The Jakarta Mandate– from global consensus to global work

Conservation and sustainable use of marine and coastal biological diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

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It all started in the sea; the vast world ocean isthe origin of life on Earth. Moreover, to thisday, ‘new’ and sometimes apparently impossi-ble life forms are discovered in the sea. Only,they are neither new nor impossible. They justare, and they reflect the amazing diversity oflife on this blue planet. If anything, they dem-onstrate our still rather big lack of knowledgeof the ocean and the scope of its life.

To date, an estimated 1.7 million specieshave been identified, but the exact number ofthe existing species is still unknown. Estimatesvary from a low of 5 million to a high of 100million. Seas cover over 70 per cent of the sur-face of Earth, but only about 15 per cent –some 250,000 – of the total number of knownplant and animal species are found there. Spe-cies living on land, or in the ocean and thecoastal zone, are unique, have unique roles,and provide unique resources and services.Marine and coastal habitats cannot take theplace of forests or grasslands. Consequently,conservation and sustainable use of marineand coastal living organisms is just as crucialas conservation and use of species in a forest

or another ter-restrial environ-ment.

Struggle to

survide

The seas har-bour all fromthe very smallestto the very larg-est of organ-isms; from sin-gle-cell algae to60 metres longkelp plants;from microscop-ic zooplanktonto giant whales.Animals andplants living inthe sea areamazingly adapted for surviving in their par-ticular underwater environment. That envi-ronment could be a warm tropical sea, theconstant coldness of the Polar regions, or the

variations of a northernbrackish-water sea or an estu-ary anywhere in the world.It could be the depth of theocean abysses or the near-shore shallows of a tidal sea.It could be the relatively bar-ren open ocean or nutrient-rich coastal strips. Life isfound at depths of over11,000 metres and in thevery surface of the water inareas close to land. Actually,almost 60 per cent of theEarth’s surface are seabed

Why marine and coastal biologicaldiversity is important

Micro algae (diatoms), the marinemicrocosm and basis for marine life.

Humpback whales, majestic marine giants.

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at depths neverreached by sun-light. The seaoffers an im-mense varietyof living condi-tions – andhighly variablechances of sur-vival. Althoughmostly welladapted, everyspecies in everymarine or coast-al ecosystem isstruggling tosurvive. This

holds true when there is no or little human im-pact on that environment. It is even truerwhen pollution, over-exploitation and destruc-tion of habitats adds to the normal hardshipsin the sea.

The variety of survival strategies, and offunctional diversity in the sea, could provevery useful not just for the marine and coastalbiodiversity but also for humankind. A widerange of interesting chemicals is found withinmarine organisms; substances that could con-

stitute an important source of new biochemicalproducts including medicines. Antibiotics, anti-coagulants and drugs for treating cancer andheart disease have already been derived frommarine organisms.

Narrow, vulnerable and highly productive

The ocean holds about one billion km3 ofwater, but most of underwater life is found inthe narrow, shallow coastal strip, the interfacebetween land and sea. If anything could becompared to rain forests on land, it would bethe rich, sunlit coastal zone. This strip of di-verse ecosystems and habitats, found alongall continents around the world, belong to thebiologically most productive areas on Earth.These areas and their living resources aremajor components in the global biogeochemi-cal cycles. At the same time, many of thesevaluable areas are sensitive to human activi-ties, impacts and interventions.

In the coastal zone we find productive wet-lands and also hard surfaces harbouring myri-ads of life. It is a diversity of extensive areas ofcomplex, specialized and highly productivehabitats. Among many things, the continentalmargin may comprise a coral reef, a sandybeach, a mangrove forest, a river estuary, a

Sabre-tooth fish, a deep-water species.

Life is also abundant in the cold Polar regions.

