Pearson Baccalaureate Biology · PDF filethe Essential Ideas from the IB biology guide, ......

A Correlation of

Pearson Baccalaureate Biology

Higher Level ©2014

To the

International Baccalaureate Biology Curriculum

Higher Level and Options

A Correlation of Pearson Baccalaureate Biology, Higher Level, ©2014 to the International Baccalaureate Biology Curriculum

2 SE = Student Edition U = “understanding” – specific content concepts A = “application” – illustrative examples or significant experiments in biology history S = “skill” –practical activities or data analysis G = “guidance” – specifics and constraints to the requirements

Introduction

This document demonstrates how Pearson Baccalaureate Biology, Higher Level, ©2015 meets the International Baccalaureate Biology Curriculum, at the Higher Level and Options. Pearson Baccalaureate Biology is the 2nd edition of the market-leading Pearson Baccalaureate Higher Level biology book. It completely matches the specifications of the NEW International Baccalaureate biology curriculum and gives thorough coverage of the entire course content. The program covers the three parts of the International Baccalaureate syllabus: the core, the additional higher level material, and the options. Each chapter in the book corresponds to a topic or option in the IB guide, in the same sequence. Each chapter starts with a list of the Essential Ideas from the IB biology guide, which summarize the focus of each sub-topic. Pearson Baccalaureate Biology covers the course content using plain language, will all key scientific terms explained in the eBook glossary. The same terminology seen in IB examinations is present in all worked examples and questions. A popular feature of the book is the different colored boxes interspersed throughout each chapter to enhance learning, such as:

• Nature of Science promotes concept-based literacy as students recognize similar themes emerging across different topics.

• International-mindedness provides examples of global, environmental, political and socio-economics considerations.

• Laboratory Work indicates links to ideas for lab work and experiments that support learning in the course and prepare students for assessment.

• Hints for Success provide hints on how to approach questions and identify common pitfalls in understanding, and omissions made in answering questions.

• Challenge Yourself contains open questions that encourage students to think about the topic in depth or to make detailed connections with other topics that are challenging.

Three types of questions in the text: 1. Worked examples with solution 2. Exercises at the end of each chapter 3. Chapter practice questions, mostly from previous years’ IB examinations

eBook contains the following features:

• Animations • Videos • Interactive glossary of scientific words • Teacher assessment advice • Interactive quizzes, and more



Table of Contents

Topic 7: Nucleic Acids ............................................................................................. 4 Topic 8: Metabolism, Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis ..................................... 7 Topic 9: Plant Biology ........................................................................................... 10 Topic 10: Genetics and Evolution ......................................................................... 13 Topic 11: Animal Physiology................................................................................. 16 Option A: Neurobiology and Behavior ................................................................... 21 Option B: Biotechnology and bioinformatics ......................................................... 29 Option C: Ecology and conservation ..................................................................... 36 Option D: Human Physiology ................................................................................ 42



International Baccalaureate New Biology Curriculum

Pearson Baccalaureate Biology Higher Level, Student Edition

Topic 7: Nucleic Acids 7.1 DNA Structure and Replication Essential Idea: The structure of DNA is ideally suited to its function. U.1 Nucleosomes help to supercoil the

DNA.

SE: 326

U.2 DNA structure suggested a mechanism for DNA replication.

SE: 328-331

U.3 DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of a primer.

SE: 330-331

U.4 DNA replication is continuous on the leading strand and discontinuous on the lagging strand.

SE: 331 (Figure 7.8; International-Mindedness)

U.5 DNA replication is carried out by a complex system of enzymes.

SE: 330-332 (Table 7.2)

U.6 Some regions of DNA do not code for proteins but have other important functions.

SE: 327, 328 (Table 7.1)

A.1 Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins’ investigation of DNA structures by X-ray diffraction.

SE: 325 (Nature of Science)

A.2 Use of nucleotides containing dideoxyrubonucleic acid to stop DNA replication in preparation of samples for base sequencing.

SE: 332-333

A.3 Tandem repeats are used in DNA profiling.

SE: 328

S.1 Analysis of results of the Hershey and Chase experiment providing evidence that DNA is the genetic material.

SE: 324 (Figure 7.1)

S.2 Utilization of molecular visualization software to analyze the association between protein and DNA profiling.

SE: 328 (#5; Utilization)





7.2 Transcription and Gene Expression Essential Idea: Information stored as a code in DNA is copied onto mRNA. U.1 Transcription occurs in a 5’ to 3’

direction.

SE: 335

U.2 Nucleosomes help to regulate transcription in eukaryotes.

SE: 344 (#7)

U.3 Eukaryotic cells modify mRNA after transcription.

SE: 336-338 (Figure 7.12)

U.4 Splicing of mRNA increases the number of different proteins an organism can produce.

SE: 337

U.5 Gene expression is regulated by proteins that bind to specific base sequences in DNA.

SE: 338

U.6 The environment of a cell and of an organism has an impact on gene expression.

SE: 338

A.1 The promoter as an example of non-coding DNA with a function.

SE: 335-336

S.1 Analysis of changes in the DNA methylation patterns.

SE: 338

7.3 Translation Essential Idea: Information transferred from DNA to mRNA is translated into an amino

acid sequence. U.1 Initiation of translation involves

assembly of the components that carry out the process.

SE: 339-342

U.2 Synthesis of the polypeptide involves a repeated cycle of events.

SE: 343 (Key Fact)

U.3 Disassembly of the components follows termination of translation.

SE: 343

U.4 Free ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for use primarily within the cell.

SE: 343





U.5 Bound ribosomes synthesize proteins for secretion or use in lysosomes.

SE: 343

U.6 Translation can occur immediately after transcription in prokaryotes due to the absence of a nuclear membrane.

SE: 340

U.7 The sequence and number of amino acids in the polypeptide is the primary structure.

SE: 344 (Figure 7.17)

U.8 The secondary structure is the formation of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonding.

SE: 345 (Figure 7.18)

U.9 The tertiary structure is the further folding of the polypeptide stabilized by interactions between R groups.

SE: 345-346 (Figure 7.19)

U.10 The quaternary structure exists in proteins with more than one polypeptide chain.

SE: 346 (Figure 7.20)

A.1 tRNA-activating enzymes illustrate enzyme-substrate specificity and the role of phosphorylation.

SE: 342

S.1 Identification of polysomes in electron micrographs of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

SE: (Hotlinks Site)

S.2 The use of molecular visualization software to analyze the structure of eukaryotic ribosomes and tRNA molecules.

SE: (Hotlinks Site)





Topic 8: Metabolism, Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis 8.1 Metabolism Essential Idea: Metabolic reactions are regulated in response to the cell’s needs. U.1 Metabolic pathways consist of chains

and cycles of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

SE: 352

U.2 Enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyze.


U.3 Enzyme inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive.

SE: 354 (Figures 8.3 & 8.4)

U.4 Metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition.

SE: 354-355 (Figure 8.5)

A.1 End-product inhibition of the pathway that converts threonine to isoleucine.

SE: 355

A.2 Use of databases to identify potential new anti-malarial drugs.


S.1 Calculating and plotting rates of reaction from raw experimental results.

SE: (Hotlinks Site)

S.2 Distinguish different types of inhibition from graphs at specified substrate concentration.

