. WRC Report No 719/1/98.

2. SOUTH AMERICA

(a) Mexico

An approach to determine the status of the donkey in Central Veracruz, México

B. López Yáñez1 and J. Morales Burguet2

1Postgraduate College of Agricultural Science, Campus Veracruz and 1Universidad Veracruzana

AbstractThe present paper attempts to define the real value of the donkey in farming and ruralactivities looking at it in the context of the Agroecosystems approach. Central Veracruzdoes not have well developed agricultural activities and donkeys make the differencebetween subsistence agriculture and cash agriculture. PRA (Participatory RuralAppraisal), and formal and informal interviews, were used to obtain the owners’ view onthe importance of the donkey in Central Veracruz. The results show that animals wereselected by sex; the preference for use in papaya cultivation being males more than3 years old and not measuring more than 115 cm (11 hh). Because of this preference,the ratio of males to females is 4:1, potentially causing a problem in breedingreplacements.

IntroductionIn Veracruz Mexico, as in all developing countries, agriculture plays a central role. Theinhabitants of the rural areas in central Veracruz are characterised by their low incomeand lack of use of technology. In order to cross the line between subsistence farmingactivities (corn crops) and cash crop activities (corn and a second crop such as papaya),donkeys are used as pack animals and oxen (yoke) as draught animals.

Central Veracruz is located in a tropical area in the rain-shadow of the north-eastmountains, which cut the winds causing a semi-arid climate. There is about 1000 mmof rain in an irregular distribution with a rainy season from June to September and a dryseason during the rest of the year (with less than 15% of rain during the dry season).

Historically donkeys came to Mexico from Spain and North Africa to be used aspack and breeding animals (mule production). The original idea was to provide ‘Indians’with help for trekking goods from the coast to the capital and from mines (between 500and 700 km inland). However, the hierachy introduced by the Spanish was to bepreserved, described well in the short sentence: “The horse for the Spanish gentlemen,the mule for the Mestizo (the sons of Spanish ‘gentlemen’ and Indian women) anddonkeys for Indians.” The species was not bred to achieve improved animals and 500

selling the female donkeys is the perception that ‘Jennies cause problems and do notwork well’. This is a perception held by the people of this area because the males arenot being used to best effect to take advantage of their extra strength. The reasons giveninclude poor control of jacks. For example, if a Jennie comes into oestrous, all the malesaround respond and if the female is being ridden by young people, the risk of an accidentis very high. On the other hand the Jennie with a foal by her side cannot be used easily,since the foal reduces the ability of the mother to carry out work. The most importanteffect of this is the low reproduction level and the lack of replacement donkeys in thestudy area. The results are the high price of donkeys and the risk of a gradual depletionin the donkey population and the loss of donkeys in this region.

Some questions became apparent as this study was carried out, the most importantwere:

(a) Cultural questions. Are donkeys a partner or only an extra force in agriculturalactivities?The 1999 research shows us, the real importance of donkeys and how people know‘how thin is the chain’ when they are working in cash crops and the importance insubsistence agriculture, water or wood transport. All of them said, “If I do not havea donkey, I cannot prepare land for papayas and I would only be able to preparehalf of my corn fields.” It would mean the return to subsistence farming as stated inthe CEPAL documents (1989).

(b) Husbandry questions. Why do people not like Jennies and their foals, if they needto replace their donkey?Donkeys in México have a life-span of about 15 years, about 10 years less than thelife expectancy of donkeys in England. At first people said, “I cannot kept a Jennieon my small property, because I would lose space for cattle and reduce milkproduction. Alternatively, it would mean losing some land for crop activities andthereby reducing my income. I prefer to buy a donkey when I need it.” Only oldpeople, who have the largest properties, have Jennies and produce foals. The resultis a 4:1 (male:female) ratio of donkeys in the whole area. People said, “If a Jennielives 15 years and produces 10 foals in her life, five should be males and the restfemales;” “I have the chance to change my donkey and Jennie five times in 15years;” and “I have the chance to sell some donkeys or give it away as a gift to myfamily.” It appears logical but the reality is they cannot make this choice at themoment and sometimes they need to buy a new donkey. With few of them availableand even less for sale they are going to be very expensive for this type of farmer.The price of a male donkey in 1980 was about 300,000 old pesos (50 ¢US), whileat the present they cost nearly to 1,500 pesos (150 $US).These farmers will have to accept the first animal they find because it is reallydifficult to obtain a good one near their village, or it will be very expensive. So, forthese producers, reproduction is not important in their donkey husbandry practices.However, where will they go to find a new donkey (especially a mature male) asstrong as they need or want?

(c) Productivity questions. Are donkeys under or over-used in rural activities?Humans and their domestic animals are mutually dependent and a popular notionof animal welfare includes protection from abuse (Ramaswamy, 1994). For the

14. 19.

Tab

le 3

: C

rop

pro

du

ctio

n r

eco

rd f

or

du

rati

on

of

tria

lLa

ndM

ech.

cos

tS

eed

Inse

cti-

Tra

nspo

rt +

Tot

alG

ross

Net

Dat

eLa

ndar

eaC

rop

of o

xen

cost

Irrig

atio

nci

depa

ckin

gin

put c

osts

Yie

ldpr

ofit

prof

it(N

o)(h

a)(R

and)

(Ran

d)(R

and)

(Ran

d)(R

and)

(Ran

d)(T

ons)

(Ran

d)(R

and)

1996

/7S

10.

5M

aize

6118

9220

191

12 S

ilage

3,00

02,

809

1996

/7S

50.

26M

aize

329

515

974.

5 S

ilage

1,12

51,

028

1997

W1

0.5

Oat

s43

6811

14.

262,

376

2,26

519

97W

50.

26O

ats

2334

573.

171,

620

1,56

319

97W

20.

15C

abba

ge18

164

775

6520

1,04

24.

51,

794

752

1997

/8S

30.

2P

umpk

in24

498

204

193+

1693

56.

83,

414

2,47

919

97/8

S4

0.3

Pot

atoe

s32

1,62

377

548

+34

52,

823

4.98

5,47

52,

652

1997

/8S

10.

5M

aize

6118

185

102

Fai

led

Nil

–102

1998

W1

0.5

Fal

low

Nil

Nil

Nil

1998

W2

0.18

Oat

s16

3551

2.4

1,30

91,

258

1998

W3

0.25

Oat

s22

4062

1.4

764

702

1998

W4

0.3

Oat

s26

5076

1.76

960

884

1998

W5

0.26

Oat

s22

4020

821.

2568

260

019

98/9

S1

0.5

Mai

ze61

2167

319

774

1.75

1,75

097

619

98/9

S2

0.18

Cab

bage

2119

831

638

2059

39.

74,

100

3,50

719

98/9

S3

0.25

Mai

ze31

1051

597

1.5

375

278

1998

/9S

40.

3C

abba

ges

4832

085

079

251,

322

7.4

4,26

82,

946

1998

/9S

50.

26F

allo

wN

ilN

ilN

ilN

il19

99W

10.

5C

abba

ge59

474

950

125

251,

633

9.25

4,81

63,

183

1999

W2

0.18

Cab

bage

2119

040

870

2070

95.

152,

500

1,79

119

99W

30.

2C

abba

ge24

237

438

3373

26.

353,

444

2,71

219

99W

40.

3O

ats

2650

5112

71.

751,

036

909

1999

W5

0.26

Oat

s23

5010

831.

48 8

8580

219

99/2

0 S

10.

5F

allo

wN

ilN

ilN

ilN

il19

99/2

0 S

20.

18P

otat

oes

191,

080

120

5530

1,30

43.