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mudflat, salt marshes, arocky shore, or beds of sea-grass or seaweed. As point-ed out in the Global Biodi-versity Assessment (1995),‘many kelp forests androcky intertidal shores areamong the most productiveof any ecosystem in theworld. Coastal fisheries arethe richest in the world,with more than 75 per centof the world’s fish catchcoming from coastal wa-ters.’ In total, more than 95per cent of the global catchof edible fish and shellfishis derived from continentalshelf areas rather than from the open ocean.

The coastal zone is a breeding ground, anursery, a shelter, a food store, and muchmore for life in the sea. Over 90 per cent ofthe living and non-living resources are foundalong the coasts within a sea–land area thatextends only a few hundred kilometres fromthe shore.

One tenth to carry three out of four

The coastal zone is also the home and sourceof existence for a majority of the global humanpopulation. Two thirds of us – close to fourbillion people – already live in the immediatecoastal region, which is ten per cent of the to-tal land area in the world. Most of us, world-wide, live within 80 km of the coast. One fifthof the global population is found in coastal ur-ban centres. It is believed that 30 years fromnow, some 75 per cent of the global populationwill live in the narrow coastal zone.

Marine and coastal areas are under in-creased pressure in almost all parts of theworld, as are their natural resources and re-maining coastal habitats. Rapid development,characterized by unsustainable developmentpatterns, and population growth continue.

There is international agreement that the mostserious threats to marine and coastal biologicaldiversity are alteration and loss of habitat, in-cluding destruction of watersheds; chemicalpollution and eutrophication; climate change;invasions of alien species; and over-exploita-tion of living marine and coastal resources.

It is not hard to understand that marineand coastal biological diversity will be deplet-ed, productivity undermined, and conflictsover increasingly scarce coastal zone resourcesintensified – unless present development andresource use trends are reversed.

Biological diversity, as defined in the Con-vention on Biological Diversity, means thevariability among living organisms from allsources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marineand other aquatic ecosystems and the ecologi-cal complexes of which they are part; this in-cludes diversity within species, between spe-cies and of ecosystems.

It should go without saying that the conser-vation and sustainable use of marine andcoastal biodiversity is a prerequisite for futurelife on our planet. Life started in the sea. It willnot go on without life in the sea and its near-shore nurseries.

Wadden Sea, a European coastal wetland complex.

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• The Convention on Biological Diversitywas agreed upon by the world communityas part of its commitment to sustainable de-velopment. It represents a dramatic stepforward in the conservation of biologicaldiversity, the sustainable use of its compo-nents, and the fair and equitable sharingof benefits arising from the use of geneticresources.

• The Convention is the first global, compre-hensive agreement to address all aspectsof biological diversity, and recognizes thatthe conservation of biological diversity isa common concern of humankind and anintegral part of the development process.

• As a shared responsibility is called for, theConvention promotes a renewed partner-ship among countries. The Convention’sprovision on scientific and technical co-operation, access to financial and geneticresources, and the transfer of environmen-tally sound technologies, form the founda-tions of this partnership.

• The Convention on BiologicalDiversity – one of the most sig-nificant recent developments ininternational law, internationalrelations, and the fields of envi-ronment and development –was opened for signature on 5June 1992 at the UN Confer-ence on Environment and De-velopment. It entered into forceon 29 December 1993. In April2000, close to 180 states hadsigned and ratified the Conven-tion.

• The Conference of the Parties (COP) isthe supreme body of the Convention. Thefirst session of the COP was held in 1994in the Bahamas; the second in Jakarta in1995; the third in Buenos Aires in 1996;the fourth in Bratislava in 1998; and thefifth in Nairobi in May 2000.

• The Jakarta Mandate is a global con-sensus on the importance of marine andcoastal biological diversity. It is part ofthe Ministerial Statement at the COPmeeting in Jakarta in 1995 on the im-plementation of the Convention of Bio-logical Diversity. Its work programmewas adopted at the COP meeting inBratislava in 1998.