SE: 355-356 (Worked Example)

8.2 Cell Respiration Essential Idea: Energy is converted to a usable form in cell respiration. U.1 Cell respiration involves the

oxidation and reduction of electron carriers.

SE: 357-358 (Table 8.2)

U.2 Phosphorylation of molecules makes them less stable.

SE: 359

U.3 In glycolysis, glucose is converted to pyruvate in the cytoplasm.

SE: 359-360 (Figures 8.7, 8.8, & 8.9)





U.4 Glycolysis gives a small net gain of ATP without the use of oxygen.

SE: 360

U.5 In aerobic cell respiration pyruvate is decarboxylated and oxidized, and converted into acetyl compound and attached to coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A in the link reaction.

SE: 360 (Key Fact), 361

U.6 In the Krebs cycle, the oxidation of acetyl groups is coupled to the reduction of hydrogen carriers, liberating carbon dioxide.

SE: 361-363

U.7 Energy released by oxidation reactions is carried to the cristae of the mitochondria by reduced NAD and FAD.

SE: 364, 366

U.8 Transfer of the electrons between carriers in the electron transport chain in the membrane of the cristae is coupled to proton pumping.

SE: 364-366

U.9 In chemiosmosis protons diffuse through ATP synthase to generate ATP.

SE: 365 (Key Fact), 366 (Figure 8.17)

U.10 Oxygen is needed to bind with the free protons to maintain the hydrogen gradient, resulting in the formation of water.

SE: 365-366

U.11 The structure of the mitochondrion is adapted to the function it performs.

SE: 366 (Figure 8.17), 368 (Table 8.4)

A.1 Electron tomography used to produce images of active mitochondria.

SE: 361





S.1 Analysis of diagrams of the pathways of aerobic respiration to decide where decarboxylation and oxidation reactions occur.

SE: 361-366

S.2 Annotations of a diagram of mitochondrion to indicate the adaptations to its function.

SE: 366 (Figure 8.17)

8.3 Photosynthesis Essential Idea: Light energy is converted into chemical energy. U.1 Light-dependent reactions take place

in the intermembrane space of the thylakoids.

SE: 370

U.2 Light–independent reactions take place in the stroma.

SE: 373

U.3 Reduced NADP and ATP are produced in the light-dependent reactions.

SE: 371

U.4 Absorption of light by photosystems generates excited electrons.

SE: 370-371 (Figure 8.21)

U.5 Photolysis of water generates electrons for use in the light-independent reactions.

SE: 370-371 (Figure 8.21)

U.6 Transfer of excited electrons occurs between carriers in thylakoid membranes.

SE: 370-371 (Figure 8.21)

U.7 Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to contribute to generate a proton gradient.

SE: 371 (Figure 8.21), 372 (Figure 8.22)

U.8 ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using the proton gradient.

SE: 371, 372 (Table 8.5)

U.9 Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP.

SE: 371





U.10 In the light-independent reaction a carboxylase catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-bisphosphate.

SE: 373-375 (Figure 8.23)

U.11 Glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced to triose phosphate using a reduced NADP and ATP.

SE: 374-375 (Figure 8.23)

U.12 Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP and produce carbohydrates.

SE: 374-375 (Figure 8.23)

U.13 Ribulose bisphosphate is reformed using ATP.

SE: 374-375 (Figure 8.23)

U.14 The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to its function in photosynthesis.

SE: 376 (Table 8.8)

A.1 Calvin’s experiment to elucidate the carboxylation of RuBP.


S.1 Annotation of a diagram to indicate the adaptations of a chloroplast to its function.

SE: 375 (Figure 8.24), 377 (Figure 8.25, #1)

Topic 9: Plant Biology 9.1 Transport in the Xylem of Plants Essential Idea: Structure and function are correlated in the xylem in plants. U.1 Transpiration is the inevitable

consequence of gas exchange in the leaf.

SE: 381-382

U.2 Plants transport water from the roots to the leaves to replace losses from transpiration.

SE: 383-384

U.3 The cohesive property of water and the structure of the xylem vessels allow transport under tension.

SE: 383-384, 385, 386 (Table 9.4, (Figure 9.4)

U.4 The adhesive property of water and evaporation generate tension forces in leaf cell walls.

SE: 385 (Table 9.1, (Figure 9.4)





U.5 Active uptake of mineral ions in the roots causes absorption of water by osmosis.

SE: 388 (Key Fact)

A.1 Adaptations of plants in deserts and in saline soils for water conservation.

SE: 389 (Interesting Fact), 390

A.2 Models of water transport in xylem using simple apparatus including blotting or filter paper, porous pots and capillary tubing.

SE: 384 (Laboratory)

S.1 Drawing the structure of primary xylem vessels in sections of stems based on microscope images.


S.2 Measurement of transpiration rates using photometers. (Practical 7)

SE: 390-392 (Laboratory)

S.3 Design of an experiment to test hypothesis about the effects of temperatures or humidity on transpiration rates.


9.2 Transport in the Phloem of Plants Essential Idea: Structure and function are correlated in the phloem in plants. U.1 Plants transport organic compounds

from sources to sinks.

SE: 393-394, 395 (Figure 9.12)

U.2 Incompressibility of water allows transport along hydrostatic pressure gradients.

SE: 394-395

U.3 Active transport is used to load organic compounds into phloem sieve tubes at the source.

SE: 395

U.4 High concentrations of solutes in the phloem at the source lead to water uptake by osmosis.

SE: 395

U.5 Raised by hydrostatic pressure causes the contents of the phloem to flow toward sinks.

SE: 395 (Figure 9.12)





A.1 Structure-function relationships of phloem sieve tubes.

SE: 393

S.1 Identification of xylem and phloem in microscope images of stem and root.

SE: 396 (Laboratory), 397 (Worked Example)

S.2 Analysis of date from experiments measuring phloem transport rates using aphid stylets and radioactively-labelled carbon dioxide.

SE: 396 (Figure 9-13; #4-9)

9.3 Growth in Plants Essential Idea: Plants adapt their growth to environmental conditions. U.1 Undifferentiated cells in the

meristems of plants allow indeterminate growth.

SE: 398

U.2 Mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex provide cells needed for extension of the stem and development of leaves.

SE: 399

U.3 Plant hormones control growth in the shot apex.

SE: 399-402

U.4 Plant shoots response to the environment by tropisms.

SE: 400-402

U.5 Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of auxin in plants tissue.

SE: 401

U.6 Auxin influences of cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene expression.

SE: 401-402 (Figure 9-19)

A.1 Micropropagation of plants using tissue from the shoot apex nutrient agar gels and growth hormones.

SE: 403 (Utilization)





A.2 Use of micropropagation for rapid bulking up of new varieties, production of virus-free strains of existing varieties and propagation of orchids and other rare species.


9.4 Reproduction in Plants Essential Idea: Reproduction in flowering plants is influenced by the biotic and abiotic

environments. U.1 Flowering involves a change in gene

expression in the shoot apex.

SE: 411

U.2 The switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and dark periods in many plants.

SE: 410-411

U.3 Success in plant reproduction depends on pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal.

SE: 406-407, 408 (Key Fact)

U.4 Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in sexual reproduction.

SE: 407

A.1 Methods used to induce short-day plants to flower out of season.

SE: 410

S.1 Drawing internal structure of seeds.

