Pen of Thoth eBook

7/24/2019 Pen of Thoth eBook

1/81

Pen of Thoth

Official Newsletter of the Ancient Egyptian SocietyJohannesburg, South Africa

ollection of articles written

by

Magda van Ryneveld

Johannesburg2015


2/81

Magda van Ryneveld

Johannesburg 2015


3/81

Table of Contents

PEN OF THOTH I

2015BY THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SOCIETY. I

FOREWARD II

BUTTERFLIES IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART 1

HEDGEHOGS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART 6

FROGS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART 11

POTTERY FOR DOMESTIC USE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 15

SANDAL-MAKING IN ANCIENT EGYPT 20

FURNITURE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 25

THE USE OF LEOPARD SKIN IN ANCIENT EGYPT 29

THE USE OF IVORY IN ANCIENT EGYPT 36

TUTANKHAMUN VUVUZELAS 43

TOMB OF TUTANKHAMUNS JACKAL 47

THE BLACK MUMMY.NETCHERIKHE (HE OF THE DIVINE BODY) 53

AKH SUT NEBHEPETRE (SPLENDID ARE THE PLACES OF NEBHEPETRE) 58

DISKS OF HERMAKA 62

PTAHSHEPSES 66

SESHAT THE SECRETARY 70

ROCK ART 72


4/81

Pen of Thoth

Collection of Articles by Magda van Rynveld

Page i

2015 by The Ancient Egyptian Society.

Published by The Ancient Egyptian Society; Johannesburg Republic of

South Africa, 2015.

Witten by

Magda van Ryneveld

Edited by

Vanya Vucinic

Proofread by

Sue Fox

Illustration Credits

Magda van Ryneveld with exception of Chapter Ptahshepses: illustration 1retrievedwww.scarffi.comand illustration 2 retrieved from

www.britishmuseum.org.
http://www.scarffi.com/http://www.scarffi.com/http://www.scarffi.com/http://www.britishmuseum.org/http://www.britishmuseum.org/http://www.britishmuseum.org/http://www.scarffi.com/


5/81

Pen of Thoth


Page ii

Foreward

Eric Swanepoel

Chairman, Ancient Egyptian Society


6/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 1

Butterflies in Ancient Egyptian Art

Butterflies were included in art throughout the centuries and all over the world. During

the Baroque Period, e.g. some Dutch painters concentrated on Flower Pieces in which

they painted vases filled with a variety of flowers, sometimes including a few small

creatures such as beetles, snails and butterflies. An example is the painting by

Ambrosius Bosschaert: AVase with Flowers(c. 1620). Here a tiny white butterfly can

be seen in the upper right side of the format. The large and colorful flowers are so

overwhelming that the viewer hardly notices the tiny butterfly. In the art of the East we

find artists who specialized in flowers and insects, e.g. Madame Shin Saim-dang from

Seoul, whom art historians refer to as the greatest female painter of the Yi Dynasty. She

often included more than one species of butterflies in a single painting, e.g. a white andorange one in Brinjals and Insects (one of ten panel screens in the National Museum,

Seoul).

Ancient Egyptian artist were also fond of including insects in their art and designs.

Butterflies specifically were included in jewelry as well as paintings and painted relief.

As with the inclusion of other insects and smaller creatures, the artists show keen

observation and a love for fine detail.

One of the oldest examples in Egyptian art can be seen in the jewelry of Queen

Hetepheres from the 4th Dynasty, c. 2350 BCE.

(Illustration 1) She was the wife of Snefru and the

mother of Cheops (Khufu). Her set of bracelets

were found in her tomb (or deposit of her

funerary equipment), near the pyramid of Cheops

at Giza. The set was found in a wooden box

covered with gold. The set originally contained 20 bracelets. The bracelets are made ofsheet silver, curved and open on the inside and inlaid with turquoise, lapis lazuli and

carnelian. These semi-precious stones were set into depressions in the silver a

technique known as champleve. The bracelets are decorated with quadruple designs of

butterflies, seen from above outspread wings. Their bodies are inlaid with lapis lazuli,


7/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 2

turquoise and carnelian and the wings with turquoise and lapis lazuli. Between the

butterflies are suns inlaid with carnelian. Queen Hetepheres most probably used these

bracelets during her lifetime because they show wear and tear. At present they are

exhibited in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

Another example including butterflies is a limestone bas relief from the cult temple of

pharaoh Usrekaf (5th Dynasty: 2454-2435 BCE) at Saqqara. (Illustration 2)

Unfortunately only a fragment, 102 cm in

height, survived. It is titled Swamp Scene but

may have been part of a Fishing and Fowling

scene. The quality of this work is of a very high

standard. The fragment only shows a section of

the reeds. Above the reeds a selection of birds

including hoopoes, egrets and others can be

seen with, above them, a butterfly. It is a simple line carving showing the insect from

above with the wings outstretched. The single line decoration of the wings may indicate

the black edge, typical of Terias desjardindii. Perhaps, if the colouring was still intact, it

would have been that of bright yellow wings with black around the edges. This bas relief

can be seen in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.


8/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 3

The most delicate and detailed example of butterflies in

an ancient Egyptian art is to be found in a painting from

the tomb of Nebamun, a nobleman during the reign of

Pharaoh Amenophis III c. 1390 BCE. Only a section of

this painting survived and most probably it was also part

of a Fishing and Fowling scene. These scenes became a

popular tradition in the tombs of noblemen a tradition

that started more than a thousand years before the time

of Nebamun. The painting is done on plaster and

measures 18cm height. This masterpiece, painted by a

skilled artists or team of artists, includes four butterflies,

painted from different angles which indicate that they fly

in different directions. They add to the tumult and chaos caused by Nebamun with his

throw stick and his cat. The cat accompanied the fowler for the sole purpose to scare the

birds out of the reeds. The variety of birds scared from their nests and out of reeds, is

typical of Africa and the same selection of species can be found at ponds and rivers in

the Kruger National Park, Rep of South Africa. The

butterflies amongst the birds are painted with thin

brushstrokes and delicate dots adding to their

vulnerability amongst the fluttering, larger birds. Their

bodies are painted black with tiny white dots and the

wings in a rusty brown with white markings and black

dots. Very thin brushstrokes were used to paint the legs

and feelers. The colouring of the butterflies is very

similar to that of the Hypolimnas mariposa and the

Danaus chrysippus, both popular in Southern Africa.

This example can be seen in the British Museum,

London. (Illustration 4; the red dots indicate the position

of butterflies)


9/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 4

Another example of a Fishing and Fowling

scene including butterflies are from the tomb

of Nakht from the 18th Dynasty, c. 1425 BCE.

(Illustration 5) This scene includes five

butterflies, painted in yellow/orange with

white dots and a white rim around the wings

with darker dots which may have been a representation of the Belenois thysa. Just as in

the tomb of Nebamun, they are flying with the birds in a chaotic disorder of

bewilderment. (Illustration 6. The yellow dots

indicate the position of butterflies)

There are numerous examples of butterflies in

ancient Egyptian art. Some of the finest

examples of butterflies, included in art world

wide, occur in ancient Egyptian art. It is sad to

realize that we so often overlook them.

Whenever visiting Egypt or paging through

books on Egyptian art, look out for them, enjoy,

appreciate and treasure these beautiful

butterflies.


10/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 5

List of References:

1) Aldred, Cyril. 1978. JEWELRY OF THE PHARAOHS. EGYPTIAN JEWELRY OF

THE DYNASTIC PERIOD. London: Thames & Hudson.

2)

Carruthers, Vincent (Ed.). 2008. DIE NATUURLEWE VAN SUIDER AFRIKA.

DIE GROTER GEILLUSTREERDE GIDS TOT DIE DIERE EN PLANTE VAN DIE

STREEK. Kapstaad: Struik Uitgewers.

3) Hawass, Zahi. 2006. THE GREAT BOOK OF ANCIENT EGYPT. IN THE REALM

OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.

4) Houlihan, Patric F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo:

American University n Cairo Press.

5)

Malek, Jaromir. 1986. IN THE SHADE OF THE PYRAMIDS. EGYPT DURINGTHE OLD KINGDOM. London: Orbis Book Publishing.


11/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 6

Hedgehogs in Ancient Egyptian Art

The hedgehog is a small spiky mammal which can be found in Europe, Western parts of

Asia, and Africa. In ancient Egypt they were common (as still today) in the Nile Valley.

They are insectivores therefore living chiefly on insects, but also small reptiles and

snails.

It is interesting to see how different civilizations reacted to the hedgehog. In South

Africa the indigenous people used them as muti in witchcraft. In Western Europe they

were included in fairytales e.g. The Hare and the Hedgehog. The 7thCentury Greeks

favoured them for their oil, which was stored in hedgehog-shaped vases. These vases

were made in Corinth, Rodes and Naukratis, the Greek trading colony at the Nile delta.