• The COP can establish subsidiary bodies.One such body is the Subsidiary Body onScientific, Technical and Technological Ad-vice (SBSTTA). The role of the SBSTTA isto provide the COP with timely advice re-lating to Scientific and Technical Matters –

The Convention on Biological Diversity

Agrobiodiversity

Dryland ecosystems

Forest biodiversity

Inland waters

Marine and coastalbiodiversity

Mountain biodiversity

Alien Species

Scientific Assessments

Ecosystem Approach

Indicators

Global TaxonomyInitiative

Protected Areas

CROSS-CUTTINGISSUSES

THEMATICAREAS

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thematic areas and cross-cutting issues rele-vant to all areas – covered by the Conven-tion. It is a multidisciplinary body, open toparticipation by all Parties, and comprisinggovernment representatives competent in allrelevant fields of expertise. Other subsidiarybodies established under the COP includethe Panel of Experts on Access and BenefitSharing, and the Intersessional Open-endedWorking Group on Article 8 j and RelatedProvision.

• The Convention has established a Finan-cial Mechanism to provide funds to helpdeveloping countries achieve its objectives.The mechanism is operated by the GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF) under theguidance of the COP.

• The Convention has also established a Sec-retariat. The role of the Secretariat of theConvention is to arrange and service meet-ings of the COP; assume duties assignedby potential protocols; prepare reports; andco-ordinate with other international rele-vant bodies. The main function of the Sec-retariat in relation to the Jakarta Mandateis to promote the implementation of identi-

fied specific activities and to perform anoverall co-ordination role.

• The Convention has a bottom-up ap-proach, is needs-driven and nationallydriven. It should be constructed step bystep. It has national and Clearing-HouseMechanism (CHM) focal points, as well asfocal points in relevant organizations. Eachfocal point should develop its own support-ing network. The Convention’s Biodiversi-ty CHM is a ’network of networks’.

• The CHM is an open and decentralized in-formation and co-operation network inprogress. The objective of this network ofco-operating parties and partners is totranslate the goals of partnership and co-operation into action. It aims to promoteand facilitate scientific and technical co-op-eration for the implementation of the Con-vention by developing and strengtheningnational capabilities through human re-source development and institution-build-ing; facilitating the transfer of technology;and promoting the establishment of jointresearch programmes and ventures for thedevelopment of relevant technologies.

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The pressure on coastal and marine environ-ments world-wide was highlighted in the com-prehensive Global Biodiversity Assessment,commissioned by UNEP, funded by the Glo-bal Environment Facility (GEF), and present-ed to the COP meeting in Jarkarta in 1995.

That meeting also comprised a meeting ofMinisters. In their Statement they referred tothe new global consensus on marine andcoastal biological diversity as the JakartaMandate on Marine and Coastal BiologicalDiversity.

The Ministers reaffirmed that ‘there is acritical need for the COP to address the con-servation and sustainable use of marine andcoastal biological diversity, and urge Parties toinitiate immediate action to implement the de-cisions adopted on this issue.’ In that context,the Ministers welcomed ‘the declaration by theCOP of the new global consensus on the im-portance of marine and coastal diversity’.

In the decision taken by the COP at itsmeeting in Jarkarta, a work programme formarine and coastal biological diversity wascalled for. Following this decision (II/10), aRoster of Experts on Marine and CoastalBiological Diversity was established. On thebasis of their work and recommendations bythe experts, a work programme was subse-quently elaborated.

At the COP meeting in Bratislava in 1998,the Parties adopted a Decision (IV/5) on con-servation and sustainable use of marine andcoastal biological diversity, including a Multi-year Programme of Work on Marine andCoastal Biological Diversity. The work pro-gramme is focused on five thematic issues,which reflect those identified in the Jakarta De-cision and Ministerial Statement. In addition,this Decision also addresses coral reefs andSmall Island Developing States.