SE: 408 (Figure 9.19)

S.2 Drawing of half-views of animal-pollinated flowers.

SE: 406 (Figure 9.21)

S.3 Design of experiments to test hypothesis about factors affecting germination.


Topic 10: Genetics and Evolution 10.1 Meiosis Essential Idea: Meiosis leads to independent assortment of chromosomes and unique

composition of alleles in daughter cells. U.1 Chromosomes replicate in

interphase before meiosis.

SE: 416





U.2 Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous chromatids.

SE: 417 (Figure 10.3), 418

U.3 Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles on the chromosomes of the haploid cells.

SE: 417-418 (Figure 10.4)

U.4 Chiasmata formation between non-sister chromatids can results in an exchange of alleles.

SE: 418

U.5 Homologous chromosomes spate in meiosis I.

SE: 419

U.6 Sister chromatids separate in meiosis II.

SE: 419

U.7 Independent assortment of genes in due to random orientation of homologous chromosomes pairs in meiosis I.

SE: 420-421

S.1 Drawing diagrams to show chiasmata formed by crossing over.

SE: 418 (Figure 10.4; #1)

10.2 Inheritance Essential Idea: Genes may be linked or unlinked and are inherited accordingly. U.1 Gene loci are said to be linked if on

the same chromosome.

SE: 427

U.2 Unlinked genes segregate independently as a result of meiosis.

SE: 423

U.3 Variations can be discrete or continuous.

SE: 430-431

U.4 The phenotypes of polygenic characteristics tend to show continuous variation.

SE: 431 (Figure 10.20), 432 (Nature of Science)





U.5 Chi-squared tests are used to determine whether the difference between an observed and expected frequency distribution is statistically significant.

SE: 433 (Worked Example), 434-436

A.1 Morgans’s discovery of non-Mendelian ratios in Drosophila.

SE: 426-427 (Nature of Science)

A.2 Completion and analysis of Punnett squares for dihybrid traits.

SE: 424 (Figure 10.10; #2)

A.3 Polygenic traits such as human height may be influenced by environmental factors.

SE: 431 (International-Mindedness), 432 (Nature of Science)

S.1 Calculation of the predicted genotypic and phenotypic ratio of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes.

SE: 424 (#2)

S.2 Identification of recombinants in crosses involving two linked genes.

SE: 427-430

S.3 Use of chi-squared test on data from dihybrid crosses.

SE: 433 (Worked Example), 436 (#3-4)

10.3 Gene Pools and Speciation Essential Idea: Gene pools change over time. U.1 A gene pool consists of all the

genes, and their different alleles, present in an interbreeding population.

SE: 437-438

U.2 Evolution required that allele frequencies change with time in populations.

SE: 438

U.3 Reproductive isolation of populations can be temporal, behavioral or geographic.

SE: 441-442

U.4 Speciation due to divergence of isolated populations can be gradual.

SE: 446-447





U.5 Speciation can occur abruptly.

SE: 446-447

A.1 Identifying examples of directional, stabilizing and disruptive selection.

SE: 444 (#5)

A.2 Speciation in the genus Allium by polyploidy.


S.1 Comparison of allele frequencies of geographically isolated populations.

SE: 444 (#6)

Topic 11: Animal Physiology 11.1 Antibody Production and Vaccination Essential Idea: Immunity is based on recognition of self and destruction of foreign

material. U.1 Every organism has unique

molecules on the surface of its cells.

SE: 452

U.2 Pathogens can be species-specific although others can cross species barriers.

SE: 456

U.3 B lymphocytes are activated by T lymphocytes in mammals.

SE: 452-453

U.4 Activated B cells multiply to form clones of plasma cells and memory cells.

SE: 453

U.5 Plasma cells secrete antibodies.

SE: 453

U.6 Antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens.

SE: 453-454

U.7 White cells release histamine in response to allergens.

SE: 457-458 (Figure 11.3)

U.8 Histamines cause allergic symptoms.

SE: 458

U.9 Immunity depends upon the persistence of memory cells.

SE: 453

U.10 Vaccines contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not cause the disease.

SE: 454





U.11 Fusion of a tumor cell with an antibody-producing plasma cell creates a hybridoma cell.

SE: 457 (Figure 11.2)

U.12 Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells.

SE: 456-457

A.1 Smallpox was the first infectious disease of humans to have been eradicated by vaccination.

SE: 454 (Nature of Science), 455 (International-Mindedness)

A.2 Monoclonal antibodies to HCG are used to pregnancy test kits.

SE: 457

A.3 Antigens on the surface of red blood cells stimulate antibody production in a person with a different blood group.

SE: 452

S.1 Analysis of epidemiological data related to vaccination programs.

SE: 455 (International-Mindedness; Worked Example)

11.2 Movement Essential Idea: The roles of musculoskeletal system are movement, support and

protection. U.1 Bones and exoskeletons provide

anchorage for muscles and act as levers.

SE: 459

U.2 Synovial joints allow certain movements but not others.

SE: 460

U.3 Movement of the body requires muscles to work in antagonistic pairs.

SE: 460

U.4 Skeletal muscles fibres are multinucleated and contain specialized endoplasmic reticulum.

SE: 462

U.5 Muscle fibres contain many myofibrils.

SE: 462

U.6 Each myofibrils is made up of contractile sarcomeres.

SE: 463





U.7 The contraction of the skeletal muscle is achieved by the sliding of actin and myosin filaments.

SE: 463-465 (Figure 11.11)

U.8 ATP hydrolysis and cross bridge formation are necessary for the filaments to slide.

SE: 464 (Figure 11.10)

U.9 Calcium ions and the proteins tropomyosin and troponin control muscle contractions.

SE: 464, 466 (Figure 11.12)

A.1 Antagonistic pairs of muscles in an insect leg.

SE: 460 (Figure 11.5)

S.1 Annotations of a diagram of the human elbow.

SE: 461 (Figure 11.7)

S.2 Drawing labelled diagrams of the structure of a sarcomere.

SE: 463 (Figure 11.9)

S.3 Analysis of electron micrographs to find the state of concentration of muscle fibres.

SE: 463

11.3 Kidney and Osmoregulation Essential Idea: All animals excrete nitrogenous waste products and some animals also

balance water and solute concentrations. U.1 Animals are either osmoregulators

or osmoconformers.

SE: 475-476

U.2 The Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney carry out osmoregulation and removal of nitrogenous wastes.

SE: 468, 469

U.3 The composition of blood in the renal artery is different from that in the renal vein.

SE: 470 (Key Fact), 475

U.4 The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule facilitate ultrafiltration.

SE: 471-472 (Figure 11.15)





U.5 The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful substances by active transport.

SE: 472 (Figure 11.16)

U.6 The loop Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla.

SE: 473 (Figure 11.17), 474

U.7 ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct.

SE: 474 (Figure 11.18)

U.8 The length of the loop of Henle is positively correlated with the need for water conservation in animals.

SE: 474-475

U.9 The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is correlates with evolutionary history and habitat.

SE: 475 (Nature of Science), 468-469

A.1 Consequences of dehydration and over-hydration.

SE: 478 (Table 11.3)

A.2 Treatment of kidney failure by hemodialysis or kidney transplant.

SE: 477

A.3 Blood cells, glucose, proteins and drugs are detected in urinary tests.