41 4

,470

3,16

619

99/2

0 S

30.

2C

abba

ge24

210

375

8520

714

5.05

2,6

151,

901

1999

/20

S4

0.3

Mai

zeR

esea

rch

2712

–96

–13

50.

3240

026

519

99/2

0 S

50.

26M

aize

Res

earc

h34

15–

78–

127

0.72

900

773

2000

W2

0.18

Oat

s20

25–

––

451.

0648

043

520

00W

30.

2O

ats

2228

––

–50

2.38

1,08

01,

030

2000

/01S

10.

5P

otat

oes

752,

500

–35

02,

925

6.33

7,59

64,

671

2000

/01S

40.

35P

otat

oes

551,

000

–95

1,15

01.

581,

738

588

2000

/01S

50.

35P

otat

oes

601,

520

–12

51,

705

5.20

6,76

05,

055

2000

/01

20.

1C

abba

ges

2518

023

634

–47

50.

7669

421

920

00/0

1S3

0,2

Fal

low

Nil

Nil

Nil

Tot

al20

,329

72,4

2652

,097

people in central Veracruz, this is reality; they need their animals and abuse is notcommon. Every day the activities include three hours carrying water from a deepcanyon as far as 2 km or less, it means a half hour travel carrying a child (45 kg)and a one-hour return with 100 litres of water and most of the times the child as well.The farm activities include travel to the land being cultivated and carrying the ownerand equipment for 5 to 7 km. The donkeys are then left to look for forage on theirown. Donkeys are not used very much in agricultural activities except for carryingherbicides, fertiliser products and in harvest activities. In total this results in less thansix hours of use each day. The donkeys are fed 1 kg of corn seed per day and giventhe chance to forage. Sometimes people also cut grass or papaya leaves as feedfor their donkeys. The body condition in the donkey population found in this part ofcentral Veracruz is over 4 and under 8. Except in sick donkeys in which case youcan find animals in the categories of 1 to 3.

(d) Health and care questions. Are donkeys healthy in these communities?Of course they are not, people never used deworming products or vaccinationbefore 1999, when people of Xocotitla learned about the relationship betweenthemselves and their donkeys. It means a slow learning process of how to keep theiranimals healthy with a few health and feeding practices, but the process of changehas been initiated and people now include ethnoveterinary activities and formalpractices looking to keep their donkeys healthy.The land condition, narrow and deep canyons, provides caves for vampire bats andit is common to find bites in donkeys because people leave the animals in openplaces during the night. As a result rabies is one of the biggest problems, but people

Plate 10: Use of donkeys in rural transport in the state of Mexico (R. A. Pearson).

13.20.

year period, usually for one season only and to ensure that each year sufficient fodderis produced to provide the supplementary feeding requirements of three draught oxen.Some hay making activities have been carried out using a tractor, tractor drawn rake anda baling machine. This has been necessary because there have not been animal drawnimplements available to do this work. There are plans for the acquisition of an animaldrawn hay rake, in the near future, which will allow the fodder to be cut with the existinganimal-drawn mower and then to be conserved as hay fodder in haystacks.

The experience has been a learning process, which started on a small scale, withthe production increasing as confidence was gained. During the three years a grossprofit of R72,426 has been realized with the total inputs amounting to R20,329, whichleaves a net profit of R52,097 over three years.

With the information gained from this crop production programme it is now possibleto plan a crop and fodder production programme for the farm, which will provide a grossincome of about R35,000 per annum off the 1.46 ha currently under cultivation. The inputcost for animal traction, seed, pesticide and for the irrigation would then be aroundR5,000 per annum leaving a net annual income conservatively of about R30,000.

It should be possible to increase the area under cultivation to about 2 ha in thefuture. This would mean an increase in the above figures to a gross income of aboutR48,000 for an input cost of about R6,850 per annum leaving an annual income ofR41,150, assuming that the labour is provided by the family.

It is planned to continue with the study for the foreseeable future, attempting wherepossible to increase production levels and to continue collecting the results for analysisafter which they will be presented in the form of an annual report.

ReferencesGebeda, Z. (1999). Management of animals in the Eastern Cape – The way forward. In:

Management and feeding of animals for work (eds) R. A. Pearson, S. Wythe, B. Joubert, D.

Table 2: The initial capital investment required.

Item Quantity Unit cost Investment(Rand) (Rand)

Oxen 3 1,750 5,250Plough (Maun) 1 450 450Harrow (two piece) 1 850 850Ripping attachment 1 set 350 350Cultivator (Maun) 1 475 475Golovan ox-cart 1 3,000 3,000Trek gear For 2 oxen 450 250Breaching/Golovan 1 set 150 150Spades and hoes 450 450Hand tools and axe 450 450Irrigation plant 1 Unit 9,500 9,500Fencing Perimeter 8 8,000Knap sack sprayer 1 450 450

Total 29,625

are now taking better care of their animals and the rabies vaccination offers moresecurity than anything else does.The second study shows a body condition average of 5 in 200 tested donkeys (hereit is necessary to remember the open invitation to participate in the study and, asa result, no sick or thin animals were shown to the investigators).

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5Bandera La Puerta Xocotitla

COMMUNITY

Box Plot (Donkey 2001,STA 20v®194c)

HGCOutliersExtremesHTCOutliers

Figure 3: HTC and HGC found in ‘health donkeys’.

Bivariate Histogram (Donkey 2001,STA 20v®196c)

56

48

40

32

24

16

8

Bandera La Puerta XocotitlaCOMMUNITY

Figure 2: Ratio between male and femaledonkey numbers

found in three communities.

MALE

FEMALE

SEX:

The oldest animal found was a 17 yearold jenny with an excellent body scoreof 5, this was unusual because theJennies are not well taken care of andtheir life expectancy is less than 15years.

Statistical analysisSome of the data collected are show ingraphical forms. The first one is the relationbetween number of male and femaledonkeys in the communities (Figure 1).

Health could be observed using moreparameters, but the minimal data requiredinclude normal physiology data, bodycondition score and a blood test looking athaemoglobin concentration (HGC) andhaematocrit (HTC). Figure 3 shows thedifferences between donkeys from differentcommunities in haematocrit andhaemoglobin concentration in healthydonkeys brought for sampling from eachtown.

12.

Minimal veterinary care was necessary; the major cost was dipping the animalsagainst ticks once every two weeks in summer.

The cropping systemOats were sown by hand and harrowed in after the lands had been ploughed andharrowed. Ploughing depth was on average 180 mm, and it took about three workingdays of six hours each to complete 1 ha of ploughing.

Row crops such as maize were planted after the soil was ploughed, harrowed andripped with the ripper tine, to produce straight furrows into which the seed was sown byhand and then harrowed over with the spike-toothed harrow. It took the two oxen fourhours to harrow 1 ha.

Seeding of potatoes was done by hand behind the plough every fourth furrow, andthen harrowed over. Ridging was with an animal-drawn ridger.

Seeding of pumpkins was done using the ripper tine to produce straight rows in apreviously ploughed and harrowed land, and then planting in rows 2 m apart with an in-row spacing of 2 m. The seed was covered using a hand hoe.

Cabbage seedlings were planted in rows (800 × 800 mm apart) so as to have rowsup and down as well as across the field to facilitate cultivation in both directions. It tookabout five hours per hectare to cultivate a crop of cabbages ‘one way’ up and down thefield.

Weeding was done with a small cultivator and one ox.

HarvestingThe maize was harvested by hand. Cobs were stripped and loaded into the Golovan andtaken to the shed where they were shelled using a hand sheller before being baggedin 50 kg bags. These were sold to local customers at R50 per bag.