The purpose of the work programme is tofacilitate the assist the implementation of theJakarta Mandate. It is to be promoted and co-ordinated by the Secretariat of the Conven-tion, and is founded on six basic principles:• The ecosystem approach;• The precautionary principle;• The importance of science;• That full use should be made of the

roster of experts;• The involvement of local and indigenous

communities (traditional knowledge); and• Three levels – national, regional and

global – of programme implementation.

The work also interacts with a number ofother programme activities within the Conven-

Jakarta Mandate – from consensus towork programme

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tion, the ones most relevant to the JakartaMandate being:• Biological diversity indicators;• Species, taxonomy and systematics;• Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI);• Incentive measures;• Environmental impact assessment;• Sustainable use;• Sustainable tourism.

Implementation should primarily take place atnational and local levels. It should be integratedinto the national biodiversity strategies, plansand programmes in order to promote the conser-vation and sustainable use of marine and coastalbiological diversity.

The global and regional levels are also im-

portant. International organizations and agree-ments should be encouraged to implement thework programme on marine and coastal bio-logical diversity within their own work. Theseorganizations include, inter alia,• UN Environment Programme (UNEP),

including the Global Programme of Actionfor the Protection of the Marine Environ-ment from Land-based Activities (GPA),and Global International Waters Assess-ment (GIWA);

• UN Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO);

• Intergovernmental Oceanographic Com-mission (IOC) of UNESCO;

• UN International Maritime Organization(IMO);

• Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Con-vention);

• Convention on Migratory Species(Bonn Convention);

• Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna andFlora, (CITES);

• World Heritage Convention.

Regional organizations, bodies and agree-ments should be invited to co-ordinate acti-vities relevant to the work programme. Theseinclude, for example,• UNEP Regional Seas Conventions and

Action Programmes (e.g., Mediterranean,Carribean, South East Pacific ActionPlans);

• Other regional conventions and actionprogrammes (for the North-east Atlantic,the Baltic Sea, the Barents Sea, etc.).

Mangrove forest, Biak Island, Indonesia.

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The Jakarta Mandate Work Programme

Integrated marine and coastalarea management (IMCAM)

Generally, we manage resources sector-by-sector. How-ever, such sectoral approaches to the management ofmarine and coastal resources have generally not resultedin sustainable development in the areas and regions con-cerned. Consequently, taking measures sector-by-sectorhas not either enhanced the conservation and sustaina-ble use of marine and coastal biological diversity.

New systems-oriented models that move plannersand decision-makers toward management systems builton multiple-use, and precautionary and ecosystems ap-proaches, are urgently needed to reverse the negativetrends. It is needed to put development on an ecologi-cally sustainable path. A holistic management approach,focusing on ecosystem processes, is needed for propermanagement of marine and coastal biological diversity.For effective conservation and sustainable use of ma-rine and coastal biological diversity, Integrated Marineand Coastal Area Management (IMCAM) needs to bewidely adopted and implemented.

IMCAM involves comprehensive assessments, settingof objectives, planning and management of marine andcoastal areas for all relevant economic and social sec-tors. It is a participatory process of combining all as-pects of the physical, biological and human componentsof the marine and coastal areas within a single manage-ment framework. It involves all stakeholders - decision-makers in the public and private sectors; resourceowners and users; managers and users; non-govern-mental organisations and the general public.

At the Jakarta meeting, the COP decided to encour-age the use of IMCAM as the most suitable frameworkfor addressing the impact of human activities on marineand coastal biological diversity and for promoting con-servation and sustainable use of these resources.Countries are recommended to establish and/orstrengthen institutions, administrations and legislationfor the development of integrated management ofmarine and coastal ecosystems. It was also pointed outthat activities like construction and mining in coastalareas, mariculture, mangrove management, tourism,recreation, fishing and other land-based activities, areparticularly important sectoral activities to be dealtwith within an IMCAM framework.

The five key programme elements of theJakarta Mandate Work Programme are:

• Integrated marine and coastal areamanagement (IMCAM);

• Marine and coastal living resources(MCLR);

• Marine and coastal protected areas(MCPA);

• Mariculture;• Alien species and genotypes.