SE: 477-478

S.1 Drawing and labelling a diagram of the human kidney.

SE: 470 (Figure 11.13; Hints For Success)

S.2 Annotations of a diagram of the nephron.

SE: 471 (Figure 11.14; Hints For Success)

11.4 Sexual Reproduction Essential Idea: Sexual reproduction involves the development and fusion of haploid

gametes. U.1 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis

both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation.

SE: 479-483

U.2 Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm.

SE: 480 (Figure 11.22), 481, 483 (Figure 11.25), 485 (Table 11.4)





U.3 Fertilization in animals can be internal or external.

SE: 485-486

U.4 Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy.

SE: 487

U.5 Implantation of the blastocysts in the endometrium is essential for the continuation of pregnancy.

SE: 488-489

U.6 HCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy.

SE: 490, 491 (Figure 11.32)

U.7 The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and fetus.

SE: 489, 490 (Figure 11.31; (Table 11.5)

U.8 Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once it has formed.

SE: 490-491 (Table 11.5)

U.9 Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and oxytocin.

SE: 491-492

A.1 The average 38-week pregnancy in humans can be positioned on a graph showing the correlation between animals’ size and development of the young at birth for other mammals.

SE: (Hotlinks Site)

S.1 Annotation of a diagram of seminiferous tubule and ovary to show the stages of gametogenesis.

SE: 481 (Figure 11.23)

S.2 Annotations of diagrams of mature sperm and egg to indicate functions.

SE: 484 (Figures 11.26 & 11.27)





Option A: Neurobiology and Behavior Essential idea: Modification of neurons starts in the earliest stages of embryogenesis

and continues to the final years of life. A.1 Neural development U.1 The neural tube of embryonic

chordates is formed by infolding of ectoderm followed by elongation of the tube.

SE: 496-497, 498 (Figure 12.2), 499

U.2 Neurons are initially produced by differentiation in the neural tube.

SE: 499

U.3 Immature neurons migrate to a final location.

SE: 499 (Figure 12.4)

U.4 An axon grows from each immature neuron in response to chemical stimuli.

SE: 500 (Figure 12.5)

U.5 Some axons extend beyond the neural tube to reach other parts of the body.

SE: 500

U.6 A developing neuron forms multiple synapses.

SE: 501

U.7 Synapses that are not used do not persist.

SE: 501

U.8 Neural pruning involves the loss of unused neurons.

SE: 501-502 (International-Mindedness)

U.9 The plasticity of the nervous system allows it to change with experience.

SE: 502-503

A.1 Incomplete closure of the embryonic neural tube can cause spina bifida.

SE: 498 (Figure 12.3), 499

A.2 Events such as strokes may promote reorganization of brain function.

SE: 503

S.1 Annotation of a diagram of embryonic tissues in Xenopus, used as an animal model, during neurulation.

SE: 197 (Figure 12.1)





G.1 Terminology relating to embryonic brain areas or nervous system divisions is not required.

SE: 496-497

Essential idea: The parts of the brain specialize in different functions. A.2 The human brain U.1 The anterior part of the neural tube

expands to form the brain.

SE: 505

U.2 Different parts of the brain have specific roles.

SE: 505-506 (Figure 12.7)

U.3 The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary processes in the body using centres located mainly in the brain stem.

SE: 511

U.4 The cerebral cortex forms a larger proportion of the brain and is more highly developed in humans than other animals.

SE: 514-515

U.5 The human cerebral cortex has become enlarged principally by an increase in total area with extensive folding to accommodate it within the cranium.

SE: 516

U.6 The cerebral hemispheres are responsible for higher order functions.

SE: 517 (Table 12.5)

U.7 The left cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from sensory receptors in the right side of the body and the right side of the visual field in both eyes and vice versa for the right hemisphere.

SE: 517 (Table 12.5), 518-520 (Figure 12.19)

U.8 The left cerebral hemisphere controls muscle contraction in the right side of the body and vice versa for the right hemisphere.

SE: 519-520





U.9 Brain metabolism requires large energy inputs.

SE: 520

A.1 Visual cortex, Broca’s area, nucleus accumbens as areas of the brain with specific functions.

SE: 517-518 (Figure 12.17), 508

A.2 Swallowing, breathing and heart rate as examples of activities coordinated by the medulla.

SE: 506

A.3 Use of the pupil reflex to evaluate brain damage.

SE: 512-513 (Figure 12.12)

A.4 Use of animal experiments, autopsy, lesions and fMRI to identify the role of different brain parts.

SE: 507-510 (Figure 12.10)

S.1 Identification of parts of the brain in a photograph, diagram or scan of the brain.

SE: 506 (Figure 12.7)

S.2 Analysis of correlations between body size and brain size in different animals.

SE: 515 (Tables 12.3 & 12.4)

G.1 Image of the brain should include the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, hypothalamus, pituitary gland and cerebral hemispheres.

SE: 507

G.2 Although specific functions can be attributed to certain areas, brain imagery shows that some activities are spread in many areas and that the brain can even reorganize itself following a disturbance such as a stroke.

SE: 508-509





Essential idea: Living organisms are able to detect changes in the environment. A.3 Perception of stimuli U.1 Receptors detect changes in the

environment.

SE: 521-523

U.2 Rods and cones are photoreceptors located in the retina.

SE: 523-525 (Key Fact)

U.3 Rods and cones differ in their sensitivities to light intensities and wavelengths.

SE: 524-525 (Table 12.7)

U.4 Bipolar cells send the impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells.

SE: 512-513, 524-525 (Figure 12.24; (Key Fact)

U.5 Ganglion cells send messages to the brain via the optic nerve.

SE: 512-513, 524-525 (Key Fact)

U.6 The information from the right field of vision from both eyes is sent to the left part of the visual cortex and vice versa.

SE: 518-519 (Figure 12.20), 525

U.7 Structures in the middle ear transmit and amplify sound.

SE: 526 (Figure 12.25)

U.8 Sensory hairs of the cochlea detect sounds of specific wavelengths.

SE: 527 (Figure 12.26)

U.9 Impulses caused by sound perception are transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve.

SE: 527 (Figure 12.26)

U.10 Hair cells in the semicircular canals detect movement of the head.

SE: 527

A.1 Red-green colour-blindness as a variant of normal trichromatic vision.

SE: 525

A.2 Detection of chemicals in the air by the many different olfactory receptors.

SE: 522 (Figure 12.21)

A.3 Use of cochlear implants in deaf patients.

SE: 528





S.1. Labelling a diagram of the structure of the human eye.

SE: 523 (Figure 12.22; #10)

S.2 Annotation of a diagram of the retina to show the cell types and the direction in which light moves.

SE: 523 (Figure 12.23)

S.3 Labelling a diagram of the structure of the human ear.

SE: 526 (Figure 12.25)

G.1 Humans’ sensory receptors should include mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors and photoreceptors.

SE: 521-523

G.2 Diagram of human eye should include the sclera, cornea, conjunctiva, eyelid, choroid, aqueous humour, pupil, lens, iris, vitreous humour, retina, fovea, optic nerve and blind spot.

SE: 523 (Figure 12.22; #10)

G.3 Diagram of retina should include rod and cone cells, bipolar neurons and ganglion cells.

SE: 523 (Figure 12.22; #11)

G.4 Diagram of ear should include pinna, eardrum, bones of the middle ear, oval window, round window, semicircular canals, auditory nerve and cochlea.