Maize stover was cut and fed to Fort Hare cattle. The oat hay was cut with a horse-drawn mower and then raked and baled using a tractor. It was then used assupplementary feed for the oxen, and the balance was sold to the research farm forR12 a bale.

Cabbages and pumpkins were harvested by hand. The potatoes were harvestedusing the potato ridger to lift them, after which they were hand-sorted and bagged. Allvegetable crops were sold to local shops or individual buyers on site. Cabbages andpumpkins were sold loose and potatoes were sold in 10 kg pockets.

Silage was cut using a tractor and silage cutter and sold to the research farm atR250/t. Some haymaking had to be done with a tractor, tractor-drawn rake and balerbecause there were no animal-drawn implements available for these tasks. However,buying an animal-drawn rake will allow the fodder to be cut with the existing animal-drawn mower, to be saved as hay fodder in haystacks.

ConclusionThe development of this small farm has taken place over a period of four years and therecords detailed in Table 3 are for this period. During this time it has been ascertainedthat all the activities can be carried out with three oxen (two are the maximum used foran activity but the third is by way of being a ‘spare wheel’) using the equipment listedabove. A minimum of three people can provide all the manual labour required. Anattempt has been made to allow short resting periods for each of the fields over the four

AcknowledgementsThanks to the Postgraduate College of Agricultural Science, Campus Veracruz; TeresaEspín I. MC and Clorinda Sarabia B. MC, students of the Veterinary School from theUniversidad Veracruzana and especially to Violeta Pardiú PhD for helping in bloodsample determinations, Pernilla Fajersson PhD as a friendly forced reviewer.

ReferencesAluja, S.A., Bouda, J., Tapia, P.G., López, G.A. and Herrera, G.S. (1998). Estudio de Valores

Bioquímicos en Sangre de Burros Antes y Después del trabajo. En 3er Coloquio InternacionalSobre Equidos de Trabajo. UNAM, México.

McCracken, Anderson y (1994). Diagnóstico Participativo (DP): Un Manual de Técnicas. Curso1993. UADY, Mérida, Yucatán México. 36 pp.

CEPAL (1989). Economía Campesina y Agricultura Comercial (tipología de productores del AgroMexicano). Editorial Siglo XXI, 4ª. Edición. México. 339 pp.

Pearson, R.A. and Ouassat Mohammed (2000). A Guide to Live Weight Estimation and BodyCondition Scoring of Donkeys. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University ofEdinburgh.

Ramaswamy, N.S. (1994). Draught Animals and Welfare. Rev. Sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 13(1), 195–216.

21.

Author e-mails:Bernardo Lopez Yanez (baly954@starmedia.com or lopezyanez@hotmail.com)J. Morales Burguet (jmburguet@hotmail.com)

3. EUROPE

(a) Germany

Draught animal power in organic farming in Germany. A comparison of horse-drawn and tractor-drawn mowers

Peter Herold and Juergen HeßDepartment of Ecological Agriculture, University of Kassel, Germany

Based on a presentation given by Peter Herold and Juergen Heß at the 13th InternationalIFOAM Scientific Conference – vdf Hochschulverlag an der ETH Zürich, Zürich,Switzerland. Anyone wanting further information contact Peter Herold at Department ofEcological Agriculture, University of Kassel (GhK), Nordbahnhofstr. 1a, D 37213Witzenhausen, Germany: e-mail: herold@wiz.uni-kassel.de

IntroductionWhile the use of animal traction still plays an important role in agriculture world-wide,the development and production of horse-drawn machinery in Europe stopped in the1950s and 1960s. In those days, horses in agriculture were nearly completely replacedby tractors. This transition on the one hand constitutes enormous progress, on the otherhand, it is connected with considerable ecological and economic burdens. Thesignificance in its complete profundity is only gradually being recognised.

In the US – and to a certain extent also in Europe – however, draught horsetechnology was and is still being developed continuously so that today modern horse-drawn implements are available for nearly every kind of agricultural need. The existenceof this modern horse-drawn machinery, however, is not well known in Europe. Moreover,

11.22.

Plate 7: Carting manure to the field in Eastern Cape, South Africa (B. Joubert).

Plate 8: Ploughing before planting cabbages, ATC, Alice, South Africa (R. A. Pearson).

there is no data on requirements for operation and performance. This seems to be themain obstacle for a wider introduction of this environmentally friendly technology inorganic farming.

Material and methodsIn a two years’ field study different horse-drawn and tractor-drawn mowers werecompared at Kassel University‘s research farm, Hessian State Domain Frankenhausen.Three different double-knife mowers (working width 1.65 m, 1.90 m and 2.40 m) madeby Messrs Mörtl, Germany, worked on a modern hitch-cart. This hitch-cart, the PintowPower Cart made by Carthorse Machinery, UK, is equipped with three-point hydraulicsand power take-off (p.t.o.). It is pulled by a team of two Ardennes geldings. The 1.65 mmower is powered by ground drive from the hitch-cart’s rear axle, the other two mowersby an auxiliary 18-h.p. engine placed on the hitch-cart. These three mowers werecompared with an old horse-drawn fingerbar-mower (working width 1,30 m) and a85-hp Fendt tractor with the 2.40 m double-knife mower and with a 2.90 m front disc-mower are being investigated.

The experiment has a randomized block design with 8 treatments and 4 replicates.Each plot is sized 141 m long and five times the respective working width. Operationswere carried out three times each year (2000, 2001 and 2002) in the hay making season(late May, early July, late August). Parameters for assessment are demands (draughtload, power requirement of p.t.o., fuel consumption), potential output (working speed,effective working width, worked area per hour), demands on horses (pulse, breathingfrequency, body temperature), work economics and quality of work done.Additionally, the effect of two different trace systems for the horse-drawn machines

Plate 11: Draught horses being used on a farm near Stuttgart, Germany (R. A. Pearson).

10. 23.

An investigation into food plot production at irrigation schemes in the centralEastern Cape, by W. van Averbeke et al. (1998) has showed that irrigated plots of2 ha are large enough for agriculture to be the major source of income. This is providedthat farmers adopt farming systems which suit small scale agriculture while at the sametime generating adequate profits. The use of animal traction is cited as a viable poweroption for such farmers.

Taking into account the factors sited above, the Animal Traction Center (ATC) atFort Hare University initiated a project in 1996 to consider ways to increase cropproduction by complimenting animal power with a small scale irrigation plant. This paperreports on the findings and the results obtained so far.

Project purposeThe project was undertaken to ascertain whether it would be possible to use animalstogether with a small scale irrigation plant to produce cash crops, mainly vegetables, ona commercial basis on a small farm.

Methods and activitiesA small land area (1.46 ha) was divided into five fields. The outer perimeter was fencedto keep out free-ranging livestock.

One of the goals was to cultivate the little farm with two oxen, using only a lightmouldboard plough, a two-piece diamond spike-toothed harrow, a ripping device (whichis attached to the plough beam after removal of the mouldboard), landside and share,as well as a cultivator that can be pulled by a single ox fitted with a specially designedyoke.

Thus all crops were produced by preparing the lands with oxen and by sowing andplanting by hand. A Golovan (one-ox cart, costing R3,000) was bought for the cartagework. Weed control and harvesting was done with a combination of oxen and manuallabour. A knapsack sprayer was used for pest control. While no artificial fertiliser wasused, kraal manure was applied at 30 t/ha – put down by one inspanned ox, thenploughed in.