In addition, a general element was identifiedencompassing the coordinating role of the Sec-retariat, the collaborative linkages required,and the effective use of experts.

Local fishermen collecting shellfish, Indonesia.

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Objective1:Review existing instruments relevant to IMCAM andtheir implication for the implementation of the Con-vention.

Activities:• Identify existing mechanisms and instruments rele-

vant to IMCAM;• Identify focal points for implementation of IMCAM

at different levels;• Gather, compare and analyse information provided

by the focal points;• Convene meetings involving representatives of stake-

holders at different levels.

Objective 2:Promote the development and implementation of IM-CAM at the local, national and regional level.

Activities:• Promote within the framework of IMCAM the inte-

gration of biological diversity concerns in all socio-economic sectors adversely impacting the marineand coastal environments;

• Promote the identification or establishment of sub-regional, regional or global processes for developingadvice on the application of IMCAM and issues identi-fied under the operational objective;

• Promote adequate protection of areas important forreproduction such as spawning and nursery areas andrestoration of such areas and other important habitatsfor marine living resources;

• Promote action to reduce and control sea-basedsources of pollution;

• Assist the development of national and regionalcapacity building;

• Provide information on relevant legal and institutionalissues, having regard to UNCLOS and other interna-tional and regional agreements;

• Assist in the development of appropriate educationand public awareness programmes at all levels;

• Provide guidance on maintenance and wider applica-tion of local and traditional knowledge.

Objectives and activities

Urban livingon the coastof Acapulco

Mexico.

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Objective 3:Develop guidelines for ecosystem evaluation andassessment (including indicators).

Activities:• Promote the development of sets of indicators on

which to base decision-making; and convene regionalworkshops to help select key indicators;

• Identify existing organizations and initiatives;• Promote the identification of key habitats for marine

living resources on a regional basis, with a view tofurther develop policies for action to prevent physi-cal alteration and destruction of these habitats, andpursue restoration of degraded habitats, including,inter alia, coral reef systems;

• Promote the establishment or strengthening ofmechanisms for research, monitoring and assessmentof marine and coastal ecosystems and their living re-sources;

• Promote exchange of information and experienceusing the clearing-house mechanism and otherappropriate mechanisms;

• Collaborate with relevant organisations in thepreparation of guidelines.

Marine and coastal living resources

Fish and shellfish provide 5-10 per cent of the world’sfood supply, and 10-20 per cent of the world’s protein.Commercial or large-scale fishing provides more than90 per cent of the global catch of living marine re-sources. Traditional and artisanal fisheries are wide-spread along the coasts in several regions of the worldand particularly in many developing countries. A greatvariety of species is harvested within these fisheries.They provide between 40 and 100 per cent of the ani-mal protein in the food of people in tropical developingcountries. However, many of the world’s fishery re-sources are already over-exploited and others arefacing the danger of depletion. In addition, other livingresources – such as mangrove, corals and speciesamenable to bio-prospecting – are subject to or underthreat of over-exploitation.

The COP and SBSTTA have repeatedly emphasizedthat the ecosystem approach should be the guidingprinciple and provide the primary framework for actionto achieve conservation and sustainable use of marineand coastal living resources. This augments the tradi-tional mono-species approach. In practice it meansthat the conservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity should be addressed in a holistic manner,including biological diversity considerations as well associo-economic and cultural factors.

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Marine and coastal protectedareas

Networks of marine and coastal protected areas, aswell as other conservation areas such as BiosphereReserves, provide important tools for conservation,management and sustainable use of marine and coastalbiological diversity and resources. The establishment ofprotected marine and coastal areas is, however, sig-nificantly lagging behind similar efforts in the terrestrialenvironment

The establishment of marine and coastal protectedareas is successful only if these areas are set up andmanaged as part of broader programs that provide forthe management of all uses of the marine and coastalarea and adjacent land. Thus, national and regional rep-resentative systems of marine and coastal protected

Objective 1:Promote ecosystem approaches to the sustainableuse of marine and coastal living resources.