SE: 526 (Figure 12.25; #12)

Additional higher level topics Essential idea: Behavioural patterns can be inherited or learned. A.4 Innate and learned behaviour U.1 Innate behaviour is inherited from

parents and so develops independently of the environment.

SE: 530

U.2 Autonomic and involuntary responses are referred to as reflexes.

SE: 536

U.3 Reflex arcs comprise the neurons that mediate reflexes.

SE: 536, 537 (Figure 12.34)





U.4 Reflex conditioning involves forming new associations.

SE: 536-537

U.5 Learned behaviour develops as a result of experience.

SE: 538-539

U.6 Imprinting is learning occurring at a particular life stage and is independent of the consequences of behaviour.

SE: 538-539

U.7 Operant conditioning is a form of learning that consists of trial and error experiences.

SE: 539

U.8 Learning is the acquisition of skill or knowledge.

SE: 540-541

U.9 Memory is the process of encoding, storing and accessing information.

SE: 541-542

A.1 Withdrawal reflex of the hand from a painful stimulus.

SE: 536, 537 (Figure 12.34)

A.2 Pavlov’s experiments into reflex conditioning in dogs.

SE: 537 (Figure 12.35)

A.3 The role of inheritance and learning in the development of birdsong.

SE: 540-541 (Figure 12.36)

S.1 Analysis of data from invertebrate behaviour experiments in terms of the effect on chances of survival and reproduction.


S.2 Skill: Drawing and labelling a diagram of a reflex arc for a pain withdrawal reflex.

SE: 537 (Figure 12.34; #16)

G.1 Drawing of reflex arc should include the receptor cell, sensory neuron, relay neuron, motor neuron and effector.

SE: 537 (Figure 12.34; #16)





Essential idea: Communication between neurons can be altered through the manipulation of the release and reception of chemical messengers.

A.5 Neuropharmacology U.1 Some neurotransmitters excite

nerve impulses in postsynaptic neurons and others inhibit them.

SE: 543-544

U.2 Nerve impulses are initiated or inhibited in post-synaptic neurons as a result of summation of all excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters received from presynaptic neurones.

SE: 544-545 (Key Fact), 546

U.3 Many different slow-acting neurotransmitters modulate fast synaptic transmission in the brain.

SE: 545, 547 (Figure 12.39)

U.4 Memory and learning involve changes in neurones caused by slow-acting neurotransmitters.

SE: 547-549

U.5 Psychoactive drugs affect the brain by either increasing or decreasing postsynaptic transmission.

SE: 549-550 (Table 12.14; (Figure 12.43), 551-552

U.6 Anesthetics act by interfering with neural transmission between areas of sensory perception and the CNS.

SE: 555-556

U.7 Stimulant drugs mimic the stimulation provided by the sympathetic nervous system.

SE: 551

U.8 Addiction can be affected by genetic predisposition, social environment and dopamine secretion.

SE: 553-555

A.1 Effects on the nervous system of two stimulants and two sedatives.

SE: 551-552 (Figure 12.44)

A.2 The effect of anesthetics on awareness.

SE: 555-556

A.3 Endorphins can act as painkillers.

SE: 556-557





S.1 Evaluation of data showing the impact of MDMA (ecstasy) on serotonin and dopamine metabolism in the brain.

SE: 557-558 (Figure 12.50; #17-21)

G.1 Examples of stimulants are nicotine, cocaine or amphetamines.

SE: 551

G.2 Examples of sedatives are benzodiazepines, alcohol or tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

SE: 552-553 (Figure 12.44)

Essential idea: Natural selection favours specific types of behaviour. A.6 Ethology U.1 Ethology is the study of animal

behaviour in natural conditions.

SE: 560

U.2 Natural selection can change the frequency of observed animal behaviour.

SE: 561

U.3 Behaviour that increases the chances of survival and reproduction will become more prevalent in a population.

SE: 561

U.4 Learned behaviour can spread through a population or be lost from it more rapidly than innate behaviour.

SE: 566-567

A.1 Migratory behaviour in blackcaps as an example of the genetic basis of behaviour and its change by natural selection.

SE: 561 (Figure 12.52), 562-563

A.2 Blood sharing in vampire bats as an example of the development of altruistic behaviour by natural selection.

SE: 563 (Figure 12.53)

A.3 Foraging behaviour in shore crabs as an example of increasing chances of survival by optimal prey choice.

SE: 564 (Figure 12.54)





A.4 Breeding strategies in coho salmon populations as an example of behaviour affecting chances of survival and reproduction.

SE: 564-565 (Figure 12.55)

A.5 Courtship in birds of paradise as an example of mate selection.

SE: 565

A.6 Synchronized oestrus in female lions in a pride as an example of innate behaviour that increases the chances of survival and reproduction of offspring.

SE: 566

A.7 Feeding on cream from milk bottles in blue tits as an example of the development and loss of learned behaviour.

SE: 566-567

G.1 The seven applications in this sub-topic are intended to reinforce understanding of the general principles. The applications include a range of types of behaviour and types of animal. Other examples, including local examples that can be observed, should also be studied if possible.

SE: 567 (#25-31)

Option B: Biotechnology and bioinformatics Essential idea: Microorganisms can be used and modified to perform industrial

processes. B.1 Microbiology: organisms in industry U.1 Microorganisms are metabolically

diverse.

SE: 575, 576

U.2 Microorganisms are used in industry because they are small and have a fast growth rate.

SE: 576-577

U.3 Pathway engineering optimizes genetic and regulatory processes within microorganisms.

SE: 577-578





U.4 Pathway engineering is used industrially to produce metabolites of interest.

SE: 578-579

U.5 Fermenters allow large-scale production of metabolites by microorganisms.

SE: 580 (Figure 13.2)

U.6 Fermentation is carried out by batch or continuous culture.

SE: 581 (Figure 13.3), 582-583

U.7 Microorganisms in fermenters become limited by their own waste products.

SE: 583

U.8 Probes are used to monitor conditions within fermenters.

SE: 581, 582

U.9 Conditions are maintained at optimal levels for the growth of the microorganisms being cultured.

SE: 580 (Figure 13.2), 582

A.1 Deep-tank batch fermentation in the mass production of penicillin.

SE: 581-582 (Figure 13.4)

A.2 Production of citric acid in a continuous fermenter by Aspergillus niger and its use as a preservative and flavouring.

SE: 583, 584 (Figure 13.5; #2-4)

A.3 Biogas is produced by bacteria and archaeans from organic matter in fermenters.

SE: 584-586

S.1 Gram staining of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

SE: 586 (Table 13.2), 587 (Laboratory)

S.2 Experiments showing zone of inhibition of bacterial growth by bactericides in sterile bacterial cultures.

SE: 586-587

S.3 Production of biogas in a small-scale fermenter.






Essential idea: Crops can be modified to increase yields and to obtain novel products. B.2 Biotechnology in agriculture U.1 Transgenic organisms produce

proteins that were not previously part of their species’ proteome.

SE: 589

U.2 Genetic modification can be used to overcome environmental resistance to increase crop yields.

SE: 589-590

U.3 Genetically modified crop plants can be used to produce novel products.

SE: 590-593

U.4 Bioinformatics plays a role in identifying target genes.

