AP Circulation.notebook

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May 6­9:06 AM

Trading with the Environment• Every organism must exchange materials with its environment• Exchanges ultimately occur at the cellular level• In unicellular organisms, these exchanges occur directly with the environment• For most cells making up multicellular organisms, direct exchange with the environment is not possible• A salmon’s feathery gills are an example of a specialized exchange system in animals

May 6­9:09 AM

Open and Closed Circulatory Systems

• More complex animals have either open or closed circulatory systems• Both systems have three basic components:• A circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph)• A set of tubes (blood vessels)• A muscular pump (the heart)

May 6­9:10 AM

• In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid• Closed systems are more efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to tissues and cells• Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system, often called the cardiovascular system• Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular system, consisting of blood vessels and a two­ to four­chambered heart• Arteries carry blood to capillaries, the sites of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid• Veins return blood from capillaries to the heart

May 6­9:12 AM

Mammals and Birds• In all mammals and birds, the ventricle is divided into separate right and left chambers• The left side of the heart pumps and receives only oxygen­rich blood, while the right side receives and pumps only oxygen­poor blood• A powerful four­chambered heart was an essential adaptation of the endothermic way of life characteristic of mammals and birds

May 6­9:15 AM May 6­9:17 AM

• The human circulatory system serves as a model for exploring mammalian circulation

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May 6­9:19 AM

The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look

May 6­9:20 AM

• The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac cycle• The contraction, or pumping, phase is called systole• The relaxation, or filling, phase is called diastole• The heart rate, also called the pulse, is the number of beats per minute• The cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute

Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume (beats/min) (liters/beat)

May 6­9:21 AM

Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat• Some cardiac muscle cells are self­excitable, meaning they contract without any signal from the nervous system• The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract• Impulses from the SA node travel to the atrioventricular (AV) node• At the AV node, the impulses are delayed and then travel to the Purkinje fibers that make the ventricles contract

May 6­9:25 AM

• Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle can be recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

May 6­9:26 AM

• The pacemaker is influenced by nerves, hormones, body temperature, and exercisePhysical principles govern blood circulation

• The physical principles that govern movement of water in plumbing systems also influence the functioning of animal circulatory systems

May 6­9:30 AM

Blood Vessel Structure and Function• The “infrastructure” of the circulatory system is its network of blood vessels• All blood vessels are built of similar tissues and have three similar layers

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May 6­9:31 AM

• Structural differences in arteries, veins, and capillaries correlate with functions• Arteries have thicker walls that accommodate the high pressure of blood pumped from the heart• In the thinner­walled veins, blood flows back to the heart mainly as a result of muscle action

May 6­9:32 AM

Blood Pressure• Blood pressure is the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel• Systolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole; it is the highest pressure in the arteries• Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during diastole; it is lower than systolic pressure• Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output and peripheral resistance due to constriction of arterioles

May 6­9:35 AM

Capillary Function

• Capillaries in major organs are usually filled to capacity• Blood supply varies in many other sites• The critical exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the capillaries• The difference between blood pressure and osmotic pressure drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end and into capillaries at the venule end

May 6­9:37 AM

May 6­9:38 AM

Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System• The lymphatic system returns fluid to the body from the capillary beds• This system aids in body defense• Fluid reenters the circulation directly at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly through the lymphatic system

May 6­9:38 AM

Blood Composition and Function• Blood consists of several kinds of cells suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma• The cellular elements occupy about 45% of the volume of blood

Cellular Elements• Suspended in blood plasma are two types of cells:• Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen• White blood cells (leukocytes) function in defense• Platelets, a third cellular element, are fragments of cells that are involved in clotting

Erythrocytes• Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, are by far the most numerous blood cells• They transport oxygen throughout the body

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July 30, 2008

May 6­9:43 AM

Leukocytes• There are five major types of white blood cells, or leukocytes: monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes• They function in defense by phagocytizing bacteria and debris or by producing antibodies

Platelets• Platelets function in blood clotting

Stem Cells and the Replacement of Cellular Elements

• The cellular elements of blood wear out and are replaced constantly throughout a person’s life

May 6­9:46 AM

Blood Clotting• When the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, the clotting mechanism begins• A cascade of complex reactions converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot

May 6­9:48 AM

Endothelium ofvessel is damaged,exposing connectivetissue; platelets adhere

Platelets form a plug Seal is reinforced by a clot of fibrin

Clotting factors from:PlateletsDamaged cellsPlasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)

Prothrombin Thrombin

Fibrinogen Fibrin

Collagen fibers Platelet plug Fibrin clot

May 7­8:46 AM

Cardiovascular Disease• Cardiovascular diseases are disorders of the heart and the blood vessels• They account for more than half the deaths in the United States• One type of cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, is caused by the buildup of cholesterol within arteries

May 7­9:01 AM

• Hypertension, or high blood pressure, promotes atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke• A heart attack is the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries• A stroke is the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head

May 7­9:02 AM

Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces• Gas exchange supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of carbon dioxide• Animals require large, moist respiratory surfaces for adequate diffusion of gases between their cells and the respiratory medium, either air or water

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May 7­9:03 AM

Respiratorymedium(air or water)

O2 CO2

Organismallevel

Respiratorysurface

Circulatory system

Cellular level

Energy­richfuel moleculesfrom food

Cellular respiration ATP

May 7­9:07 AM

Lungs• Spiders, land snails, and most terrestrial vertebrates have internal lungs. WHY?

Mammalian Respiratory Systems: A Closer Look

• A system of branching ducts conveys air to the lungs• Air inhaled through the nostrils passes through the pharynx into the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and dead­end alveoli, where gas exchange occurs

May 7­9:12 AM May 7­9:12 AM

The process that ventilates the lungs is breathing, the alternate inhalation and exhalation of air

How an Amphibian BreathesAn amphibian such as a frog ventilates its lungs by positive pressure breathing, which forces air down the trachea

How a Mammal Breathes• Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure breathing, which pulls air into the lungs• Lung volume increases as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract

May 7­9:14 AM

INHALATIONDiaphragm contracts

(moves down)

EXHALATIONDiaphragm relaxes

(moves up)

Rib cageexpands asrib musclescontract

Rib cage getssmaller asrib musclesrelax

Airinhaled

Airexhaled

May 7­9:17 AM

Control of Breathing in Humans

• In humans, the main breathing control centers are in two regions of the brain, the medulla oblongata and the pons• The medulla regulates the rate and depth of breathing in response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid• The medulla adjusts breathing rate and depth to match metabolic demands

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May 7­9:18 AM

Breathingcontrolcenters

Cerebrospinalfluid

Pons

Medullaoblongata

Carotidarteries

Aorta

Diaphragm

May 7­9:23 AM

Respiratory pigments bind and transport gases

•The metabolic demands of many organisms require that the blood transport large quantities of O2 and CO2

The Role of Partial Pressure Gradients• Gases diffuse down pressure gradients in the lungs and other organs• Diffusion of a gas depends on differences in a quantity called partial pressure• A gas diffuses from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure• In the lungs and tissues, O2 and CO2 diffuse from where their partial pressures are higher to where they are lower

May 7­9:26 AM

Heme group Iron atom

Polypeptide chain

O2 loadedin lungs

O2 unloadedin tissues

May 7­9:29 AM

• Loading and unloading of O2 depend on cooperation between the subunits of the hemoglobin molecule• The binding of O2 to one subunit induces the other subunits to bind O2 with more affinity• Cooperative O2 binding and release is evident in the dissociation curve for hemoglobin•A drop in pH lowers affinity of hemoglobin for O2

May 7­9:29 AM

Carbon Dioxide Transport• Hemoglobin also helps transport CO2 and assists in buffering• Carbon from respiring cells diffuses into the blood plasma and then into erythrocytes and is ultimately released in the lungs

Elite Animal AthletesMigratory and diving mammals have evolutionary adaptations that allow them to perform extraordinary feats Migratory and diving mammals have evolutionary adaptations that allow them to perform extraordinary feats

May 7­9:31 AM

The Ultimate Endurance RunnerThe extreme O2 consumption of the antelope­like pronghorn underlies its ability to run at high speed over long distances

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May 7­9:35 AM

Diving Mammals• Deep­diving air breathers stockpile O2 and deplete it slowly