Activities:• Develop collaborative links with relevant organisa-

tions and institutions;• Promote exchange of information and experience

using appropriate mechanisms;• Promote identification and development of ecosys-

tem approaches compatible with the sustainableuse of marine and coastal living resources;

• Promote identification both of components of eco-systems which are critical to the functioning of theecosystem and of key threats;

• Promote capacity-building at local, national and re-gional levels, including local and traditional knowl-edge;

• Carry out a study on the effects of stock enhance-ment on marine and coastal biological diversity atthe species and genetic levels.

Objective 2:Make information on marine and coastal genetic re-sources, including bio-prospecting, available to Parties.

Activities:• Explore ways to expand the knowledge base on

which to make informed and appropriate decisionsabout how this area might be managed in accord-ance with the objectives of the Convention.

Macro algae (kelp forest), California.

Objectives and activities

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areas should be established to comprise completeecosystems or habitats to as large an extent as possi-ble. These should, in turn, be integrated with nationalpolicies and mechanisms for IMCAM. The establish-ment of large, multiple-use marine and coastal protect-ed areas are a major step towards achieving integratedmarine and coastal area management. Smaller, oftencommunity-based reserves also need to include mana-gement of land-based activities that have an impact onthe viability of the protected area. To be effective, sys-tems for IMCAM should include the establishment andmanagement of marine and coastal protected areas asan integral component. Regarding priority areas to beselected as protected areas, the COP has expressedthe view that critical habitats for living marine re-sources should be an important criterion for the iden-tification of marine and coastal protected areas. It hasalso been emphasized that conservation measuresshould focus on the protection of ecosystem function-ing, in addition to protecting specific stocks or species.

Objectives and activities

Objective 1:Facilitate research and monitoring activities on thevalue and effects of marine and coastal protected areasor similar restricted management areas on sustainableuse of marine and coastal living resources.

Activities:• Collaborate with relevant organizations in the

preparation of project proposals;• Work with relevant organizations to identify pilot

projects;• Conduct a desk study to gather and assimilate

information;• Identify linkages between conservation and sust-

ainable use;• Facilitate for Parties, countries or international/

regional organizations to conduct research on theeffects of marine and coastal protected or closedareas on population size and dynamics, subject tonational legislation.

Tropical coast of the Island of La Digue, Seychelles.

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Objective 2:Develop criteria for the establishment and manage-ment of marine and coastal protected areas.

Activities:• Compile research findings on aspects of marine and

coastal protected areas relevant to their selection,design, establishment and management;

• Assist in developing criteria for selection of marineand coastal protected areas, where critical habitatsfor marine living resources should be one importantcriterion;

• Use the clearing-house mechanism to assist the ex-change of information on research, managementissues and problems (including incentive measures)between marine protected area managers, to facili-tate continuous improvement in management effec-tiveness across the global network of marine pro-tected areas.

• Assist in the development of national and regionalcapacity-building, provide information on relevantlegal and institutional issues, assist the developmentof appropriate education and public awarenessprogrammes at all levels, and provide guidance onmaintenance and wider application of local and tra-ditional knowledge.

Mariculture

Mariculture is the commercial farming of fish, shellfish,molluscs and plants in saltwater. It corresponds toabout 11 per cent of total marine production (11 mil-lion tonnes in 1987), but in some countries up to 60per cent of the animal protein in food comes fromfarmed marine organisms. Production is growingannually at a rate of 5-7 per cent as more and morespecies are brought into cultivation.

On the one hand, mariculture holds promises forsustainable production of protein-rich food productsand for sustainable economic development in manylocal communities.