SE: 598-600

U.5 The target gene is linked to other sequences that control its expression.

SE: 598

U.6 An open reading frame is a significant length of DNA from a start codon to a stop codon.

SE: 598

U.7 Marker genes are used to indicate successful uptake.

SE: 598

U.8 Recombinant DNA must be inserted into the plant cell and taken up by its chromosome or chloroplast DNA.

SE: 599-600 (Figure 13.17)

U.9 Recombinant DNA can be introduced into whole plants, leaf discs or protoplasts.

SE: 600

U.10 Recombinant DNA can be introduced by direct physical and chemical methods or indirectly by vectors.

SE: 595 (Figure 13.13), 596 (Figure 13.14), 597 (Figure 13.15)

A.1 Use of tumour-inducing (Ti) plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens to introduce glyphosate resistance into soybean crops.

SE: 590-591 (Figure 13.9)





A.2 Genetic modification of tobacco mosaic virus to allow bulk production of Hepatitis B vaccine in tobacco plants.

SE: 592

A.3 Production of Amflora potato (Solanum tuberosum) for paper and adhesive industries.

SE: 592-593

S.1 Evaluation of data on the environmental impact of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans.

SE: 593 (Figure 13.10; #5-6), 594 (Figures 13.11 & 13.12; #7-12)

S.2 Identification of an open reading frame (ORF).

SE: 598 (#14)

G.1 A significant length of DNA for an open reading frame contains sufficient nucleotides to code for a polypeptide chain.

SE: 598

G.2 Limit the chemical methods of introducing genes into plants to calcium chloride and liposomes.

SE: 596

G.3 Limit the physical methods of introducing genes into plants to electroporation, microinjection and biolistics (gunshot).

SE: 595-596 (Figure 13.13)

G.4 Limit vectors to Agrobacterium tumefaciens and tobacco mosaic virus.

SE: 597 (Figure 13.15)

Essential idea: Biotechnology can be used in the prevention and mitigation of contamination from industrial, agricultural and municipal wastes.

B.3 Environmental protection U.1 Responses to pollution incidents can

involve bioremediation combined with physical and chemical procedures.

SE: 601-602

U.2 Microorganisms are used in bioremediation.

SE: 602-603





U.3 Some pollutants are metabolized by microorganisms.

SE: 602-603

U.4 Cooperative aggregates of microorganisms can form biofilms.

SE: 604

U.5 Biofilms possess emergent properties.

SE: 604

U.6 Microorganisms growing in a biofilm are highly resistant to antimicrobial agents.

SE: 604, 606-607 (Figure 13.23)

U.7 Microorganisms in biofilms cooperate through quorum sensing.

SE: 605-606 (Figure 13.22)

U.8 Bacteriophages are used in the disinfection of water systems.

SE: 609

A.1 Degradation of benzene by halophilic bacteria such as Marinobacter.

SE: 602 (Figure 13.19)

A.2 Degradation of oil by Pseudomonas.

SE: 602-603 (Figure 13.20; #15-19)

A.3 Conversion by Pseudomonas of methyl mercury into elemental mercury.

SE: 603, 604 (Figure 13.21)

A.4 Use of biofilms in trickle filter beds for sewage treatment.

SE: 607 (Figure 13.24)

S.1 Evaluation of data or media reports on environmental problems caused by biofilms.

SE: 608 (Figures 13.25 & 13.26; #20-23)

G.1 Examples of environmental problems caused by biofilms could include clogging and corrosion of pipes, transfer of microorganisms in ballast water or contamination of surfaces in food production.

SE: 604, 608 (Figures 13.25 & 13.26; #20-23)





Additional higher level topics Essential idea: Biotechnology can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. B.4 Medicine U.1 Infection by a pathogen can be

detected by the presence of its genetic material or by its antigens.

SE: 610-611, 615

U.2 Predisposition to a genetic disease can be detected through the presence of markers.

SE: 610-613 (Figures 13.29 & 13.30)

U.3 DNA microarrays can be used to test for genetic predisposition or to diagnose the disease.

SE: 611-613

U.4 Metabolites that indicate disease can be detected in blood and urine.


U.5 Tracking experiments are used to gain information about the localization and interaction of a desired protein.

SE: 620-622

U.6 Biopharming uses genetically modified animals and plants to produce proteins for therapeutic use.

SE: 622-623

U.7 Viral vectors can be used in gene therapy.

SE: 623-625 (Figures 13.35 & 13.36)

A.1 Use of PCR to detect different strains of influenza virus.

SE: 615-616

A.2 Tracking tumour cells using transferin linked to luminescent probes.

SE: 622 (Key Fact)

A.3 Biopharming of antithrombin.

SE: 623

A.4 Use of viral vectors in the treatment of Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID).

SE: 624-625 (Figure 13.36)

S.1 Analysis of a simple microarray.

SE: 613-614





S.2 Interpretation of the results of an ELISA diagnostic test.

SE: 619 (#35-40)

Essential idea: Bioinformatics is the use of computers to analyse sequence data in biological research.

B.5 Bioinformatics U.1 Databases allow scientists easy

access to information.

SE: 626

U.2 The body of data stored in databases is increasing exponentially.


U.3 BLAST searches can identify similar sequences in different organisms.

SE: 628-629, 630 (Table 13.5), 631 (Table 13.6), 632

U.4 Gene function can be studied using model organisms with similar sequences.

SE: 628-629

U.5 Sequence alignment software allows comparison of sequences from different organisms.

SE: 629

U.6 BLASTn allows nucleotide sequence alignment while BLASTp allows protein alignment.

SE: 630-632 (Tables 13.5 & 13.6)

U.7 Databases can be searched to compare newly identified sequences with sequences of known function in other organisms.

SE: 632-634

U.8 Multiple sequence alignment is used in the study of phylogenetics.

SE: 630-632

U.9 EST is an expressed sequence tag that can be used to identify potential genes.

SE: 635

A.1 Use of knockout technology in mice to determine gene function.

SE: 635 (Table 13.7)

A.2 Discovery of genes by EST data mining.

SE: 635





S.1 Explore chromosome 21 in databases (for example in Ensembl).

SE: 634

S.2 Use of software to align two proteins.

SE: 630-632

S.3 Use of software to construct simple cladograms and phylograms of related organisms using DNA sequences.

SE: 632-634

Option C: Ecology and conservation Essential idea: Community structure is an emergent property of an ecosystem. C.1 Species and communities U.1 The distribution of species is affected

by limiting factors.

SE: 639, 640-644

U.2 Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone species.

SE: 645 (Figure 14.7)

U.3 Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination of its spatial habitat and interactions with other species.

SE: 646-649

U.4 Interactions between species in a community can be classified according to their effect.

SE: 647-649

U.5 Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the same habitat if their niches are identical.

SE: 649 (Figure 14.9)

A.1 Distribution of one animal and one plant species to illustrate limits of tolerance and zones of stress.

SE: 641-644

A.2 Local examples to illustrate the range of ways in which species can interact within a community.

SE: 646-649





A.3 The symbiotic relationship between Zooxanthellae and reef-building coral reef species.

SE: 649

S.1 Analysis of a data set that illustrates the distinction between fundamental and realized niche.

SE: 650-651 (#5-8)

S.2 Use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant or animal species with an abiotic variable.