The only real innovation – and one that made a huge difference to output – was asmall irrigation plant costing R9,500, which was used only when rainfall was poor orerratic. The irrigation equipment consisted of the following: engine and pump completewith a 4 m suction line mounted on a wheelbarrow for mobility and flexibility; a 50 mlength of black polyethylene pipe, 75 mm in diameter; eight stand pipes with sprinklerattachments supplied by 15 units of 6 m galvanised 75 mm irrigation piping and thenecessary fittings and connections.

The total cost of all the implements, three oxen (at R1,750 each), ploughs, spades,hoes and hand tools and fencing was just under R30,000 in 1996, when the trial started.This figure includes the price of trek gear for inspanning – yokes, skeis, strops, trences,riems, chains and harness. While no job required more than two oxen, a third was keptas a kind of spare wheel. Only three people were needed to run the business.

Each field was rested for a short period (one season only) and only to ensure thatenough supplementary fodder was produced each year for the draught animals whichgrazed on the research farm in a manner similar to the communal grazing practised inthe surrounding rural areas. They were fed supplementary oat hay only when necessary,which was usually in the dry winter before ploughing, and in spring when working.

compared leather versus nylon with an integrated tractive power damping system. Theresults will serve for ecological and energetic as well as for economic evaluations.

Working hypothesis and discussionAs research work still continues, results are still being collected. However, some workinghypothesis can be given. It is expected that the modern horse-drawn implements willhave a higher output and lower demands on the horses than the old technology, namelythe fingerbar mower. The nylon trace system will lower the demands on the horses andthus raise the potential output compared to the traditional leather system. The use of anengine powered mower will facilitate a higher output due to larger possible working widthand lower draught load compared to the ground drive system. Energy balance of horsework will be much more positive compared to tractor work, even if an auxiliary engineis used on the hitch-cart. Work quality of double-knife mowers will be better than thatof the disc-mower, giving higher yield in the second and the third cut. Output of tractor-drawn mowers, especially the disc-mower, will certainly be higher than that of the horsetechnology.

ConclusionsWith the development of modern horse-drawn machinery the use of draught horsestoday is something completely new and not just the repeat of an old traditional way offarming. Taking into consideration investment costs as well as ecological effects, it isexpected that the results will show modern horse-drawn technology to be a realalternative for certain tasks in organic farming. Public interest in this environmentallyfriendly form of agricultural production is growing, but also policy makers are realisingeven more than ever the significance of modern draught horse use.

GENERAL ARTICLE

The Gharry Horses of GonderHelen Bradbury

Gonder is a town in the North West highlands of Ethiopia and was the capital in the 16thcentury. Round-topped hills rise up to the Simien Mountains in the North. It is beautifulbut life is very hard. Statuesque castles and monasteries are scattered in amongst amish mash of Italian colonial buildings from the 1930’s and shanties. Beggars vie withwomen selling vegetables beneath the ancient stonewalls.

The Gharry horse is the town taxi, transporting goods and people. These horseswhich are slight and generally undernourished, quite willingly pull far in excess of theirbody weight up and down the steep streets of Gonder for seven hours every day.

Their harness is made of car tyre strips and this can cut into their skin forming bigopen wounds. Their shoes are also made from car tyres nailed on roughly with pairs ofpliers. Many of the horses are severely lame from the injuries they sustain in falls whenthey are forced to go too quickly down the hills

Their food consists of the by-products from the local brewery. Guliver is the outerhusk of barley and dust from the factory cleaning process. It is bought in bulk at the

9.24.

requirements has been developed following farmers complaints about the incon-venience in operation and the higher draught power requirement of the previous model.

6. Water lifting devicesA device known as a chain and washer pump has been developed that can be operatedmanually or driven by animals. The pump lifts water from rivers or shallow wells fordrinking or for small-scale irrigation. According to field tests the pump can lift about 180litres per minute from a depth of 4 m manually whereas with a pair of animals it can liftup to 300 litres per minute from a depth of 7 m.

(c) South Africa

Cash crop production in South Africa on a small farm using animal power andsmall scale irrigation

A.B.D. JoubertAnimal Traction Center, University of Fort Hare

AbstractA development project at the University of Fort Hare, aimed at producing vegetables andother cash crops on a commercial basis using animals and a small low cost irrigationplant, has produced realistic figures which indicate that small scale farmers, cultivatingfrom one to five hectares under this system can realize a substantial net profit and anannual income which will allow them an adequate living standard.

The project has been run in a manner similar to the communal grazing systemcombined with the small, cultivated lands practised in the communities surrounding FortHare University. It has shown that with comparatively low initial investment costs andminor running costs, such a system ensures that a small scale farmer can keep loanrepayments down and realise substantial net profits on his cash crops as a result.

IntroductionCrop production in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa is currently at an all timelow. Several factors favour the re-emergence of small scale commercial farmers in thearea, for example there is high unemployment and access to food products in the ruralareas in the region depends largely on imports from other regions Gebeda (1999). Thereare other factors that make food security difficult in the rural areas. Farmers are agingand most are retired, farming is not their profession but more of a part-time occupation.Most of the youth have migrated to the urban areas where expectations of employmentare higher. They do not see agriculture as a viable career opportunity. Crop productionin the rain fed areas is a high risk venture as rainfall is low and erratic, livestockencroachment on lands due to lack of adequate fencing is common and there is a lackof a proper agricultural infrastructure. Crime, particularly theft of livestock and agriculturalproducts, is rife and the land tenure system is insecure.

The scope for irrigation in parts of the Eastern Cape is high. Many large rivers flowfrom the high mountain regions, where rainfall exceeds 1200 mm per annum, throughrelatively dry areas with low and erratic rainfall of below 500 mm per annum. On thebanks of these rivers lie numerous arable areas of land ranging from one to 10 or morehectares in area (Pearson et al., 1999).

factory and taken to the market where it is sold in sacks to the drivers. It has littlenutritional value. The rest of the ration is made up from furushka, a by-product of thelocal seed oil industry. Best described as oil seed cake it contains 17% Nitrogen and isprobably what keeps the horses alive.

The horses are rarely taken to the government vet and even then it is only as a lastdesperate measure, when the horse can no longer work. Often the horse has alreadybeen treated by the local healer. There are two main practices carried out and theconsequences are easy to spot. Many horses in Gonder have what looks like a gridburnt into their flesh. This is caused by the red-hot irons placed on the top of the leg,believed to cure lameness. Other horses have a punctured eye; although this issometimes due to rough handling it is also caused by a procedure called ‘peeling’.Opthalmia or Moon Blindness is a condition causing the eye to become white and swelloutwards. The local doctor takes a razor blade and cuts through the eye peeling backthe white layer, which is called ‘fat’ from the eye. It is a delicate process and it is easyto cut too deeply.

There are very few cruel drivers. Most of the Gharry drivers are fathers with children.They are poor and they treat their horses as their father’s treated them and as theircolleagues treat them and they just do their job.

I met and developed a good relationship with the Gharry Association Chairman andCommittee. He informed the drivers of what I was doing so that in general my questionswere met with good humour. Together we put into place some practices, which willhopefully continue.

We started by using garlic for deworming. Garlic is effective against roundwormsand is a cheap and familiar food. We also started using honey on wounds. Honey hasantibacterial properties and removes water from the wounds. The drivers were delightedto find that foods that they had in their homes could be used. They were not hard topersuade, as there is a strong cultural tradition of using local plants and herbs fortreating illness. The drivers also then began to suggest local plants that could be used;we all agreed that Aloe Vera could be used to repel flies from wounds.

There is a strong belief among the drivers that too much water is bad for the workinghorse. Using the skin pinch technique I know that most of the horses showed some signsof dehydration. Despite their misgivings a number of drivers agreed to make wateravailable in the stable at all times. The food is very dry and unpalatable and when it waspointed out that they would need a great deal of water if eating this food, they laughedand agreed to try.