The Egyptians were also fond of the hedgehog. During the Old Kingdom they were often

found on the prows of ships. They used their oil and used hedgehogshaped stamp

seals. There are tomb illustrations indicting that the rich people were fond of including

them in their collections of wild animals. They were also included in hunting scenes.

Small hedgehog statuettes were placed in some tombs. The hedgehog was not a sacred

animal in Egypt, but it may have had protective qualities. Representations of hedgehogs

appear in Egyptian art from the Old kingdom to the Late Period.

In the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, there is a small pottery vessel fashioned in a

spherical shape. This is the typical shape of a living hedgehog when threatened with

danger. When in danger the hedgehog will curl up forming a spiky ball to protect its

vulnerable underside. This vessel stands on short legs and the spout is placed on top,

but to the one side. Directly below the spout is the face of the hedgehog. It has a

protruding snout and typical small eyes. The ears are enlarged and the only sign of the

animals spikes is a single row of short lines around the face. The face is placed in an

open space encircled by the curving lines of a plant, reaching from the underside of the

vessel to the spout. Hedgehog-shaped vases may have served as an advertisement

(trademark) for their particular contents. Vessels like this example were used to store

the fat or oil of the hedgehog, which had medicinal value and was reputed to cure

baldness. This example is from Abydos, New Kingdom 18thDynasty.


12/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 7

Egyptians often used stamp seal. As they had

no locks, these small seals, pressed into lumps

of wet clay, secured owners possessions. They

also served as persons signature on

documents. Seals were used from the

beginning of the Dynastic period onwards.

They were found in large numbers. The most

popular shapes were those of the scarab, but

other shapes were also found e.g. lion, frogs, etc. Amongst them the shape of the

hedgehog was also used. (Illustration 1)A fine example is in the British Museum. The

underside of the seal is of oval shape. The top shows a small hedgehog standing on four

sturdy legs on the base-plate of the seal. The spikes are portrayed in six rows of short

straight lines. A very interesting feature of this seal is the human face. (British Museum

Listed No. 46987).

Wealthy Egyptians were fond of hunting and keeping wild animals. At certain times of

the year wild fawns and other animals were obtained to increase the herds which formed

part of a wealthy Egyptian stock. This gathering of stock is also at times portrayed on

tomb walls. In a Middle Kingdom tomb at Beni Hasan there is an illustration of two

gamekeepers, one leading a gazelle by the horns and another carrying two cages on a

wooden yoke over his shoulders. One cage contains a hare and the other two hedgehogs.

Hedgehogs included in hunting scenes are

very interesting. In the tomb of Senbi at Meir,

Middle Egypt (12thDynasty), the owner of the

tomb can be seen hunting with his helper or

weapon bearer. (Illustration 2) They are

placed on the left hand side of the scene

behind a fence. On the right hand side of the

fence a variety of animals can be seen inside the enclosure. The fleeing game includes

Oryx, Nubian ibex, Dorcas gazelle, hare, hartebeest, and wildebeest and Barbery sheep.

Hunting dogs are adding to the havoc in the enclosure. Not only are the humans


13/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 8

hunting, but a lion is also hunting, grabbing a wildebeest by the nose. In contrast with

the hunting lion, the lioness is strolling over the dune as if she is not in the least aware

of the action around her. In the lower left hand corner, just behind the fence is a little

hedgehog. He is placed just above the baseline on a separate line indicating a dune. Just

as the lioness, he appears to be very calm in total contrast with the action in the

enclosure. He is moving from left to right, behind a jumping hare. The tiny legs,

underside and face with snout and eye, are clearly visible. The spikes are portrayed as

one flat area. This is a good example of a delicate painted relief from the Middle

Kingdom - a period known for its high quality of art.

From the tomb of Ptah-hotep, 5thDynasty,

Old Kingdom, there is a very delicate

example of a pair of hedgehogs in their

natural habitat. (Illustration 3)The scene is

portrayed in limestone relief and painted.

The pair of hedgehogs is placed on a

baseline. The one is coming out of their

burrow catching a grasshopper and the second one is placed beside the burrow. The

artist indicated the burrow by using a curved line. The positive curve indicated the

outside and the negative curve, the inside of the burrow. The two hedgehogs are

portrayed only with outlines. Apart from the ears and eyes, no other detail is included.

The strong, yet delicate use of line resulted in a very successful portrayal of these small

animals.

Statuettes in the form of hedgehogs are also common in Egyptian art. A blue faience

example is in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. In dates from the Middle Kingdom, 11th

Dynasty and was found at Thebes. The hedgehog is placed on an oval base, four short

kegs lift the animal from the base but the feet are modeled on the base. The pointed

snout is naturalistically portrayed. A different attitude is followed in the handling of the

spikes. Here a system of incised grid lines can be seen. Black spots are used to highlight

the effect of spikes. This hedgehog was found in a tomb where it probably bore a

protective significance.


14/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 9

Although the hedgehog was not a sacred animal in ancient Egypt, the Egyptians show a

fondness in using it. Its natural shape was well accommodated in their designs. The tiny

animal was also popular in larger scenes, e.g. when hunting much larger animal. In

these scenes it forms an interesting contrast with its minute size in comparison with the

larger animals as well as with its attitude of keeping to itself while the hunt is in

progress. In the inclusion of a small animal like the hedgehog in their art, the Egyptians

show that they also noticed the tiny and less important (according to the human) in

nature and they had the artistic ability to portray them with all the tenderness required.

List of References:

1) Houlihan, Patric. F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo.

American University in Cairo Press.

2)

Jansen, Rosalind and Jack. 1989. EGYPTIAN HOUSEHOLD ANIMALS.

Aylesbury: Shire Publications.

3) Kozloff, Arielle. P, David Gorgon Mitten and Michel Sguaitamatti. 1981. MORE

ANIMALS IN ANCIENT ART. FROM THE LEO MILDENBERG COLLECTION.

Mainz: Verlag Phillip von Zabern.

4) Rosenthal, Eric. 1961. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. London:

Frederick Warne.

5)

Saleh, Mohamed and Hourig Sourouzian. 1987. OFFCIAL CATALOGUE. THEEGYPTIAN MUSEUM CAIRO. Cairo: Organization of Egyptian Antiquities.

6) Schafer, Heinrich. 1974. PRINICPLES OF EGYPTIAN ART. Oxford: Clarenden

Press.


15/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 10

7) Van Ryneveled, M.M. 1994. DIE UITBEELDING VAN DIE DIER IN EGIPTIESE

KUNS. (The portrayal of Animals in Egyptian Art). Thesis for the Laureatus:

School of Art and Design. Vaal Triangle University of Technology. Republic of

South Africa.

8)Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardner. 1988. A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE ANCIENT

EGYPTIANS. VOL 1, London: Bracken Books.

9)Wilson, Eva. 1086. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN DESIGNS. London: British Museum.


16/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 11

Frogs in Ancient Egyptian Art

The frog is a common sight and sound in Africa; therefore in a river valley such as the

Nile, they will occur in large numbers. Especially after the mating season their numbers

may increase drastically. A variety of species were found in Egypt during ancient times

and the same species still occur today. It is understandable that nature loving people as

the Egyptians would have incorporated the frog in their religion and art. The species

most often included in Egyptian art was the Bullfrog (Pyxicephalos aspersus). The

Bullfrog is a large frog with a soft body. Colouring varies from olive green to orange with

yellow underside or belly. Typical of this frog is the

large head and the broad, round snout. Smaller

species were also included in the art, e.g. theCommon river frog (Amieta angolensis). This

species is much smaller than the bullfrog, green or

brown with darker spots and lighter green over the

back. The underside is very light to white. This

species has a slender, pointed snout. It is often near

perennial streams. Apart from the full grown frog,

tadpoles also featured in art - but more in

hieroglyphics as the number 100.000. (Illustration 2)

Figures made from different materials such as terra cotta

and ivory as well as stone vessels in the shape of the frog

can be seen in art as early as the Gerzean Period (Naqada

II). In shrines dating at 3100 BCE small figurines of frogs

were often placed as votive objects. These early grave

goods emphasized their importance as fertility objects

that ensured rebirth.

An Old Kingdom alabaster frog, dating from the 1st

Dynasty, is an example of a Bullfrog. Today this example

can be seen in the Cleveland Museum of Art. The artist


17/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 12

used soft lines and delicate curves in carving this frog. It illustrates his keen observation.

This frog probably served as a cult image to the frog deity Heket. The ancient Egyptian

believed that the frog reproduced spontaneously. She was therefore worshiped as the

goddess of childbirth especially the last stages of labour (Illustration 1)

As from the Middle Kingdom frogs were often displayed on staffs during childbirth

rituals. To ensure fertility women often wore amulets in the shape of frogs. This practice

was even conducted during the religious reform of Akhenaten during the 18thDynasty.

The frog hieroglyph was, during the New Kingdom, often written after the name of a

dead person to express the wish that he may revive again. A relief in the temple of Seti I

at Abydos illustrates the king bringing offerings to Heket. The cult of Heket was

particularly popular in Abydos as from the Pre-Dynastic time onwards. Frog amulets

were often found amongst the mummy wrappings during the New Kingdom.