SE: 651-652 (Figure 14.10; Utilization)

Essential idea: Changes in community structure affect and are affected by organisms. C.2 Communities and ecosystems U.1 Most species occupy different trophic

levels in multiple food chains.

SE: 657-658

U.2 A food web shows all the possible food chains in a community.

SE: 657-658 (Figure 14.14)

U.3 The percentage of ingested energy converted to biomass is dependent on the respiration rate.

SE: 656-657

U.4 The type of stable ecosystem that will emerge in an area is predictable based on climate.

SE: 661

U.5 In closed ecosystems energy but not matter is exchanged with the surroundings.

SE: 669

U.6 Disturbance influences the structure and rate of change within ecosystems.

SE: 669-670 (Figure 14.25)

A.1 Conversion ratio in sustainable food production practices.

SE: 658-659 (Table 14.5)

A.2 Consideration of one example of how humans interfere with nutrient cycling.

SE: 668-669

S.1 Comparison of pyramids of energy from different ecosystems.

SE: 658 (Table 14.4; Figure 14.15)





S.2 Analysis of a climograph showing the relationship between temperature, rainfall and the type of ecosystem.

SE: 666 (#16-19)

S.3 Construction of Gersmehl diagrams to show the inter-relationships between nutrient stores and flows between taiga, desert and tropical rainforest.

SE: 666, 667 (Worked Example), 668 (Worked Example; #20)

S.4 Analysis of data showing primary succession.

SE: 662 (Figure 14.16), 663 (Figure 14.18; #14-18)

S.5 Investigation into the effect of an environmental disturbance on an ecosystem.

SE: 669-670 (Figure 14.25)

G.1 Examples of aspects to investigate in the ecosystem could be species diversity, nutrient cycling, water movement, erosion, leaf area index, among others.

SE: 660-663, 666-670

Essential idea: Human activities impact on ecosystem function. C.3 Impacts of humans on ecosystems U.1 Introduced alien species can escape

into local ecosystems and become invasive.


U.2 Competitive exclusion and the absence of predators can lead to reduction in the numbers of endemic species when alien species become invasive.

SE: 672-673

U.3 Pollutants become concentrated in the tissues of organisms at higher trophic levels by biomagnification.

SE: 673-674 (Figure 14.26)

U.4 Macroplastic and microplastic debris has accumulated in marine environments.

SE: 675 (Figure 14.27), 676-677





A.1 Study of the introduction of cane toads in Australia and one other local example of the introduction of an alien species.


A.2 Discussion of the trade-off between control of the malarial parasite and DDT pollution.

SE: 674-675

A.3 Case study of the impact of marine plastic debris on Laysan albatrosses and one other named species.

SE: 675-676

S.1 Analysis of data illustrating the causes and consequences of biomagnification.

SE: 679-681

S.2 Evaluation of eradication programmes and biological control as measures to reduce the impact of alien species.

SE: 677-678

Essential idea: Entire communities need to be conserved in order to preserve biodiversity.

C.4 Conservation of biodiversity U.1 An indicator species is an organism

used to assess a specific environmental condition.

SE: 682

U.2 Relative numbers of indicator species can be used to calculate the value of a biotic index.

SE: 682-683 (Figure 14.32)

U.3 In situ conservation may require active management of nature reserves or national parks.

SE: 688-690

U.4 Ex situ conservation is the preservation of species outside their natural habitats.

SE: 690-692

U.5 Biogeographic factors affect species diversity.

SE: 692-693





U.6 Richness and evenness are components of biodiversity.

SE: 684

A.1 Case study of the captive breeding and reintroduction of an endangered animal species.

SE: 691

A.2 Analysis of the impact of biogeographic factors on diversity limited to island size and edge effects.

SE: 693 (Figures 14.35 & 14.36), 694 (Figure 14.37; #27-29)

S.1 Analysis of the biodiversity of two local communities using Simpson’s reciprocal index of diversity.


G G.1 The formula for Simpson’s reciprocal index of diversity is:

N(N-1) D= --------- Σn(n-1) D = diversity index, N = total

number of organisms of all species found and n = number of individuals of a particular species.

SE: 685-686

Additional higher level topics Essential idea: Dynamic biological processes impact population density and population

growth. C.5 Population ecology U.1 Sampling techniques are used to

estimate population size.

SE: 702-703

U.2 The exponential growth pattern occurs in an ideal, unlimited environment.

SE: 697

U.3 Population growth slows as a population reaches the carrying capacity of the environment.

SE: 698





U.4 The phases shown in the sigmoid curve can be explained by relative rates of natality, mortality, immigration and emigration.

SE: 697, 698, 700

U.5 Limiting factors can be top down or bottom up.

SE: 698-699

A.1 Application: Evaluating the methods used to estimate the size of commercial stock of marine resources.

SE: 704

A.2 Use of the capture-mark-release-recapture method to estimate the population size of an animal species.

SE: 702

A.3 Discussion of the effect of natality, mortality, immigration and emigration on population size.

SE: 700, 701

A.4 Analysis of the effect of population size, age and reproductive status on sustainable fishing practices.

SE: 704-705 (Figures 14.40 & 14.41), 706 (Figure 14.42; #37-41)

A.5 Bottom-up control of algal blooms by shortage of nutrients and top-down control by herbivory.

SE: 699 (Table 14.12; #33-36)

S.1 Modelling the growth curve using a simple organism such as yeast or species of Lemna.


Essential idea: Soil cycles are subject to disruption. C.6 Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles U.1 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert

atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia.

SE: 708-709

U.2 Rhizobium associates with roots in a mutualistic relationship.

SE: 708

U.3 In the absence of oxygen denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrate in the soil.

SE: 709





U.4 Phosphorus can be added to the phosphorus cycle by application of fertilizer or removed by the harvesting of agricultural crops.

SE: 710-711

U.5 The rate of turnover in the phosphorus cycle is much lower than the nitrogen cycle.

SE: 710

U.6 Availability of phosphate may become limiting to agriculture in the future.

SE: 711, 712 (Key Fact)

U.7 Leaching of mineral nutrients from agricultural land into rivers causes eutrophication and leads to increased biochemical oxygen demand.

SE: 709

A.1 The impact of waterlogging on the nitrogen cycle.

SE: 710

A.2 Insectivorous plants as an adaptation for low nitrogen availability in waterlogged soils.

SE: 710

S.1 Drawing and labelling a diagram of the nitrogen cycle.

SE: 708 (Figure 14.43)

S.2 Assess the nutrient content of a soil sample.


Option D: Human Physiology D.1 Human Nutrition Essential Idea: A balanced diet is essential to human health. U.1 Essential nutrients cannot be

synthesized by the body; therefore they have to be included in the diet.

SE: 719-721

U.2 Dietary minerals are essential chemical elements.

SE: 718

U.3 Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be synthesized by the body.

SE: 718-719





U.4 Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential.

SE: 720-721

U.5 Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of proteins.

SE: 720-721, 724

U.6 Malnutrition may be caused by a deficiency, imbalance or excess of nutrients in the diet.

SE: 724-725

U.7 Appetite is controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus.

SE: 722-723

U.8 Overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension and type II diabetes.

SE: 723

U.9 Starvation can lead to breakdown of body tissue.