We also began the search for a fly repellent to deal with the particularly viciousstrain of horse flies that swarm around the lower leg of the horses biting continuously.The ingredients included local spices, local fly repelling trees including Eucalyptus andAloe Vera. As an interim measure the leaves of fly repelling trees were hung and strewnon the floor of the stable.

At our final meeting the chairman was late as he had been in the market warningdrivers of a disease that was sweeping through the horses. Twenty had died in a week,the local vet did not know have a diagnosis and had tried an injection of antibiotics butthe horse had died anyway. I do not know the outcome of the disease and at the timewas amazed how calm the drivers were; they have no insurance and if their horse diestheir livelihood is gone. This philosophic attitude is probably because tragedy and

8. 25.

Plate 5: Single hand operated tie ridger (Melesse Temesgen).

Plate 6: Donkey driven water pump (Melesse Temesgen).

poverty are commonplace for the horse owners. What is clear is that the drivers havea strong incentive to improve the condition of their horses.

Another incentive for keeping horses healthy is that Gonder is a tourist town. Atpresent the tourists don’t use the gharries but either walk besieged by street childrenor ride in air-conditioned buses. If the condition of the gharries was improved and thecarts themselves smartened up the tourists could be persuaded to take them and thegharry drivers could gain access to a new source of income.

This is the first step. People are willing and the incentive for change is strong andsuch changes would improve the lives of the horses.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Barney Muckle has written to the editor with an update on the information sent earlierthis year following his article ‘Making ploughs that donkeys can use’ published in No 34of Draught Animal News.

Many minor modifications have been found to be necessary to suit differentconditions and heights of users, especially female. Several suggestions by Frank Inneshave now been incorporated into the design. Progress is still being made and 12 artisanshave been trained to make both the plough and the harness and preparations are beingmade to monitor the few farmers during their second rainy season of use of the plough.It is hoped to develop and test the conservation tillage tool for one pass ripping andplanting to be in line with current trends. Barney Muckle’s address is Triple WEngineering Ltd., PO Box 176, Naro Moru via Nyeri, Kenya and his e-mail ismuckletb@africaonline.co.ke.

Xoán Carlos Sánchez Couto, Casa Familiar Rural de Açailândia, BRAZIL asks ifsomebody could send details for the construction of multipurpose implements for animaltraction? Exact dimensions of the parts, features of the materials, assembly details anduseful tips would be welcome. The e-mail address is fra@ieg.com.br.

William Brenchley has contacted us asking if someone could provide details ofcompanies that supply animal traction implements (and spares) in South Africa – ifpossible close to Cape Town. His e-mail is billy_brenchley@hotmail.com and addressis: Mr W A Brenchley, 69 Castletown Road, Wynberg 7800, South Africa.

Steve Vinson, an Egyptologist and ancient historian at the State University of New Yorkis currently working on an Egyptian agricultural account from the third century BC. Thisaccount includes costs for plough oxen and ploughmen. In the account it can be seenthat the cost of hiring a team is set at 10 times the cost of hiring a ploughman. Steve iscurious to know what the modern ratios are, and what the factors are that influencerelative prices for draught animals and for a ploughman. He would also be interestedin finding out what the typical daily output of a man and a team might be, especially onrecently flooded, alluvial soil as found in Egypt at that time. If anyone has personalknowledge of these issues, or if anyone can recommend some good sources on theeconomics of animal traction Steve would be most grateful. His address is Departmentof History, SUNY-New Paltz, 75 S Manheim Blvd, New Paltz, NY 12561–2499, USA; e-mail: vinsons@newpaltz.edu.

7.26.

dry spells, but at the same time the weeds that have emerged after the first tillagedeplete the soil moisture through evapo-transpiration. The winged plough can thus beused to kill the weeds while keeping the lower moist soil unexposed. The winged ploughcan also be used to incorporate DAP fertilizer with the soil during Tef planting.

Plate 4: Row planter (Melesse Temesgen).

3. Row planterPlanting maize and a number of other crops in rows has been recommended by theagronomists. However, because of the large amount of time and labour required formanual row planting many farmers have not yet adopted the practice. Therefore, ananimal drawn semi automatic row planter has been developed. The row planter placesseeds and fertilizer in rows. Field tests have shown that use of the planter makesconsiderable savings in labour and time. It also facilitates tie ridging and inter-rowweeding at early stages and makes possible the intercropping of beans between maizeor sorghum rows.

4. Inter row weederThe animal drawn inter row weeder is a slight modification of the winged plough. Theweeder saves labour and time. It enables farmers to undertake early weeding. Somefarmers have used a pair of donkeys to pull the weeder between maize rows. The pairof donkeys pulled the weeder at a speed close to 1 m/sec. The work rate wasapproximately one ha per day.

5. Tie ridgerThe tie ridger is an animal drawn implement that forms a series of basins in the field tocatch and retain rainwater. A single hand operated tie ridger with lower draught power

Karla Hostetler is the director of a large US government funded programme looking atthe creation of employment for artisans in Haiti. It is hoped that the project will help indeveloping a local industry to make better-fitting saddles, packs and pads. This willmean employment for local artisans and at the same time will also help alleviate thesuffering of the local horses and burros caused by saddle sores. Although there arefunds to develop this industry, the project needs good prototype designs and patternsfor the saddles, packs and pads. Currently most of the owners use heavy, hard woodensaddles and the pads and packs are made of cornhusks, sugarcane husks, bananaleaves etc. These are stiff, dry and dirty. Thus the project hopes to help the hardworkinghorses and burros and their owners while working within local saddle and pack-makingbusinesses. If anyone can help, the project would be able to purchase prototypes andpay for shipping if this is possible. If this approach works in Haiti then the same thingmay be possible in other regions. If you wish to get in touch with Karla the address is30 Rue Goulard, Place Boyer, c/o Aid to Artisans, Petion-Ville, Haiti and the e-mailaddress is karlavt@together.net.

Jack Reece has been working as a vet in India for a small local charity in Jaipur andis hoping to return there this autumn. He asks for any advice on more humane methodsof controlling draught animals. The nose peg or pegs are used exclusively in Rajasthan,often leading to fly blown peg holes in the external nares. Information on where to finda pattern for a bridle etc for camels not involving nose pegs would be welcome. Thecontact address is c/o 56 Winterbourne Close, Hastings, East Sussex TN34 1XQ, UK.

Robert Bowen in Maputo for VETAID writes that they are developing some new projectideas and are thinking about the use of animal traction in the processing of agriculturalproducts such as sesame or sunflower seeds. These crops are being grown more andmore by local smallholders in Mozambique. The smallholders process either by handor just sell the unprocessed seeds and there would appear to be an opportunity for theuse of an animal traction powered oil traction press. Robert is wondering if anyoneknows of such a thing or where else VETAID might find out about it? His email addressis VETAID Moçambique, Avenida Amílcar Cabral, No 54 r/c Biarro Central, Caixa Postal1707, Moçambique, e-mail: vetaidmz@virconn.com.

SHORT NOTES AND NEWS

African Conservation Tillage Network is in the process of starting topical groupdiscussions under the subjects/issues listed below:

1. Green manure/cover crops/mulch2. Weed control in CT systems3. Impact of CT on soil quality4. CT implements5. CF dissemination approaches6. Curricula for schools and tertiary learning institutes7. Links to input/output markets from both manufactures and farmers

perspective.

6. 27.