On the other hand, however, large-scale industrialmariculture poses a number of significant threats tomarine and coastal diversity. These threats includelarge-scale destruction and deterioration of naturalhabitats; emissions of nutrients and organic materialcausing eutrophication and oxygen deficiency; leakageof antibiotics in wastes; releases of individuals whichmay interact genetically and ecologically with wildpopulations; accidental releases of alien or geneticallymodified organisms; transmission of diseases to wildstocks; and displacement of local and indigenouscommunities.

Salmon farming, Norway.

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Alien species and genotypes

Components of biological diversity, including species,genetic strains, and mixed genetic stocks that are notnative to an area, are known as ‘alien’ and may havesignificant irreversible and negative effects on marineand coastal biological diversity. There are already ex-amples of serious direct and often irreversible negativeeffects of alien species on marine ecosystems, whichhinder the conservation and sustainable use of marineand coastal biological diversity.

It is generally very difficult, in fact almost impossible,to eradicate or eliminate alien species once they havebeen established in a new environment. Consequently,the most effective strategy to limit the effects on bio-logical diversity is to prevent the introduction of alienspecies. Implementation of strict environmental impactassessments prior to all intentional introductions isone important tool for managementt.

One must also distinguish between intentional andunintentional introductions. Sources of non-intentionalintroductions include discharges of ballast water fromships; escapees from mariculture; organisms associatedwith species introduced intentionally; and unauthor-ized releases by the public. Introductions resultingfrom the building of waterways connecting previouslyseparated water bodies (e.g. the Suez Canal) is a spe-

Objective:Assess the consequences of mariculture for marineand coastal area biological diversity and promote tech-niques to minimize adverse impacts.

Activities:• Promote guidance on criteria, methods and tech-

niques to avoid the adverse effects of maricultureand also subsequent stock enhancement on marineand coastal biological diversity and enhance thepositive effects of mariculture on marine andcoastal productivity;

• Collect and disseminate information, data, literatureand bibliography relevant to the operational objec-tive and best practice of successful sustainablemariculture, including the use of local species whereappropriate;

• Evaluate the current state of scientific and techno-logical knowledge on effects of mariculture on ma-rine and coastal biological diversity.

Objectives and activities

In order to avoid or minimize negative impacts ofmariculture, COP has made a number of recommen-dations, including:• Assessments should be conducted and a monitoring

programme established in any decision to go aheadwith an introduction;

• Preference should be given to the use of localspecies;

• The development of techniques, which ensure morecomplete containment, should be encouraged;

• Owing to the difficulties of containment, any intro-duction of alien species or products of selectivebreeding should be conducted in accordance withthe precautionary principle.

Oyster cultivation on the Atlantic coast of France.

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Objectives and activities

cial case. Intentional introductions occur through ac-tivities such as mariculture, including marine ranching;release of hatchery-spawned organisms for the pur-pose of strengthening/enhancing wild populations; andindividuals resulting from the interbreeding of differentgenetic stocks.

The potential problems caused by introductionswere recognized at an early stage and included in thetext of the Convention (paragraphs g and h of Article8). Contracting Parties should:• establish or maintain means to regulate, manage or

control the risks associated with the use and re-lease of living modified organisms resulting frombiotechnology which are likely to have adverseenvironmental impacts that could affect the conser-vation and sustainable use of biological diversity,taking also into account the risks to human health;

• prevent the introduction of, control or eradicatethose alien species which threaten ecosystems, hab-itats or species.

Objective 1:Achieve better understanding of the causes and im-pacts of introductions of alien species and genotypesand the impact of such introductions on biologicaldiversity.

Activities:• Analyse and disseminate information, data and case

studies;• Develop collaboration with relevant organisations;• Ensure exchange of information and experience

using appropriate mechanisms.

Objective 2:Identify gaps in existing and proposed legal instru-ments, guidelines and procedures; and collect infor-mation on national and international actions address-ing the problem of alien species and genotypes.