During the Ptolemaic Period, a temple was built in honour of Heket in the Coptos area

(Qus). A procession in her honour is also mentioned in the tomb of Petosiris at Tune el-

Gebel.

Although the frog appears in the cosmogony of Hermopolis, it is also associated with

Heket (Hekat). She was a frog deity associated with fertility and childbirth. A midwife

was called Servant of Heket. As goddess Heket was mentioned in the Pyramid Texts.

She was frequently depicted on walls in tombs especially during the Middle Kingdom.

Magical objects decorated with her frog-image were found, such as amulets, rods, magic

knives, clappers and figurines. These objects protected mothers in the nursery. In her

creator aspect, Heket was often associated with the god Khnum. Heket herself was

illustrated as a frog or a woman with a fog head. She was a primitive goddess and it is

believed that Heket and the goddess Shu were the ancestors of the gods. She came with

Shu from the mouth of Ra. As midwife she assisted with the birth of the sun each

morning as she also assisted with the birth of a child. She actually made delivery and

held the Ankh (symbol of life) out to te baby and from that moment, it was believed to

become alive! Heket appeared at childbirth with other goddesses such as Nekhebet,

Taueret, Meshkent and Hathor.


18/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 13

But he Egyptians also included frogs in their art to illustrate the abundance of life on the

banks of the Nile. These kind of spontaneous illustrations were very popular during the

Old Kingdom and can be seen in tombs such as that of Mereruka and Kagemni at

Saqqara (6th Dynasty). Here frogs are illustrated on reeds and other river plants,

together with other insects such as grasshoppers, butterflies and dragonflies, forming

part of a background for a larger fishing or hunting scenes. The example from the tomb

of Kagemni (Illustration

3) portrays a frog on a

flowering stem of

Pondweed, overhanging

the water. It is in the act of

hunting a dragonfly. The

small body of the frogs is

well portrayed in profile.

It may well be an Amieta

angolensis or else one of

the smaller reed frog species. In this case it is difficult to identify it because of the faded

colour on the relief. On the Pondweed stem just above the frog, a grasshopper

(Schistocerca gregaria) can be seen. This relief from the tomb of Kagemni is a beautiful

example of the artist illustrating the teaming wildlife in the Nile valley.

Although frogs also appear in the art of other ancient cultures, the Egyptian frogs

included in their natural habitat, are from the most sensitive illustrations of frogs in

ancient art.


19/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 14

List of References:

1) Carruthers, V. 2008. DIE NATUURLEWE VAN SIUDER AFRIKA. DIE GROTER

GEILLUSTREERDE GIDS TOT DIE DIERE EN PLANTE VAN DIE STREEK.

Kaapstad: Struik.

2) Fouad, T and A. Aboudi. -. EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE AND THE ROYAL NAMES.

Luxor: Aboudy.

3) Houlihan, P. F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo:


4) Kozloff, A. P. 1986. MORE ANIMALS IN ANCIENT ART. FROM THE LEO

MILDENBERG COLLECTION. Mainz: Phillip von Zabern.

5)

Lauer, J-P. 1076. SAQQARA. THE ROYAL CEMETERY OF MEMPHIS. London:Thames & Hudson.

6) Malek, J. 2003. EGYPT. 4000 YEARS OF ART. London: Phaidon Press.

7) Wilkinson, T. 2005. THE THAMES & HADSON DICTIONARY OF ANCIENT

EGYPT. London: Thames & Hudson


20/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 15

Pottery for Domestic Use in Ancient Egypt

The profession of the potter was ranked very low on the social scale (Hope, 1987: 7).

Potters were among the poorer of the poorest in Egyptian society, but their artworks

were used from humble homes to large temples.

The word Potter in Egyptian was ikd (w). It meant Builder or Fashioner. The

fashioner of vessels was ikdw n dsw.

In ancient Egypt vessels, bowls, mugs, etc. were made of a variety of materials from

gold to glass. Ceramic wares (or pottery) were extensively used in temples and tombs for

rituals and in Egyptian homes.

In manufacturing pots, the potter used several different techniques from hand made

to thrown on a kick-wheel. During the Pre-Dynastic Period they mainly used a hand

forming technique. These products were usually fairly small. Pots were made by

manipulating clay-lumps with the fingers or by placing coils of clay on top of each other

and smoothed down. Slabs of clay were also shaped into a pot. Another method was

using a mould. The shape was then refined by hand. This was a very slow technique.

Potters also used a stand which could be turned around while working on a pot.

Gradually they started to use the wheel. The wheel was invented in Mesopotamia in c.3000-4000BCE and was soon adopted by the Egyptian. It came into Egypt during the

Old Kingdom. Illustrations exist of Khnum working on a kick-wheel. The wheel could

rotate during the manufacturing of a pot. This was not such a time consuming

technique.

Decorating of the pot took place before firing. Decorations included painting, incision of

border patterns and illustrations, as well as the adding of figurative elements, e.g.

sculpted crocodiles on the outside of the pot or ibex shaped handles. Firing took place inkilns of which we can see the illustrations on walls of tombs. A few examples of kilns

also survived. The designs of the kilns developed over the years, but they stayed simple.

The up-draught kilns reached temperatures of 1100C. Different temperatures were used

for different materials, such as Nile-silt and Marl-clay.


21/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 16

Clay was the most popular material used for pots

made for domestic use. They were used for the

preparation of food and drink as well as for their

storing. For serving meals Nile-silt mugs, cups, bowls,

dishes and jars were used. Smaller vases, bottles and

pots were used for the storing of expensive oils and

perfumes. Large jars were used for the storing of

grain, wine and water. Jars made for storing of water

and wine were made of Nile-silt because the porous

walls kept the contents cool. (Illustration 1, Large

Nile-silt jar incised with name of King Narmer,

Tarkhan; Archaic period Dynasty I) Marl-clay was

used for pots and jars used for transporting fluids.

(Illustration 2, Marl-clay vessels; Archaic Period;

3050-2686 BCE; Dynasty I and II)

Large estates had large store rooms with numerous

jars for the storage of food, wine and water supplies.

Often these pots and jars were not flat at the basis.

Pottery stands were used to keep these jars standing

when necessary.

Locally made domestic pots didnt have much value as

they were easily obtained or often made by the woman

of the house. Decorated pots, made by trained potters

and imported pots were expensive. Highly decorated

pots, e.g. those from the New Kingdom may have been

used only at special occasions and festivals.

(Illustration 3, Nile-silt jar with gazelle motif; red and

black, painted; New Kingdom, Dynasty XVIII)Just as today the Egyptian housewife had

her ceramic wares for every-day use and those for special occasions. Some highly

decorated and imported wares were only used for decorations.


22/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 17

The earliest pots were made during the Pre-

Dynastic Period, between c. 5000 and 4000 BCE

(Badarian Culture). The Badarian wares were very

fine and carefully prepared in red clay. Later

potters used cream clay found in the desert valleys

of Upper and Middle Egypt. After firing they

became a buff or grey colour. Decorations painted

on these pots include boats, humans and birds.

During Naqada Period black topped ceramic wares

were very popular. (Illustration 4, Black-topped

red-ware; Predynstic

Period, Naqada I, 4000-

3500 BCE; Height

70mm)They were first sun

dried, then smoothed with a stone and lastly coated with an

ochre slip, which turned red after firing. The black top and

inside was obtained by carbonization when the red-hot pot was

placed upside-down in smouldering chaff. This method resulted

into a metallic sheen.

During the Old Kingdom the wheel came into use. Pots became even finer. Ewers with

spouts and jugs with lips were hitting the market. The pots from Meydum were

especially fine. (Illustration 5, Nile-silt Meydum bowl;

red-coated and polished; Old Kingdom; Dynasty

V)Egyptian faience wares came from Badari in Upper

Egypt. Faience beads also became very popular.


23/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 18

During the Middle Kingdom foreign influence can be seen.

(Illustration 6, Nile-silt bowl on stand; Beni Hasan; Middle

Kingdom, Dynasty XII)This came as result of Egypts extensive

trade with other countries, e.g. Mycenae, Cyprus and Crete.

During this period smaller pots with delicate necks and handles

became very popular. (Illustration 7, Grey-fired Nile-silt juglet;

Second Intermediate Period; 1782-1570 BCE; Dynasty XIII-

XVII)Small pots were also often placed on their individual small

pedestals.

The New Kingdom was a time of large quantities of painted

pottery, especially from Amarna. Pots were large (over 3 feet) and complex in design

and decoration. Decorations were well related to the design of the pot. Potters were fond

of using naturalistic colours.

In 30 BCE Egypt became a Roman province and the Romans

introduced new techniques.

Numerous examples of Egyptian pottery survived. Especially

those of blue faience, e.g. the shallow dishes became very

popular and can often be seen exhibited in museums. Their

decorations are beautiful and often related to the use of the

bowl. A well preserved example is Blue faience Bowl with

Lute-player from the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden.