Plate 2: ‘Erf’ and ‘Mofer’ attached mouldboard plough (Melesse Temesgen).

Plate 3: Winged plough (Melesse Temesgen).

Organised by:

International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM)Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II

with collaboration of:European Commission (DG I)

Of all the domestic animals likely to take maximum advantage of the semi-arid andarid territories, the camel occupies a central position that has been forgotten fortoo long by the policy-makers, economic agents and researchers. The objectivesof the course programme are to:

• provide development agents, veterinarians and productionagents working in arid zones, solid high-level training inbiology, production and camel pathology

• analyse and discuss past experiences and perspectives forcamel production

• provide a forum for specialists in camel production wherethey can compare and contrast experiences and points ofview.

Application forms may be obtained from:

Dr Mohamed BengoumiInstitut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II

Départment de Pharmacie, Toxicologie et BiochimieBP 6202 Rabat-Instituts (Morocco)

Tel/Fax: 212 37 779684e-mail: m.bengoum@iav.ac.ma / bengoumi@iam.net.ma

Advanced Course:

����&����������������������

Rabat, Morocco — 4–15 March 2002

Their address is c/o Institute of Environmental Studies, Box MP 167, Harare, Zimbabwe;email: actsecre@africaonlike.co.zw and their annual membership fee is US $10.

Useful websites• http://fr.groups.yahoo.com/group/hippomobile/, a webpage for people using horses

in temperate countries.• www.albc_usa.org provides accurate timely information about issues critical to

heritage livestock.• www.howllfarm.org for a photo of hay loading with oxen.• http://www.ruralheritage.com• www.brooke-hospital.org.uk

FORTHCOMING EVENTS

28. 5.

three hours a day. This draught force of a pair of donkeys is adequate to do all tillage workin light soil and can do secondary tillage and inter culture in other soil types. The speed ofworking donkeys (0.6–0.8 ms–1) is higher than that of Ethiopian oxen (0.4–0.5 ms–1) and sohas advantage for implements that require relatively high speeds. In this trial it was shownthat there is potential to increase the work output from donkeys.

ReferencesCrossley, P. (1991). Transport for rural development in Ethiopia. (eds) D.V. Fielding and R.A.

Pearson. Proceedings of Colloquium. 3–6 Sep, 1990. Scotland.Pathak, B.S. (1987). Survey of Agricultural Implements and Crop Production Techniques. IAR and

FAO, December 1987. Nazareth, Ethiopia.

(b) Ethiopia

Improved Agricultural Equipment for Donkey Traction

Melesse TemesgenNazareth Research Centre, PO Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

IntroductionThe draught power output of donkeys is low, usually not more than 30 kgf /donkey.Therefore, implements for donkey traction should have low draught power requirements.In some areas where the unit resistance of the soil is low, donkeys are being used fortillage. This is also a common practice in other sub-Saharan African countries. However,in order to enable more farmers to use donkeys for tillage, implements need to bedeveloped that can be pulled by a pair of donkeys. In many cases this may only requiremodifications that reduce the sizes of existing designs. The following are some of theimproved implements developed by the Agricultural Mechanization Research Programthat, with possible modifications, would have the potential of being pulled by donkeys.

1. The ‘Erf’ and ‘Mofer’ attached mould board ploughThe ‘Erf’ and ‘Mofer’ attached mould board plough has been developed for a pair ofoxen. The plough has several advantages over the Maresha, the traditional plough ofEthiopia. The new plough enables farmers to complete tillage in one pass and controlsweeds better than the Maresha. The plough conserves moisture because it improvesinfiltration through deeper tillage and reduces evaporation losses as it leaves a muchsmoother field with less surface area exposed to the sun and wind. The plough can betested with donkeys and can be modified to suit the power outputs of donkeys once dataon its performance with donkeys have been collected.

2. Winged ploughThe winged plough is a slight modification of the Maresha and is designed mainly forsecondary tillage. According to field tests carried out on the winged plough the draughtpower requirement is only 60% of that required by the Maresha. Therefore potentiallythe winged plough could be used with a pair of donkeys. However, field tests should becarried out before making any recommendation.

The winged plough involves minimum soil inversion and so helps in theconservation of soil moisture, especially during secondary tillage. Farmers have thedilemma of whether or not they should plough their fields after the first tillage. This isbecause they would be exposing the lower moist soil to evaporation, especially during

Address:RELATAApartado Postal RP–95Managua, Nicaragua

E-mail: relata@relata.org.nihttp://www.relata.org.ni

For further information contact:Anabelle Jerez

Unidad de Información y ComunicaciónRELATA

Telefax.: (505) 2663726, 2683053Email: relata@relata.org.ni

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20–22 March 2002

To be held in San Salvador, El Salvador by RELATA

The objectives of the conference are to:

• Meet and exchange experiences on systems in Latin Americawhich use working animals

• The promotion of appropriate technology in rural and urbanproduction systems

• To encourage inter-institutional and international co-operationin Latin America on appropriate technologies

• The use and management of working animals

• Small scale enterprises that service animal tractionrequirements

• Repair and maintenance of rural roads using animal traction

• Other appropriate technologies.

4. 29.

after the trials on each level of pull. Donkeys were allowed to graze in the field in thedaytime and were fed tef straw at night.

A force transducer was used to measure the draught force. It was attached betweenthe loading sledges and yoke. The distance travelled was calculated from the numberof rounds of the track made by the donkeys. A stopwatch was used to measure workingtime and periods of interruption. The average speed for and period of work wascalculated by dividing the distance travelled during the period by the working time. Workoutput was calculated by multiplying maximum draught by total distance travelled. Poweroutput was calculated by dividing work output by total time. The respiration rate, pulserate and rectal temperature of the donkeys were measured at an hourly interval duringthe period of work.

ResultsTable 1: Average speed, hourly average speed, work output and power output

of a pair of working donkeys at different levels of pull.

Pull (% of combined body weight) 10 15 20 Mean

Average Speed (ms-1) 0.81 0.8 0.6 0.7Average Speed during first hour of work (ms-1) 0.82 0.81 0.62 0.8Average Speed during second hour of work (ms-1) 0.76 0.77 0.59 0.7Average Speed during last hour of work (ms-1) 0.78 0.78 0.59 0.7Daily work output (MJ)* 2.18 3.22 3.26 2.9Daily work output per 100 kg of live weight (MJ)* 0.86 1.20 1.25 1.1Power output (kW) 0.2 0.29 0.3 0.3Power output per 100 kg of live weight (kW) 0.08 0.11 0.12 0.1

* 3 hours work per day

A pair or working donkeys had an average speed of 0.74 ms–1 for loads between10–20% of combined body weight was measured (Table 1). Speed decreases as thepull level increases and is highest at 10% (0.81 ms–1) and lowest at 20% (0.60 ms–1).The hourly speed of donkeys (Table 1) decreases during the first hour of work and thenremains constant for the rest of the working periods.

The average work output of a pair of donkeys was 2.18 MJ, 3.22 MJ and 3.26 MJat pull levels of 10%, 15% and 20% respectively. The work output remained almost thesame for 15% and 20% pull level (Table 1). The work output per 100 kg of live weightalso increased as the load increases from 10–20% of pull level. Beyond 20% pull,donkeys were not willing to pull and showed sign of fatigue.

Average power output was higher at 20% level of pull 0.298 kW (Table 1). Thepower output per 100 kg of body weight was also higher at 20% pull level in all pairs.However, there is no significant difference in the power output of a pair of workingdonkeys at 15% and 20% pull level.