Activities:• Request views and information from Parties,

countries and other bodies;• Analyse the information for the purpose of iden-

tifying gaps in legal instruments, guidelines andprocedures;

• Evaluate the information on the effectiveness ofefforts to prevent the introduction of, and to con-trol and eradicate, those alien species which maythreaten ecosystems, habitats or species;

• Identify means to support capacity-building in devel-oping countries to strengthen their ability to con-duct work related to alien species.

Objective 3:Establish an ‘incident list’ of introductions of alienspecies and genotypes through the national reportingprocess and any other appropriate means.

Activities:• Distil references of incidents from the national

reports and other appropriate sources;• Make information available through the clearing-

house mechanism or other appropriate mecha-nisms.

Americancomb jelly,an invasivespecies in e.g.the Black Sea.

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... a roster of experts on marine andcoastal biological diversity. The ex-perts on the roster will contribute tofurther development of scientific, tech-nological and socio-economic issues, in-cluding specific elements of nationalpolicies on marine and coastal biologi-cal diversity;

... a database of initiatives on pro-gramme elements, with special em-phasis on integrated marine andcoastal area management, will be es-tablished to inform on relevant initia-tives, promote exchange of informationand experiences among Parties andstrengthen co-operation with relevantorganizations and bodies;

... memoranda of co-operation will besigned to formally agree on commonoperational objectives at the Secretariatlevel, in order to promote synergy inthe implementation of the respectiveprogramme.

... ad hoc technical expert groups will beestablished to review proposals on re-search and monitoring projects on thevalue and effects of marine and coastalprotected areas. They will identify thelinkages between conservation and sus-tainable use; evaluate the current stateof scientific knowledge of the effects ofmariculture, and provide guidance crite-ria, methods and techniques to avoidadverse and promote positive effects ofmariculture and stock enhancement;

... the Jakarta Mandate web site will be

maintained to promote the Jakarta Man-date and the programme of work for itsimplementation, and to disseminate rele-vant information;

... the Clearing-House Mechanism willbe used for exchange of information andexpertise, as well as to promote scientificand technical co-operation.

... and products

Guidelines for ...... integrated marine and coastal area man-

agement;... ecosystem evaluation and assessment,

including indicators;... establishment and management of ma-

rine and coastal protected areas.

Studies on ...... effects of stock enhancement;... genetic resources and bio-prospecting;... gap analysis of legal instruments, guide-

lines and procedures for alien speciesand genotypes.

Databases comprising ...... a roster of experts on marine and coastal

biological diversity;... an incident list of alien species and geno-

types.

Issue paper on ...... the coral bleaching phenomenon, includ-

ing potential loss of diversity, and conse-quent socio-economic effects.

Work programme tools ...

THE PRODUCTION OF THIS PUBLICATION HAS BEEN SPONSORED BY THE GOVERNMENT OF SWEDEN.

Conception, text and editing: Ardea Miljö, Sweden • Graphic design: Tryckfaktorn, Sweden

Cover photos: Front conver: Bonaire Island, the Netherlands Antilles (Superstock, GreatShots).

Back cover and inside front cover: Coral reef biodiversity (Index Stock Imagery, GreatShots, and Kimmo Hagman, GreatShots).

Inside back cover: Stonefish, a venomous tropical bottom-dwelling marine fish (Kimmo Hagman, GreatShots).

Photos, pp. 1-16: National Geographics, GreatShots (pp. 1, 2-top, 10). Prisma Dia-Agentur, GreatShots (p.2-bottom).

Göran Hansson (p. 3) and Åke Engman (p. 13), Naturfotograferna. Zainal Arifin, R&D Center for Oceanology, Indonesian Institute

of Science (LIPI) (pp. 6-7 and 8). Superstock, GreatShots (p. 9). Minden Pictures, GreatShots (p. 11). Chad EhlersITiofoto

(p. 12). Björn Winsnes/Tiofoto (p.14).

Richard Harbison, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (p. 15).

Printing: Risbergs, Sweden. Printed in May 2000.

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