Examples of pottery in figurative shape were also very popular,

especially during the new Kingdom. Today examples can also

be found in museums, e.g. Bottle in the Form of a Female

Flute Player and Flask in the Form of a Fat Scribe from the

British Museum, London.

Egyptian pottery were extensively used for domestic purposes. They are well known for

their elegant shape and decorations.


24/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 19

List of References:

1) Cooper, Emmanuel. 1988. A HISTORY OF WORLD POTTERY. London:

Batsford.

2) Hope, Colin. 1987. EGYPTIAN POTTERY. Aylesbury: Shire Publications.

3) Malek, Jaromir. 2003. EGYPT. 4000 YEARS OF ART. London: Phaidon Press.

4) Russmann, Edna R. 2004. ETERNAL EGYPT. MASTERWORKS OF ANCIENT

ART FROM THE BRITISH MUSEUM. California: University of California Press.

5) Van Ryneveld, M.M. 1994. DIE UITBEELDING VAN DIE DIER IN EGIPTIESE

KUNS. Verhandeling voorgele vir die voltooiing van die vereistes vir die

Laureatus. Vaalddriehoekse Technikon.

6)Wilkinson, Sir. J. Garedner. 1988. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. THEIR LIFE

AND CUSTOMS. London: Bracken Books.


25/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 20

Sandal-Making in Ancient Egypt

Sandal-making as a trade was highly regarded in ancient Egypt. Yet, of all the

illustrations of everyday activities on the tomb walls, that of sandal-making appears

seldom. Luckily pairs of sandals were found in several tombs.

On the walls of the tomb of Rekhmire (Vizier during the time of Thutmosis III and

Amenhotep II. 19thDynasty), an illustration of sandal-makers can be found depicting

the making, storing and stock taking of sandals. Two sandal-makers can be seen in their

workshop. The seated one on the left is punching holes in the sole of sandals. On his

working table other tools can be seen as well as complete sandals and two pieces of

leather for the soles for another pair of sandals. In the storing scene the sandal are

neatly packed in rows on the register lines. The register lines in the illustrations, apart

from being used to show the viewer everything, may also represent shelves in the

workshop. The other sandal-maker is involved in stock taking. In the tomb of Khaemhet

(a Noble buried at Luxor) fieldworkers wearing sandals can be seen. They probably did

this for practical reasons to protect their feet from stones or stubble in the fields, as it

was not customary for farm or field workers to wear sandals while working.

One of the tombs in which pairs of

sandals were found was that of

Sennezem (a Servant in the Place

of Truth buried at Luxor). Two

pairs of papyrus sandals were

found in his tomb. (Illustration 1,

Egyptian fiber sandals; Boston

Museum)

Carter found 39 items of footwear in the tomb of Tutankhamun. They were stored in

boxes and found scattered around. They included sandals made of a variety of materials.

Materials used in the making of sandals was leather, palm leaves, papyrus stalks as well

as sheet gold (mainly for funeral purposes). Leather sandals were desirable and


26/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 21

expensive. They were often lined with cloth. On these linings were painted decorations

such as captives or the eight representing the enemies of ancient Egypt. These figures

were painted on the cloth to humiliate Egypts enemies and illustrate the expression that

You have trodden the impure Gentiles under your powerful feet (Gardener, Wilkinson,

1988: 333). An example of these illustrations on the inner linings or soles is the pair of

sandals of Tutankhamun.

Tools used in the making of sandals were awls, wooden hammers, hooks, stones for

scraping hides, and jars for the soaking of leather, trestles for stretching the leather and

a sloping board or working table to work on. (Illustration 3, Tools for sandal making)

The clients of sandal-makers were mainly the

Upper and Middle class people. Sandals were

worn by men and women. Owning fine sandals

was regarded as a status symbol. Egyptians

were therefore very proud of the sandals they

wore. But, if we look at two and three

dimensional art, we find them more often

bare-foot than wearing sandal. They very

seldom worked with sandals. In formal descriptions as Royalty we find that individuals

were portrayed with or without sandals, for example, the diorite mortuary statue of

Khafre (4th Dynasty), shows the Pharaoh as bare-foot but the mortuary statue of

Ramesses II (19th Dynasty) shows him wearing sandals. During Amarna Period (18th

Dynasty) it seemed as if Royalty preferred to be illustrated wearing sandals. Priests were

also fond of sandals, but during their religious ceremonies in the temples, they

performed their duties without sandals.


27/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 22

Sandal fashion didnt change much over the years.

One of the earliest illustrations can be found on the

Narmer palette (1st Dynasty) were the sandal-

bearer walks behind the barefoot Pharaoh,

carrying his pair of sandals. This pair can clearly be

seen as having decorations on the inner soles.

Mainly the same style was used throughout the

Dynastic Period. Sandals worn by women and the

upper classes usually had pointed soles, turned up

at the front. Others had sharp, flat points but the majority were round at the front of the

sole. A thong stretched from between the big toe and the second toe to the ankle where it

was attached either to an ankle strap or a broader strap crossing the foot over the

highest part, just in front of the ankle. However there were always exceptions to the

general or popular style, e.g. the pair found in the tomb of Pharaoh Scheschonk II (25th

Dynasty). What is exceptional here is that the tip of the sole that is usually just turned

up is elongated to form a second thong over the length of the foot, which together with

the normal thong, is attached to the ankle strap. (Illustration 4, Sandal Designs)

Several well preserved examples of sandals were found in Egypt. The mummy of

Tutankhamun had thin gold toe sheaths on as well as gold sheath sandals. They were

embossed to imitate papyrus leaf or rush-work. Details such as nails were engraved

upon them. The soles ended in sharp points at the front and these were turned up. These

sandals were obviously not for

everyday use but only for funerary

wear. They were very similar to

those worn by the two guardians

statues found in his tomb.

Amongst the many pairs of sandals

found in Tutankhamuns tomb was

the pair with enemy figures on the

inner soles. The soles were made of


28/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 23

wood. The decorations were done in dark, green leather and gold foil applied as

marquetry. Nubian and Asian prisoners and the eight bows, representing the enemies of

Egypt, appear on the inner soles. The straps are made of bark, decorated with gold leaf.

This pair was used during Tutankhamuns lifetime and the left sandal shows more wear

and tear than the right one which may indicate that the Pharaoh limped or had

problems with his left foot. (Illustration 2, Sandals from Tutankhamuns Tomb Egyptian

Museum Cairo; Showing enemies to be trodden underfoot)

Tutankhamuns sandals were found in boxes, but many were also scattered about the

annex and the anti-chamber. Those sandals vary from ordinary to sophisticated. The

ordinary ones mainly made of papyrus leaves and rushes and the other of leather. The

finest examples included decorations such as beadwork.

Apart from the examples of sandals found in Egyptian tombs, leather shoes or boots

were also found in Thebes. They are from the Late Period and believed to be of Greek

origin and worn by Greeks as they were never found portrayed in ancient Egyptian art.

Sandals were the typical footwear of ancient Egyptians.

List of References:

1) Carter, Howard. 1954. THE TOMB OF TUTANKHAMN. London: Jenkins.

2) Hawass, Zahi. 2006. THE GREAT BOOOK OF ANCIENT EGYPT. IN THE

REALM OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.

3) James, T.G.H. 2007. TUTANKHAMUN. THE ENETERNAL SPLENDOR OF THE

BOY PHARAOH. Vercelli: White Star Publishers.

4) Mancini, Lisa. 1987. THE TOMBS OF THE NOBLES AT LUXOR. Cairo:

American University of Cairo Press.


29/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 24

5) Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTANKHAMUN. London: Thames &

Hudson.

6) Stierlin, Henri. 1995. THE PHARAOHS. MASTER-BUILDERS. Italy: Terrail.

7) Wilkinson, Charles K. 1983. EGYPTIAN WALL PAINTINGS. New York:

Metropolitan Museum of Art.

8)Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardener. 1988. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. THEIR LIFE

AND CUSTOMS. London: Bracken Book.


30/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 25

Furniture in Ancient Egypt

Because of the dry climate in Egypt, many pieces of furniture have been well preserved.

Other examples of furniture that did not survive can be seen in numerous wall-

illustrations throughout Egypt. We must however remember that these examples

illustrate the living conditions of the royalty and the rich.

Examples of furniture have survived from the 1st Dynasty, e.g. beds with rectangular

frames and short legs. The most important examples from the Old Kingdom is the

furniture of Hetepheres (Mother of Khufu) of the 4thDynasty. (Illustration 1, Armchair;

wood and gold leaf; Tomb of Hetepheres; Dynasty IV)From the Middle Kingdom some

interesting toilet boxes survived. By far the greatest variety and most beautiful examples

are from the New Kingdom. They include boxes, chests, beds, headrests, chairs etc. as

can be seen in the examples from the tomb of Tutankhamun, 18thDynasty.