ConclusionA pair of donkeys can generate a draught force of 15–20% of their combined bodyweight for three hours a day. As the average weight of a pair of donkeys in the rift valley isabout 250 kg, a pair of donkeys can therefore generate a draught force of 375–500 N for

INVITATION AND CALL FOR PAPERS,POSTERS AND DEMONSTRATIONS

(to be received by 30 January 2002)

International Workshop(6th ATNESA thematic workshop) on

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to be held in

Sunset Hotel & Conference CentreJinja, Uganda

20–24th May 2002

Objectives of workshop:

• Review the research, development and extension scenario regardingthe use of animal traction and transport services for enhancedbenefits to practitioners and beneficiaries alike

• Review existing draught animal technologies, management, socio-economic and gender issues and environmental implications of theuse of work animals

• Analyse present and future needs for improving the utilisation andmanagement of animal traction technologies in the region whilelearning from the Uganda’s experiences and potentials, particularlyin decentralised governance and liberalisation

• Chart the way forward to empower farmers and entrepreneurs onsustainable utilisation of animal traction and transport services for themodernisation of Uganda’s agriculture.

Registration forms or workshop information from:

• Eng. Wilfred R. Odogola, AEATRI, PO Box 7144, Kampala, UgandaTel: +256–41–566161; Fax: 256–567649 or 566049e-mail: aeatri@starcom.co.ug

• Dr Pascal G. Kaumbutho, ATNESA Chairman, PO Box 61441, Nairobi, KenyaTel/Fax: +254–2–766939; Mobile: +254–733–635744e-mail: KENDAT@africaonline.co.ke; website: http://www.ATNESA.org

• Prof. Paul H. Starkey, Animal Traction Development, Oxgate, 64 NorthcourtAvenue, Reading RG2 7HQ, UKTel: +44–1189 872152; Fax: +44–1189 314525e-mail: P.H.Starkey@Reading.ac.uk; website: http://ATNESA.org

30. 3.

The advantage of using donkeys for tillage is that they are very hardy animals,usually fit and strong and they rarely experience health problems. They are found indryer ecological regions where drought has been widespread. Experience from manyAfrican Countries shows that donkeys can be used for ploughing where soils are lightand for ridging and weeding.

A basic study on draught capacity and work output of pairs of donkeys was carriedout at Adami Tulu with the aim of improving the information available for use, especiallyfor the design and development of agricultural implements that can be used withdonkeys.

Materials and MethodsA trial was carried out at Adami Tulu Research centre, which is located in the CentralRift Valley of Ethiopia where donkeys are used extensively for different purposes. Thetrial is part of the project for the study of donkey power, harnesses, feed managementand use of donkeys for agriculture.

Three pairs of mature donkeys were used in the trials and pairing was donerandomly. Donkeys were trained for two months before the trials by pulling loadsequivalent to 10% of their body weight. Sledges were used to apply loads and donkeyswere loaded to four levels of pull equivalent to 10, 15, 20 and 25% of their combinedbody weight. However, the donkey showing signs of fatigue at 25% level of pull and 25%level of pull was left out. ‘Kenber’ was used to yoke donkeys by adding an artificial hump,which fits the donkey neck. The donkeys started work at 8 am each day and they workedfor three consecutive days for three hours a day. A rest period of 17 days was allowed

Plate 1: Donkey pulling cart in Rift Valley, Ethiopia (David Smith).

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The Fourth International Colloquium will be held at theApamee Cham Palace Hotel by the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Al-Ba’ath University, Hama, Syriafrom 21–26 April 2002

There will be one keynote session and individual sessions for submitted paperson recent developments in:

• veterinary science relevant to working equids• in the role of equids in transport• implementation of extension and development projects• animal health and husbandry relevant to working equids• land preparation and cropping with equids• experiences in training and education.

Field visits and demonstrations of equipment and harnessing will also feature.The meeting will be in English and Arabic. The registration fee will be US$100

(does not include accommodation or meals). The cost of a single room plus fullboard is US$65 per day at the Apamee Cham Palace Hotel in Hama.

Participants are asked to submit papers (Maximum 4500 words) to the secretariatby January 30 2002. Those people selected to present the papers orally at themeeting (15 minutes presentation + 5 minutes discussion) will be informed byFebruary 28 2002. Papers should be submitted as hard copy and on disk,preferably as word/word perfect files (Times new roman, 12 point).

Participants are requested to bring along posters (A1 max size) and/or anymaterials they would like to demonstrate at the meeting. These could beimplements, harnesses or health or husbandry techniques.

A limited number of scholarships are available for people who submit goodquality papers.

To attend the meeting and book accommodation please contact the secretariatif outside Syria, or the organisers if in Syria:

Organisers: Prof. Dr. Darem Tabbaa, Animal Protection Project (SPANA),Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Al-Ba’ath University, Hama, Syria(Tel: + 963 33 512 640; Fax:+ 963 33 510 514; Email: spana@net.sy)

Secretariat: SPANA, 15 Buckingham Gate, London SW1E 6LB, United Kingdom(Tel:+ 44 (0) 207 828 0997; Fax: + 44 (0) 207 630 5776;Email: SPANA.HQ@dial.pipex.com; Website: www.spana.org)

2. 31.

CONTENTS

Research & Development Projects Letters to the Editor ...................25Africa ........................................ 2 Short Notes and News ..............26South America ....................... 15 Forthcoming Events .................. 27Europe .................................... 21 Publications ...............................32

General Article ........................... 23 Contributors to DraughtAnimal News 35 (back cover)

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

1. AFRICA

(a) Ethiopia

Draught characteristics of a pair of working donkeys in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia

Zelealem Bekele, Mengistu Geza, 1Amsalu Sisaye, 1Abule Ibro and Teshome BulloNazareth Research Centre, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 1Adami Tulu Research Centre, PO Box 35,Zway, Ethiopia

AbstractThe use of donkeys for operations other than pack animals is limited to the Meki-Zwaiarea and where there is a lower use of donkeys of about 5 mt km/year. The mainproblems are lack of information on their draught capacity and appropriate equipmentfor use with donkeys. With the objective of increasing donkey power use, a study onpower and work output of a pair of donkeys was made at Adami Tulu. The study wasmade on three pairs of donkeys by applying four different levels of pull equivalent to10%, 15%, 20% and 25% of the combined body weight of a pair of donkeys. Pull, speed,work output, power and physiological reactions at different levels of pull were the majorparameters assessed. The results show that a pair of donkeys can generate a draughtforce equivalent to 15–20% of their body weight with no abnormal sign of fatigue. Speedobtained for this load range was from 0.6–0.8 m/s.

IntroductionIn Ethiopia donkeys are widely used and maintained as pack animals except in Meki-Zwai areas where they are used to pull carts. Usually donkeys are used singly and theiruse in pairs or more is not known. Due to their low body weight (110–150 kg/donkey),the draught force they generate is small and is not enough to enable a single animal totill the soil. A study by Crossley (1991) showed a lower use of this power. The increaseduse of this power would increase small farm incomes and improve the economicefficiency of agricultural production. About one third of Ethiopian farmers have no oxenand one third have a single ox. So the farmers have a problem in carrying out timelytillage operations. There are reports in some parts of the country (Gojam, North Shewaand Arsi Negale) that donkeys are used in pairs for tillage. The main reasons for low useis lack of information on draught capacity and lack of appropriate equipment andharnesses.