SE: 723 (Key Fact), 724

A.1 Production of ascorbic acid by some mammals, but not others that need a dietary supply.


A.2 Cause and treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU).

SE: 721

A.3 Lack of Vitamin D or calcium can affect bone mineralization and cause rickets or osteomalacia.


A.4 Breakdown of heart muscle due to anorexia.

SE: 723 (Key Fact)

A.5 Cholesterol in blood as an indicator of the risk of coronary heart disease.

SE: 720 (Key Fact)

S.1 Determination of the energy content of food by combustion.

SE: 724

S.2 Use of databases of nutritional content of foods and software to calculate intakes of essential nutrients from a daily diet.

Supporting content: SE: Human Nutrition, 717-725





D.2 Digestion Essential Idea: Digestion is controlled by nervous and hormonal mechanisms. U.1 Nervous and hormonal mechanisms

control the secretion of digestive juices.

SE: 726-728

U.2 Exocrine glands secrete to the surface of the body or the lumen of the gut.

SE: 726 (Table 15.1)

U.3 The volume and content of gastric secretions are controlled by nervous and hormonal mechanisms.

SE: 727-728

U.4 Acid conditions in the stomach favour some hydrolysis reactions and help to control pathogens in ingested food.

SE: 728

U.5 The structure of cells of the epithelium of the villi is adapted to the absorption of food.

SE: 730, 731 (Figure 15.5)

U.6 The rate of transit of materials through the large intestine is positively correlated with their fibre content.

SE: 732

U.7 Materials not absorbed are egested.

SE: 732 (Interesting Fact)

A.1 The reduction of stomach acid secretion by proton pump inhibitor drugs.


A.2 Dehydration due to cholera toxin.

SE: 732 (International-Mindedness)

A.3 Helicobacter pylori infection as a cause of stomach ulcers.

SE: 729

S.1 Identification of exocrine gland cells that secrete digestive juices and villus epithelium cells that absorb digested foods from electron micrographs.

SE: 730-731





G.1 Adaptations of villus epithelial cells include microvilli and mitochondria.

SE: 730-731

D.3 Functions of the Liver Essential Idea: The chemical composition of the blood is regulated by the liver. U.1 The liver removes toxins from the

blood and detoxifies them.


U.2 Components of red blood cells are recycled by the liver.

SE: 734, 736, 737 (Table 15.9)

U.3 The breakdown of erythrocytes starts with phagocytosis of red blood cells by Kupffer cells.

SE: 734, 736

U.4 Iron is carried to the bone marrow to produce hemoglobin in new red blood cells.

SE: 736

U.5 Surplus cholesterol is converted to bile salts.


U.6 Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in hepatocytes produce plasma proteins.

SE: 737-738

U.7 The liver intercepts blood from the gut to regulate nutrient levels.

SE: 733-735

U.8 Some nutrients in excess can be stored in the liver.

SE: 735-736 (Table 15.2)

A.1 Causes and consequences of jaundice.

SE: 738

A.2 Dual blood supply to the liver and differences between sinusoids and capillaries.

SE: 733 (Figure 15.7), 734 (Figure 15.8)





D.4 The Heart Essential Idea: Internal and external factors influence heart function. U.1 Structure of cardiac muscle cells

allows propagation of stimuli through the heart wall.

SE: 739, 740 (Key Fact)

U.2 Signals from the sinoatrial node that cause contraction cannot pass directly from atria to ventricles.

SE: 742-743

U.3 There is a delay between the arrival and passing on of a stimulus at the atrioventricular node.

SE: 742-743 (Figure 15.13; Hints For Success)

U.4 This delay allows time for atrial systole before the atrioventricular valves close.

SE: 742-743 (Figure 15.13; Hints For Success)

U.5 Conducting fibres ensure coordinated contraction of the entire ventricle wall.

SE: 742-743

U.6 Normal heart sounds are caused by the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves closing causing changes in blood flow.

SE: 742

A.1 Use of artificial pacemakers to regulate the heart rate.

SE: 744

A.2 Use of defibrillation to treat life-threatening cardiac conditions.

SE: 744

A.3 Causes and consequences of hypertension and thrombosis.

SE: 745-746 (Table 15.4)

S.1 Measurement and interpretation of the heart rate under different conditions.

SE: (Hotlinks Site)

S.2 Interpretation of systolic and diastolic blood pressure measurements.

SE: 746 (Table 15.4)





S.3 Mapping of the cardiac cycle to a normal ECG trace.

SE: 743 (Figure 15.14)

S.4 Analysis of epidemiological data relating to the incidence of coronary heart disease.

SE: 746-747 (Worked Example)

G.1 Include branching and intercalated discs in structure of cardiac muscle.

SE: 739

D.5 Hormones and Metabolism Essential Idea: Hormones are not secreted at a uniform rate and exert their effect at

low concentrations. U.1 Endocrine glands secrete hormones

directly into the bloodstream.

SE: 748

U.2 Steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cytoplasm of the target cell to form a receptor–hormone complex.

SE: 749, 750 (Figure 15.16)

U.3 The receptor–hormone complex promotes the transcription of specific genes.

SE: 749-751 (Figures 15.16 & 15.17)

U.4 Peptide hormones bind to receptors in the plasma membrane of the target cell.

SE: 750-751 (Figure 15.17)

U.5 Binding of hormones to membrane receptors activates a cascade mediated by a second messenger inside the cell.

SE: 751-752

U.6 The hypothalamus controls hormone secretion by the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland.

SE: 752 (Figure 15.19)

U.7 Hormones secreted by the pituitary control growth, developmental changes, reproduction and homeostasis.

SE: 752-753, 754 (Table 15.5)





A.1 Some athletes take growth hormones to build muscles.

SE: 754 (International-Mindedness)

A.2 Control of milk secretion by oxytocin and prolactin.

SE: 752-753

D.6 Transport of Respiratory Gases Essential Idea: Red blood cells are vital in the transport of respiratory gases. U.1 Oxygen dissociation curves show the

affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.

SE: 756-757 (Figure 15.22)

U.2 Carbon dioxide is carried in solution and bound to hemoglobin in the blood.

SE: 756 (Utilization), 758-759

U.3 Carbon dioxide is transformed in red blood cells into hydrogen carbonate ions.

SE: 758-759 (Figures 15.26 & 15.27)

U.4 The Bohr shift explains the increased release of oxygen by hemoglobin in respiring tissues.

SE: 758 (Figure 15.25)

U.5 Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood pH.

SE: 759

U.6 The rate of ventilation is controlled by the respiratory control centre in the medulla oblongata.

SE: 760-761

U.7 During exercise the rate of ventilation changes in response to the amount of CO2 in the blood.

SE: 760-761

U.8 Fetal hemoglobin is different from adult hemoglobin allowing the transfer of oxygen in the placenta onto the fetal hemoglobin.

SE: 758 (Figure 15.24)

A.1 Consequences of high altitude for gas exchange.

SE: 761 (Utilization; Interesting Fact)

A.2 pH of blood is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45.

SE: 759-761





A.3 Causes and treatments of emphysema.

SE: 761-762

S.1 Analysis of dissociation curves for hemoglobin and myoglobin.

SE: 757 (Figure 15.23)

S.2 Identification of pneumocytes, capillary endothelium cells and blood cells in light micrographs and electron micrographs of lung tissue.

SE: 762-763

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