In this article the concentration will be on

stools and chairs. Egyptians often sat on

mats, crossed legs or on their heels. Yet

stools and chairs were in common use.

They showed a variety and elegance in

form. In ancient Egypt the chair was also a

symbol of authority.

Light stools, made from papyrus and bent

wood were probably known before the 1st

Dynasty. During the early Dynastic Period,

they developed into wooden stools and

chairs. Stools were usually without a back-rest but examples with the low back (or

batten) and higher backs were also known. Those with higher backs are what we call

today chairs. These usually had legs in the shape of bull hooves or lion paws. As from 4th

Dynasty they became very popular. Forms of chairs varied very much.


31/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 26

The later armchair, as from the 4thDynasty, also had animal legs. The backs were high

and straight and the arm rests high (Chair of Hetepheres). The design of armchairs

developed gradually for better proportioning and comfort.

From these stools and chairs, double benches (for two persons) developed. By the end ofthe Old Kingdom the folding stool had crossed

legs which usually ended in a decorative

element, e.g. duck heads or lion legs

(Ecclesiastical Throne of Tutankhamun). Their

seats were mostly of leather stretched over

curved battens. The backs were light and strong

and usually consisted of upright bars.

(Illustration 2, Folding stool; Ebony inlayed with

ivory and gold mountings; the seat is solid;

Tomb of Tutankhamun; Dynasty VXIII)

For greater comfort the Egyptians had a number of answers, e.g. seats were made

slightly concave or linen and leather cushions were used. These cushions were stuffed

with goose feathers. They were also beautifully embroidered with silk and gold. Seats

were also made of interlaced work made of string or thongs. Some seats were also made

of skin, e.g. leopard skin, which was removed when the stool was folded up.

Footstools in the shape of ottomans of wood with

cushioned tops were also known (Ottoman of

Ramesses III). (Illustration 3, Ottoman; Tomb of

Rameses III; Dynasty XX)These were nearly as

high as the seat of a chair. Other footstools were

made of wood and highly decorated with inlay

work, carvings and/or paint. These were very

low and lifted the feet just above the floor

(Footstool of Tutankhamun).


32/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 27

The Egyptians used a variety of materials in making furniture. Different materials were

also combined in one piece. Principle materials were a variety of timber, e.g. acacia,

sycamore and tamarisk. They were all indigenous to Egypt. Timber such as cedar,

cypress and juniper were imported. A popular and highly prized wood was ebony,

imported from Central Africa. Materials added to or combined with wood, were ivory,

glass faience, coloured stone, papyrus and leather. Sheet gold, foil and leaf as well as

silver were used in luxury furniture.

Tools used by the Egyptians were simple and included adze, blades (of copper and

bronze). Tools had wooden handles. Smoothing of surfaces was done by adzes and stone

rubbers.

Their techniques were also simple. Pieces of wood were united by dowels and flat

tongues, cramps and pegs. Occasionally they made use of the tongue and groove

method. Dove-tailing joints can often be seen. Papyrus was also used to keep joints

together. Corners were formed by special types of mitre, pegged or lashed. Metal pins

and nails were not employed in carpentry before 18thDynasty. Bronze pins, capped with

gold can be seen in some of the examples from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Flaws in the

wood were patched and as in the case of poor wood, were often covered with gesso,

smoothed and painted. The painting was often done to imitate more valuable materials.

Veneer and inlay work were also used to cover inferior timber. Ivory and ebony were

very popular to use as inlay work. Other decorations were done in materials mentioned

above.

Stools and chairs were of high quality and interesting design. Apart from the fact that

they were light and easy to handle, they were also very comfortable. They are the

forerunners of the different seats we use today. Although we often include materials

such as chrome, stainless steel, glass and plastic in modern furniture, wood is still one of

the highest acclaimed valuable and popular materials used.


33/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 28

List of References:

1)

Hayward, Helena Ed. 1985. WORLD FURNITURE. New York: Crescent Books.2) Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTANKHAMUN. THE KING. THE

TOMB. THE ROYAL TREASURE. London: Thames & Hudson.

3)Wilkinson, Sir J. 1988. A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

London: Bracken Books.


34/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 29

The Use of Leopard Skin in Ancient Egypt

Although the Lion was crowned as King of the Jungle, it was the leopard whose pelt

adorned royalty and people of high rank.

Throughout Africa the leopard skin was sought after. African tribes, e.g. the Ba Lobedu

people of the Duiwelskloof area in South Africa, crowned their Rain Queen, Modjadji VI

(in the early 2000s), with the Royal Leopard Skin draped around her shoulders. The

Zulu of Kwa Zulu Natal (South Africa) also use the skin as a token of royalty. The

leopard claws are used as collar decoration. The Zulu not only value the pelt but also

adore the animal for its strength. In one of their legends the bravery of two soldiers are

measured against several aspects, one of which is the strength of the King Leopard.

The leopard can display more strength than a lion (kilogram per kilogram).

The Leopard (Panthera Pardus) rears its head as the most prominent, colourful and

most treacherous (Sinclair, 1965: 24) as well as the cruelest killer of all cats. A leopard

can weigh up to 60 kg, and can pull prey of more than his own weight up a tree. They are

loners and can be seen in pairs during the mating season. The leopard is nocturnal and

area bound. He marks his area by urinating.

The skin colour of the leopard varies from yellow ochre on the back to white at the belly.The black spots are arranged in rosettes. Only down the legs and in the face singular

black spots can be found. The tip of the tail is marked by black rings. It is the beauty of

its pelt that makes it sought after.

In ancient Egypt it was sought after for the same reason. Leopards appeared in Egypt

during Pre-Dynastic times as can be seen on a palette from the late Pre-Dynastic

(Naqada III) Period. Because of human settlement and activities along the banks of the

Nile, some species were completely eradicated north of the First cataract by the ArchaicPeriod (I-II Dynasty). The Leopard, known as a shy animal, may have been one of the

first to move south to survive. Later, as from the Old Kingdom onwards, leopards and

leopard skin came into Egypt from Nubia as tribute to Pharaohs or as items of trade.

Several tombs such as the 6thDynasty tomb of Harkuf as well as the 18thDynasty tomb


35/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 30

of Rekhmire record scenes where exotic objects and animals, including the leopard skin

or the animal, are brought into the country.

The Egyptians used the leopard skin mainly as an adornment for priests when

performing certain ceremonies. Several two- and three-dimensional artworks illustratethis, e.g. Kneeling Priest (NK 18th Dynasty). This is a very high quality limestone

sculpture with traces of paint. The priest is portrayed as a child with a short wig and the

side lock. The leopard skin or pelt covers the back of the figure with the hind legs resting

on the priests thighs. A strap around the middle keeps the skin in position. The tail can

be seen pressed against the figures thighwith the tip of the tail ending at the knee. The

front legs of the skin are draped over the shoulder of the figure and fastened under the

arms. The head of the leopard is not indicated. This may be the figure of the first born

son of Amenhotep III, who served as High Priest of Ptah at Memphis.

The Egyptian priesthood consisted of priests of different levels or ranks, according to

their peculiar office. One of the priests who held a very high rank was the Salem or

Sam Priest. His responsibility was the handling of sacrifices; ordering of all religious

processions (in which he will carry the holy vase); presenting offerings at the altar and

funerals as well as anointing the Pharaoh. The Sem Priest was fully versed in all the

matters concerning the Ancient Egyptian religion.

The SemPriest was marked by specific dress consisting of

a basic linen robe with leopard skin fitting over. The

leopard skin was treated in different ways either a full

skin draped over the shoulders (with or without the head)

or worked off as a robe. The priests head also shaven but at

times he wore a short wig with or without a side lock.

Occasionally a Pharaoh or other individuals of high rank

were also dressed in this manner.

In the tomb of Sen-nefer (NK, 18th Dynasty) from the NE

corner of the hall of pillars, two Sem Priests are depicted:

one with a libation vase anointing Sen-nefer and the other


36/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 31

with ceremonial vase and incense. (Illustration 1, Sem Priest: Tomb of Sen-nefer)Both

are wearing short wigs without the side lock. The leopard skins are painted in rich

yellow ochre with orange and black spots. The claws are painted white as well as the

edges of the pelts with short black lines. The tails hang down at the sides of the figures.

No leopard heads are visible.

(Illustration 2, The opening of Mouth Ceremony; Tomb of

Tutankhamun) In the tomb of Tutankhamun (NK 18th

Dynasty) (N wall burial chamber), Ay, dressed in a white

robe and a blue warrior crown, of a pharaoh, has a leopard

skin draped over his shoulders. He is performing the

Opening of the Mouth ceremony to the mummy of the

deceased Pharaoh. The leopard skin clearly shows the

distinct rosettes of dots, black lines of the tail and tiny single

dots of the paws. Every single claw is included. The head of

the animal is fairly small and hangs over the front of Ays

torso. In two dimensional arts, the head of the leopard is

usually draped over the shoulder furthest from the viewer so

that the head hanging down in front of the person can clearly be seen. Markings on the

skin will be rendered accurately or in fine detail.