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University Cultural Centre, UADY, Merida, Mexico

12–15 November 2002

An International Conference organised bythe British Society of Animal Science, the American Society of Animal

Science and the Mexican Society of Animal Science

Hosted by the Universidad Autonoma de Yucatan

Related themes:

How do trade agreements make livestock producers vulnerable?• Marginalisation of the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers• Socio-economic impacts• Marketing: global and domestic markets, subsidies, pricing• Consumer preferences (global and local)• Trade issues: biotechnology and welfare regulations, national and international

transmission of animal disease• GM crops as animal feeds• Animal breeds – indigenous v. exotic• Food security• Government policies

What is the ecological impact of production systems (smallholder, intensiveand extensive)?• Ecological/environmental impact• Animal welfare• Sustainable systems for smallholders• Effects of new technologies: biotechnologies, pollution, soil erosion, nutrient

cycling, silviculture, biodiversity, food safety, integrating crops and animals

What is the role of animal science research?• What research and intervention methodologies are required?• How do you improve adoption?• Systems that create opportunities to take up new knowledge• Participatory research• The roles of commercial, public organisations, civil societies and NGOs• Social structure; risk; institutional reform• Cross sectional alliances

Contributed theatre papers would be very welcome on the topic areas given bykeynote speakers or on related themes. Papers on animal science or productionthat are also relevant would be welcomed as posters. Details from:

• Mike Steele, BSAS Office, PO Box 3, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0RZ, UKTel: +44(0)131–445–4508; Fax: +44(0)131–535–3120;e-mail: BSAS@ed.sac.ac.uk; website: http://www.bsas.org.uk

• Juan Ku Vera – e-mail: gschan@tunku, uady.mx

DRAUGHT ANIMAL NEWSNo. 35

December 2001

Centre for Tropical Veterinary MedicineUniversity of Edinburgh, Scotland

ISSN 1354–6953

� Draught Animal News accepts articles in Spanish and French as well as in English.We receive articles from many parts of the world and hope that by publishingarticles in three languages we will be accessible to a greater readership. Thenewsletter is sent out to many countries and although we receive funding by theUK Department for International Development we do run on a very tight budget andare grateful to receive subscriptions from those able to cover the annualsubscription rate of £8.00.

� This issue has articles from Africa, Mexico and Europe. As we have seen a risein global tourism it has become obvious that often tourism ventures involve draughtanimals. These may be horses, elephants, donkeys etc for riding and pullingcarriages in both rural and urban situations or mules being hired by walkers to carryluggage in inaccessible areas. Operators of such ventures must be made awareof good practice in the use of the equipment they use and the availability ofaffordable equipment.

� It has been good to hear that readers who have written to us have had usefulfeedback after their letters have been published in DAN. We hope that readers findour list of Web sites useful and are always pleased to hear of any new ones thatwe can pass on in the newsletter. If you wish to advertise your site to othersworking with draught animals please send details to the Editor, Dr R.A. Pearson,Editor, Draught Animal News, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, EasterBush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RH, Scotland (Fax: 44 131 445 5099; e-mail:anne.pearson@ed.ac.uk).

� We prefer you to send us your input on a 3” disk (using Microsoft Word, WordPerfect or Rich Text Format) or via email. If you wish to include photographs,please ensure these are original and of good quality because of losses in thereproduction process. High resolution photographs saved in .tif format arepreferable (using Winzip to compress the file if necessary).

� The drawing on the front cover by Archie Hunter is taken from a photograph by PaulStarkey.

� This publication is funded by the UK Department for International Development(DIFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are notnecessarily those of DIFID.

PUBLICATIONS

Aguirre, V. & Orihuela, A. (2000). Effect of work experience and position in the plow harness on somephysiological parameters of horses under field conditions. Journal of Applied Animal WelfareScience, 3 (3), 231–238.

Alam, M. R., Sarker, R. I., Hossain, M. D. & Islam, M. S. (2000). Contribution of livestock to small farmsin Bangladesh, 13, Suppl, 339–342

Alföldi, T., W. Lockeretz & U. Niggli (eds.) (2000): IFOAM 2000 – The World Grows Organic.Proceedings, 13th International IFOAM Scientific Conference. – vdf Hochschulverlag an der ETHZürich; Zürich, Switzerland.

Aluja, A. S. de., Lopez C. A., Chavira S., H. & Oseguera M. D. (2000). The most common pathologicalconditions occurring in working horses in the Mexican countryside. Veterinaria – Mexico, 31, (2),165–168.

Ceballos, F. P., Tielves, R. V. & Brian G Sims. (2000). Comparative study of influence of animal tractionand light tractors on soil compaction in Cuba. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and LatinAmerica, 32, 19–23.

Engoru-Ebina, A. (1989). Prospects for improvement in energy use on small scale farming: the caseof animal traction. Swaziland Journal of Science and Technology (Swaziland), 10, 1, 17–28.

Goe, M. R., Alldredge, J. R. & Light, D. (2001). Use of heart girth to predict body weight of working oxenin the Ethiopian highlands. Livestock Production Science, 69, 187–195.

Gupta, J. P. & Sinha, S. K. (2000). Field performance of bullock-drawn puddlers. AgriculturalMechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 31, 36–40.

Kailappan, R., Rajagopalan, R. & Mani, A. K. (2001). A twin-purpose, light weight new iron plough.Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America. 32, 9–10.

Mahardika, I. G., Sastradipradja, D., Sutardi, T. & Sumadi, I. K. (2000). Nutrient requirements ofexercising swamp buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, from materials balance and in vivo body compositionby the body density method. I. Aspects of energy and protein metabolism in working cows. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 13 (5), 605–612.

Meas, S., Ohashi, K., Tum, S., Chhin, M., Te, K., Miura, K., Sugimoto, C. & Onuma, M. (2000).Seroprevalence of bovine immunodeficiency virus and bovine leukemia virus in draught animalsin Cambodia. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 62 (7), 779–781.

Merriam, J. G. (2000). Urban carriage horses 1999 – status and concerns. Journal of the AmericanVeterinary Medical Association, 216 (8), 1261–1262.

Ogwang, B. H. (1994). Response of draught oxen to winter supplementary feeding in Swaziland.UNISWA Journal of Agriculture (Swaziland). 3, 74–76.

Patei, A. M., Wadhwani, K. N., Parnerkar, S., Pandya, P. R., Saiyed, L. H. & Gupta, R. S. (2000).Observation on aspects of work efficiency, feeding management, income generation by donkeys(Equus asinus) in urban Gujarat. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 70 (8), 877–879.

Singh, G. (2001). Relationship between mechanization and agricultural productivity in various parts ofIndia. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 32,68–76.

Smith, D., Tesfaye, Agaji & More, L. (2000). Alleviating Poverty in Peri-urban Ethiopia by Improving theHealth, Welfare and Management of Donkeys. Proceedings of a Workshop held at Debre Zeit,Ethiopia. CTVM, Edinburgh University, UK.

Sperandio, G. & Verani, S. (2000). Comparative tests on skidding fuelwood using mobile conveyorcable, polyethylene chutes and mules – part II. Macchina Mondo, 9 (1), 20–23.

Sucre, L., Finol, H. & Perez, R. (2000). Ultrastructural changes of the Gluteus medius muscle ofuntrained crossbred draught horses subjected to ploughing. Archivos de Medicina Veterinaria,32 (1), 21–32.

Togashi, K. (2000). Special edition. The situation of agricultural mechanization in foreign countries (Part3). Draught animals and farm implements in Africa. [Japanese]. Journal of the Japanese Societyof Agricultural Machinery, 62 (5), 4–12.

Toms, C. W., Dubois, M. R., Bliss, J. C., Wilhoit, J. H. & Rummer, R. B. (2001). A survey of animal-powered logging in Alabama. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry, 25 (1), 17–24.

Yadava, G. C. (ed) (2001). Draughtability of Animals. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering,Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal – 462 038 (MP). India

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