An example from the tomb of Ipuy, (MK Deir el

Medina), illustrates offerings made to Ipuy by the Sem

Priest. Here the priest is dressed in a long kilt, with

leopard skin draped over his shoulder in typical

fashion. The leopard skin is tied to his back with a

white ribbon. The skin is painted yellow ochre and the

black spots placed in even rows with tiny dots between

the rows. Paws are white with two black zig-zag lines at

the wrists and the tail is decorated with similar black

lines. The center line along the back of the animal is

marked by three rows of elongated spots. The skin is


37/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 32

worked off at the edges decorated with a black line decorated with a yellow zig-zag line

in the middle. Detail on the head is done in black. This is an example where the spots

are rendered in a decorative manner in fine detail. The head is as usual fairly small in

comparison with the entire skin. The priest is wearing white sandals. He also wears a

short wig with headband and perfume cone. (Illustration 3, Sem Priest: Tomb of Ipuy)

On the stela of princess Nefertiabet (Nefertiabt) from the time of Khufu, (OK 4th

Dynasty), the princess is seated in front of an offering

table loaded with food. A list of the offerings and their

quantities are included to the right. She is seated on a

stool and dressed in a robe of leopard skin: one off

shoulder and one long sleeve. The robe reaches to her

ankles. The entire robe is covered with black rosettes. She

wears a simple long wig without any decorations. She also

has a choker around her neck and one bracelet.

(Illustration 4, Princess Nefertiabet Stela of Nefertiabet)

A very interesting example can also be found in the tomb

of Nefertary, (NK 19th Dynasty). Here the two figures

illustrate the two forms of Horus. Firstly Horus Iunmutef

Pillar of his Mother and secondly Horus Nedjiotef

Avenger of his Father. Both are depicted as Sem Priests

clad in typical dress. They both wear short wigs with side

locks and the royal uraeus on their foreheads. Interesting

is the inclusion of the very short beards. Horus Iunmutef is

dressed in a short kilt with a leopard skin draped over his

shoulders with the head hanging on his chest. It seems as ifthe front legs and paws are worked into short sleeves, but

the rest of the skin is hanging loose down his back. Horus

Nedjiotef on the other hand wears a short robe of leopard skin over his short kilt. The

robe has short sleeves and the tail of the animal hangs in front of Horus. This is an


38/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 33

example where two forms of a god are wearing the leopard skin. (Illustration 5, Horus

Nedjiotef: Tomb of Nefertari)

The Sem Priest costume can also be worn by a son, performing a libation ceremony, e.g.

as in the tomb of Sennedjem and his wife receiving libation from their son Bunakhatef(NK, 18th Dynasty). Bunakhatef wears a short wig and is dressed in short kilt with

leopard skin draped over his shoulder typical of Sem Priest

attire. He is holding the libation vase, therefore performing

the duties of the Sem Priest. (Illustration 6, Bunakhatef:

Tomb of Sennedjem)

From the above examples, it is clear that the leopard skin or

pelt was widely used in Ancient Egypt as formal dress for the

performing of certain religious rituals and ceremonies. It was

mainly worn by the Sem Priest as in the tomb of Ipuy, but

also by Pharaohs (Ay), family members (Bunakhatef),

princesses (Nefetiabet) and gods (Horus). It was used draped

over the shoulders but also worked into robes. The leopard

skin was held in high esteem and therefore never used for

informal wear.


39/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 34

List of References:

1) Aldred, Cyril. 1968. EGYPTIAN ART IN THE DAYS OF THE PHARAOHS 3100

320 BC. London: Thames and Hudson.

2)

El Mahdy, Christine. 1991. MUMMIES MYTH AND MAGIC. London: Thames

and Hudson.

3) Fletcher, Joanne. 1999. ANCIENT EGYPT. LIFE, MYTH AND ART. London:

Duncan Baird Publishers.

4) Houlihan, Patric F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. Cairo:


5) James, T. G. H. 2002. RAMESSES II. Vercelli: White Star Publishers.

6)

Labouschagne, R. J. and N. J. van der Merwe. 1971. MAMMALS OF THEKRUGER AND OTHER NATIONAL PARKS. South Africa: National Parks Board

of Trustees.

7) Larsen, Tobin B. THE NATURE OF THE NILE. Aramco World. Nov.-Dec. 1987.

Vol 38 No 6 pp 20-27.

8) Malek, Jaromir. 1993. THE CAT IN ANCIENT EGYPT. London: British Museum

Press.

9) Mutwa, Vusamazulu C. 1965. INDABA MY CHILDREN. Pietermaritzburg: The

Natal Witness.

10)Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTANKHAMUN. THE KING. THE

TOMB. THE ROYAL TREASURE. London: Thames and Hudson.

11)Russman, Edna R. 20014. ETERNAL EGYPT. MASTERWORKS OF ANCIENT

ART FROM THE BRITISH MUSEUM. California: University of California Press.

12)Schafer, H. 1974. PRINCIPLES OF EGYPTIAN ART. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

13)Sinclair, John. 1965. THE HUNTED ONES. Johannesburg: Hugh Keartland.

14)

Wilkinson, Charkes K. 1983. EGYPTIAN WALL PAINTINGS. THEMETROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ARTS COLLECTION OF FACSIMILES. New

York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.

15)Wilkinson, Sir J. gardener. 1988. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. THEIR LIFE



40/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 35

16)Zabern, Phillip von. 1986. SEN-NEFER. DIE GRABKAMMER DES

BURGERMEISTERS VON THEBEN. Mainz: Verlag Phillip von Zabern.


41/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 36

The use of Ivory in Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptians were fond of including luxury materials in their art. These materials

included ebony, lapis lazuli, ivory and others. During the Dynastic Period most of these

materials were imported, which made them very expensive.

The term ivory includes hippo, walrus as well as elephant tusks. Those of elephants

were (and still is today) more sought after and therefore more expensive. Ivory is a

creamy-white, fine grained dentine. It is opaque and fairly hard an excellent material

for carving.

Elephants are the largest land mammals and are found in India and Africa. The African

elephant is the larger of the two and is still found in various countries on the continentsuch as Zimbabwe, Botswana and Kenia. In the Republic of South Africa they can be

found in several nature reserves e.g. Addo National Park, Kruger National Park,

Pilanesburg and others.

African elephants have very large ears and also large tusks. They can reach a height of

300-340cm and can weigh up to 7000kg. Only one calf is born every 5 years, after a

gestation period of 22 months. Puberty stars at 13 years, the time when small tusks can

already be observed. The life-span of African elephants is 65-70 years.

During the Pre-Dynastic Period elephants still grazed in the Nile Valley. Rock

engravings found in caves indicate that several groups of people, e.g. hunters and

mountain dwellers inhabited the area. Their representations in rock shelters included a

variety of animals from their region with amongst them elephants. It is interesting to

notice that during these early times in history, people already used ivory for carving.

From Egypt a beautiful Ivory Knife from Jebel el Arak survived. It is dated as Proto-

Dynastic and is at present in the Louvre. It is a flint knife with an ivory handle which isdecorated with finely carved figures, boats and a variety of animals.

As human activities increased such as political activities, agriculture and trade, animals

such as the elephant, gradually moved further south. Humans developed different crafts

e.g. basketry, weaving and pottery. Objects of luxury and personal adornment became


42/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 37

popular. Different materials were used in making these objects such as ivory and ebony

and they were often decorated with carvings of birds, figures, boats and animals. As

animals gradually became extinct in the valley these materials were imported. Ebony

was imported from Syria, Lapis Lazuli from the east and ivory from African countries

such as Nubia. It was during these early times before the 1stDynasty that small ivory

statuettes appeared. They were mostly women. The earliest examples are from Badari.

Typical of these figurines are the dimple above each buttock only a very shallow drill

hole. During Pre-Dynastic times small plaques also appeared. They were about the size

of a large postage stamp an inscribed with an early form of hieroglyphic. Some examples

were found at Abydos in the tomb of Pharaoh Scorpion.

During the Dynastic Period ivory became more expensive. Ivory was imported from

Nubia till late in the Dynastic period. Trade with Nubia actually became very important.

The main Egyptian market for trade with Nubia was most probably at Elephantine

(from there the name Abu meaning Elephant Town). From the time of Ramesses

II we find a scene in the temple of Beit-el Wali illustrating the Pharaoh being presented

with several objects including ebony logs, gold collars, ostrich eggs and feathers as well

as elephant tusks.

The technique of ivory sculpture was influenced by the shape of the tusk a cylindrical

shape. Ivory figurines differ from figures carved in stone. Arms were often made

separately, but both arms were held straight to the side of the body. Joints were often

hidden under the clothing of the figure. Clothing were either carved or applied in gesso.

As ivory is easy to carve (e.g. when compared with stone), carving to decorate an object

could be done in minute detail. It was also easier to drill small holes for example in a

hand of a figure to hold a scepter or in a bead to put a string through. The texture of

ivory also made it an ideal material to use for inlay-work as small pieces can more easily

be cut to the exact size and shape needed.

Ivory was used to create certain objects as well as to decorate objects basically made of

other materials. The objects made of ivory include small statuettes, cosmetic objects,

seals, labels and plates, musical instruments and writing utensils. Those made of other


43/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 38

materials and decorated with ivory are furniture, board games, jewelry, weaponry and

others.

At Abydos a small Statuette of a King was found. It is

8.8.cm in height and dates back to c. 3000 BCE (found by SirF. Petrie). (Illustration 1, Ivory statuette of a king in his Sed

costume; Abydos; Predynastic Period; British Museum.)The

statuette was found near the early temple at Abydos. It is a

small statuette and shows some weathering. The figure is

that of a Pharaoh in ceremonial cloak and high white crown

of Upper Egypt. He is wrapped in the cloak and holds it

together with his hands. The figure has stopping shoulders

the neck thrust forward and the chin lowered. This pose may

indicate an elderly person. The ceremonial cloak is typical of

those worn during the Sed- Festival. The material of the cloak

shows a diamond pattern as well as a definite border design

which was carved very delicately. Despite the delicate

carving, the cloak indicates a heavy fabric. Flaps are hanging

over the shoulders and the one over the left shoulder shows a

definite scalloped edge. This statuette portrays an exceptional carving technique. Earlier

examples were usually more stylized. This example is more naturalistic than most

examples of this early period.

Ivory was also very popular for the making of cosmetic objects, e.g. fashionable hairpins

and combs. This also indicated d in the amount of attention given to elaborate hairdos

and the beautifully decorated combs with birds, flowers and animals. An exceptional

ivory comb was found at Abydos. The centerpiece of this comb is a serekh with the

hawk of the god Horus and the name of the Pharaoh Djet. It also includes two was

scepters (indicating sovereignty) and the ankh symbol (indicating life). Above the

wings of the bird is a barque with a hawk. The shape of the comb is a simple square and

the teeth are less than a quarter of the total height of the comb (Illustration 2).


44/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 39

Several examples of labels, plates and plaques made

of ivory were found of which a large number near

Abydos in the tomb of Pharaoh Scorpion. Small

square labels usually had a hole in one corner to be

attached to a box or a jar. At Saqqara labels were

found inscribed with the names of Pharaoh Djet of

the 1stDynasty and his official Sekhemkased. These

labels indicated contents, quantity and place of

origin of the contents or product contained in the

box or jar. From the tomb of the Pharaoh Den of the

1st Dynasty (also at Abydos) came a label portraying

the Pharaoh smiting his enemy an Easterner. The

reverse side only shows and incised pair of sandals.

On the obverse side the Pharaoh is identified by his name in the serek. Above the

serekh is the figure of Horus. Pharaoh Den wears the royal headdress with a rearing

cobra. This is one of the earliest examples of a Pharaoh portrayed as wearing the royal

cobra.

Musical instruments such as

clappers were also made of ivory.

(Illustration 3, Ivory clapper in the

shape of an arm. Philadelphia

Museum) From the tomb of

Tutankhamun a beautiful pair

exists. Their length is 15.7cm and they are slightly curved a shape that may have been

influenced by the natural shape of the tusk. They were found on the floor of the annex of

the tomb. They are arm-shaped and topped with elegant hands. On the opposite ends

there are holes in the clappers which according to Nicholas Reeves, may have been

intended for the insertion of a string or cord to link the two together so they can also be

used in a similar way as castanets. Each arm (or clapper) is decorated with a bracelet


45/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 40

and an elongated cartouche. The inscriptions refer to Queen Tiye and her granddaughter

Meritaten.

Also from the tomb of Tutankhamun is the young kings writing equipment. This

included a small ivory water dish, two ivory scribal palettes and an ivory and goldpapyrus burnisher. This was just a fraction of the writing equipment found in his tomb.

Materials used for the others include and limestone, wood, gold, sandstone, together

with various pigments.

Apart from objects made entirely of ivory as

mentioned above, there are several examples of

objects basically made of other materials and

decorated with ivory. Several beautiful examples of

furniture from the tomb of Tutankhamun can be

seen in Cairo museum. Boxes and chests were often

decorated with ivory, e.g. the small paneled box of

ebony with the ivory veneer and fastening knobs.

Then there is also the box with the very fine herring

bone parquetry which involved more than 45,000

individual pieces. But one of the most exquisite

examples of furniture is the folding chair of which

the legs end in duck-heads inlaid with ivory. The

workmanship is of outstanding quality. (Illustration

4) Objects that are often included under furniture

are the board games of the ancient Egyptians. At times these boards took shape of small

tables or boxes on legs. In the Cairo Museum there is an example of a board game on a

stand from the tomb of Tutankhamun, found in the annex of his tomb. It is made of a

poor quality of wood and veneered, but identified as ebony. It stands on lion-paw

shaped legs on a sledge. The upper as well as the lower surfaces of the box are made of

ivory with wooden strips glued on to form the blocks. On the one side there are 30

squares for the game Senet(passing) and on the other side 20 squares. This game of

20 squares was introduced from the Levant and the rules are still unknown to us. The


46/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 41

box includes a drawer, but when found it was empty. These drawers were to store the

playing pieces and the casting sticks.

Other uses for ivory include weaponry and jewelry. Ivory boomerangs were found in the

tomb of Tutankhamun. They were probably used for hunting birds in the reeds. Jewelryincluding ivory are mainly strings of beads. But an ivory bracelet found in the annex of

the tomb of Tutankhamun includes delicately carved running animals such as gazelle

horse and hare.

Ivory was extensively used during ancient times by the Egyptians as well as other

civilizations. Work of outstanding quality survived for us to admire. Some examples

from other areas are the Lion devouring a curly-haired Boy from Nimrud and the

Aurignacian Lady of Brassepouy. From the continent of Africa a small hip mask from

Benin still survives. The small mask is only 25cm in height. An exquisite display of ivory

objects can also be seen in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. At present ivory is

still a very popular material to work with. It is a pity though that the use of ivory today

have led to the illegal hunting of elephants. Early in 2013 to start the new year an

entire herd (or family group) of eleven animals were killed in a reserve in East Africa for

their tusk.

1)

List of References:

2) Malek, Aromir. 1986. IN THE SHADOW OF THE PYRAMIDS. EGYPT DURING

THE OLD KINGDOM. London: Orbis Book Publishing.

3) Oakes, Lorna. 2010. PYRAMIDS, TEMPLES & TOMBS OF ANCIENT EGYPT. AN

ILLUSTRATED ATLAS OF THE LAND OF PHARAOHS. London: Heremes

House.


47/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 42

4) Houlihan, Patric F. 1996. THE ANIMAL WORLD OF TE PHARAOHS. Cairo:


5) Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTNAKHAMUN. THE KING. THE

TOMB. THE ROYAL TREASURE. London: Thames & Hudson.

6) Hayward, Helena (Ed.). 1981. WORLD FURNITURE. AN ILLUSTRATED

HISTORY FROM EARLIEST TIMES. England: Hamlyn.

7) Lamy, Lucie. 1981. NEW LIGHT ON ANCIENT KNOWLEDGE. EGYPTIAN

MYSTERIES. London: Thames & Hudson.

8) Zabern, Philipp von. 1987. OFFICIAL CATALOGUE. THE EGYPTIAN MUSEUM

CAIRO. The Arab republic of Egypt: Organization of Egyptian Antiquities.


48/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 43

Tutankhamun Vuvuzelas

Two vuvuzelas, or shenebs (called trumpets or horns) were found in the tomb of

Tutankhamun. They were made of metal and not of the popular plastic as those made

for the FIFA World Cup of 2010.

Although they were used from very early in Egyptian history, the first representations of

the sheneb found so far, date from early New Kingdom. The only actual two to have

survived, were found in the tomb of Tutankhamun one sliver and the other bronze.

The sheneb was used for military purposes or

during parades accompanied by drums. They

were used to marshal the troops, summon themto the change and direct them in their

evolutions(Wilkinson, 1988:104). (Illustration 1,

Military band: Thebes (Detail).)The shenebs of

Tutankhamun are also described as military

horns and were most probably used to signal a

rhythmic code on a single pitch (Reeves,

1990:165).

Shenebswere simple in from and most probably

mainly made of brass. They were straight, like our common trumpet or horn, and

decorated with engraving. In Busiris and Lycopolis however, they were never used,

because the sound resembled the braying of an ass a sound that evoked unpleasant

sensations and reminded the people of evil.

The two shenebs found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, were found in the antechamber

and in the burial chamber. Objects in the antechamber were found in chaos. It had beendisturbed at least twice after the tombs original sealing. Between the objects a path had

been cleared, perhaps by Lord Carnavon and Howard Carter during their preliminary

investigation. The chamber was cleared on the 26thFebruary 1923 after seven weeks of

hard work. The sheneb found in the burial chamber was wrapped in reeds and it was


49/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 44

lying on the floor in the south eastern corner of the chamber. The placing can clearly be

seen on the original sketch by Carter. The official opening of the Burial Chamber took

place on the 17thFebruary 1932. (Illustration 2, Bronze Tutankhamuns trumpetwith the

wooden protector; The tomb of Tutankhamun)

Both shenebs had a wooden core gessoed and painted. This was most probably

intended to protect it from damage, e.g. dents, when not in use as the metal was very

thin.

The first one was of silver with a mouthpiece of gold

(no. 175). The flare (or bell) and tube were hammered

from sheet metal. It was fashioned in two pieces and

the edges were cut in square taps, folded over and

joined by silver solder to give and overall length of

58.2 cm. The lotus-shaped flares diameter is 8.2cm.

(Reeves 1990: 164) The flare contains vertical

cartouches containing the prenomen and the nomen of

Tutankhamun. A rectangular band was added

(perhaps after kings death) containing a scene

including Amun-Ra and Ra-Horakhty before the

creator god Ptah of Memphis.

The second trumpet was the copper alloy on with

sheet gold (no. 50gg). The copper alloy sheets is 0, 2-

0.25cm thick. It has a four-rivet join between the tube

and the flare covered by a gold sleeve. The electrum mouthpiece has the shape of a

simple ring, passed over the end of the tube. This one also has a simple lotus-shaped

covered by a gold sleeve. The flare is plain but the panel illustrated with the following:

Amun-Ra, Ra-Horakhty, Tutankhamun (with blue crown) and Ptah of Memphis.

Although the both shenebs belonged to king Tutankhaun, they were not a pair. Both

instruments were tested and played during modern times. They were firstly played in

1933 by prof. Kirby of the University of Johannesburg. He tried to play them without the


50/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 45

use of a mouthpiece but found that it was very difficult because it required very strong

air pressure. During a 1939 BBC broadcast they were played by Bandsman James

Teppern of the Birtish Army. He played them with a modern mouthpiece and obtained

three notes, C, G, and C an octave higher. And lastly they were played in 1941 without a

modern mouthpiece. The two instruments were found to be tuned differently. The

sound they made was described (by musicologist Hans Hickman) as raucous and

powerful, recalling rather the timbre of a mediaeval trombone or primitive horn than

that of a trumpet or cornet (Reeves, 1990: 165). Musicologist Jeremy Montagu

concluded that the middle range achieved during experiments was that which the

shenebhad been designed for. (Illustration 3 Detail

of decoration in the bell of the bronze trumpet)

Shenebs and vuvuzelas have the same design but

were made of different materials. It seems as if the

ancient shenebsof Tutankhamun were also capable

of the same sound volume as the modern vuvuzelas.

As they were designed to carry messages over a long

distance during warfare. It is quite understandable.

Whereas the vuvuzelas, used in a large but confined

space, can be overwhelming as well as damaging to

the human ear.

List of References:

1) Bongioanni, Alesandro (Ed.). 2001. THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO THE

EGYOTIAN MUSEUM IN CAIRO. Cairo: The American University of Cairo Press.


51/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 46

2) Carter, Howard. 1972. THE ROMB OF TUTANKHAMUN. London: Barrie &

Jenkins.

3) Reeves, Nicholas. 1990. THE COMPLETE TUTANKHAMUN. THE KING, THE

TOMB. THE TREASURE. London: Thames & Hudson.

4)Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardener. 1988. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. THEIR LIFE



52/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 47

Tomb of Tutankhamuns ackal

Certainly the most widely known and deftly executed image of Anubis that has come

down to us from ancient Egypt is the powerful recumbent statue of him on top of agilded shrine of the Eighteenth Dynasty tomb of Tutankhamun (no 62) in the Valley the

Kings (Houlihan, 1996: 78). The recumbent figure of a jackal from Tutankhamuns

tomb is absolutely fascinating. It is superbly executed. The animal is described as a

jackal or dog who also had a specific religious significance.

The cult of the jackal or a dog-headed deity, Anubis, probably migrated into Egypt from

a civilization that was settled in the mountain area in central Sahara, the Tibetsi

Mountains. Pre-historic rock art portraying a human figure with jackal like mask wasfound in this area. Because of climate changes, these people moved towards the Nile

river valley, settled there and later became part of the Egyptian civilization. The cult of

Anubis became universal in Egypt. It was the totem of several nomes such as the XIIIth,

XVIIth, and XVIIIth. It was however in the XIIIth nome of Upper Egypt, that the cult

played the most important role. This was the most sacred place of Anubis and the capital

of Lykopolis. Lykopolis was situated on the West bank of Nile, just downstream of

Asyut. Later, but still in Ancient times, the nome capital changed to Asyut.

According to the Pyramid Texts, Anubis was the fourth son of Ra but later he was

included in the family group of Osiris. Yet, he was brought up by Isis, the official wife

of Osiris. He helped Isis and Nephthys to mummify Osiris as well as to bury him and

was henceforth associated with embalming and funeral rites. He was called Lord of the

Mummy Wrappings (Egyptian Mythology, 1965: 80). Anubis was portrayed as a black

jackal or dog or as a jackal or dog-headed human.

The Egyptians did not differentiate between dogs and jackals. They also used the sameword to describe both canines iuiu meaning Barker or Howler (Janssen, 1989:

9). Dogs were domesticated from early Pre-history. Several breeds developed during

Ancient Egyptian times. Some selective breeding also took place, e.g. the Greyhound

(since the Old Kingdom). The Greyhound had erected pointed ears and a curly tail. This


53/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 48

specimen is often represented in Egyptian art. Dogs were feared in ancient Egypt as well

as despised because of their nature. They were used as hunting dogs and pets. They are

often portrayed in hunting scenes, e.g. the Desret Hunting Scene from the tomb of

Senbi at Meir, 12thDynasty. As pets they will sit next to the owners chair or accompany

him while working. Strange enough, they never illustrated dogs being fondled or played

with. They gave their dogs individual names describing their colour or character. Dogs

were illustrated wearing collars.

In Egypt the common or Golden Jackal (canis aureus lupaster) was found from ancient

times onwards. Jackals appeared in Egyptian art since the Old Kingdom. They are

presented as short-haired animals with very long, bushy tails, e.g. in the tomb of

Nefermaat at Meidum, 5th Dynasty. Jackals also appear in hieroglyphic inscriptions,

either as entire animal or only the head placed on a vertical line (wsr meaning

strong),e.g. in the cartouche of Senusret I, 12th Dynasty. The Red Fox (vulpes vulpes

aegyptica) also appear in Egyptian art, e.g. The dying Fox in the tomb of Userhat at

Thebes, 18thDyansty. Here the white tip of the tail can clearly be seen.

The canine portrayed as Anubis is very interesting. It presents typical characteristic of

the canine family in general. It is presented in black, having a smooth, short-haired coat.

The muzzle is long and it has erect pointed ears. It has a slender torso and extremely

long thick bushy tail. Numerous representations of Anubis in Egyptian art resemble a

jackal with a collar, which indicates that the animal is under human control (Carter

1972: 164). Apart from the long bushy tail all characteristics can be found in Egyptian

dogs and of course the collar! Carter explains that it may be a form of domesticated

jackal-dog of the Egyptians (1972: 164).In the British Museum there is an example of a

gold jackal (Meriotic Jewelry) which has the same features of the jackal of

Tutankhamun: slender body, long snout, long erect ears and long tail hanging down to

the base of the ornament. It is described as a canine, possibly a jackaland is closely

paralleled by other examples found in the pyramid of Queen Amanishaketo (Taylor,

1991: 56) (1stcentury B.C.)


54/81

Pen of Thoth


Page 49

Tutankhamuns Jackal was found in

the Innermost Treasury of his tomb.

Although the tomb was discovered in

1922, work on the Treasury only

started on the 24thOctober 1926. The

Treasury is a small room not more

than 15feet 8 inches by 12 feet 6inches

square, and 7feet 8 inches in height

(Carter, 1972: 158). Carter wrote:

placed in the doorway practically

preventing ingress to the room, was

the black figure of the jackal-like god

Anubis, covered with linen and

couchant upon a gilt pylon resting on

a sledge with long carrying poles (Carter, 1972: 159-160). He was placed in the open

doorway, watching towards the West. From this position he guarded the Treasury and

watched over the Burial Chamber. As Lord of the west, Anubis guarded the kings

canopic equipment which was stored in the Treasury. (Illustration 1)

The sled based pylon-shaped shrine on which the jackal was found, is made of gessoed

and gilded wood. The sides are decorated with two rows of double Djed and Tet

symbols and horizontal and vertical inscriptions. The inner compartments of this shrine

consisted of one large and four small sections. They were filled with objects and

materials belonging to the mummification ritual. On top of the shrine, between the paws

of the jac

Date post:	21-Feb-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	vanya-vucinic
View:	258 times
Download:	2 times

Pen of Thoth eBook

Documents