Perform and Function - Web viewBuilding your basics - good eating ... a low habitual fluid intake...

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Perform and Function

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ContentsThe Basics...................................................................................................................................................3

Hydration....................................................................................................................................................3

Protein........................................................................................................................................................4

Acid-Base....................................................................................................................................................6

Fats.............................................................................................................................................................8

Carbs.........................................................................................................................................................10

Recovery...................................................................................................................................................11

Toxins.......................................................................................................................................................12

Endurance.................................................................................................................................................12

Brain - Motivation.....................................................................................................................................12

Cardiopulmonary......................................................................................................................................16

Circulation................................................................................................................................................16

B12............................................................................................................................................................17

Chlorophyll Supplementation...................................................................................................................18

Circulation & Vasodilation.......................................................................................................................18

Mitochondria............................................................................................................................................19

Carnitine...................................................................................................................................................20

Muscle......................................................................................................................................................22

Protein......................................................................................................................................................23

Carbs.........................................................................................................................................................24

Cori-cycle and anaerobic concerns...........................................................................................................25

Fat.............................................................................................................................................................27

Hydration..................................................................................................................................................29

Enhancing Adaptation...............................................................................................................................30

Systemic Hormonal Effects.......................................................................................................................31

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The BasicsThe following resource will help you understand our basic philosophy for eating for health, well-being, and sporting performance.

o Building your basics - good eating practiseso Health giving foods

Nutritional Philosophy Dietary and supplemental Intervention to enhance athletic performance

o Macroso Timingo Supplementation

HydrationMaughan, R. J. (2003). "Impact of mild dehydration on wellness and on exercise performance." Eur.J Clin.Nutr. 57 Suppl 2: S19-S23.

Chronic mild dehydration is a common condition in some population groups, including especially the elderly and those who participate in physical activity in warm environments. Hypohydration is recognised as a precipitating factor in a number of acute medical conditions in the elderly, and there may be an association, although not necessarily a causal one, between a low habitual fluid intake and some cancers, cardiovascular disease and diabetes. There is some evidence of impairments of cognitive function at moderate levels of hypohydration, but even short periods of fluid restriction, leading to a loss of body mass of 1-2%, lead to reductions in the subjective perception of alertness and ability to concentrate and to increases in self-reported tiredness and headache. In exercise lasting more than a few minutes, hypohydration clearly impairs performance capacity, but muscle strength appears to be relatively unaffected

Burke, L. M. (2001). "Nutritional needs for exercise in the heat." Comp Biochem.Physiol A Mol.Integr.Physiol 128(4): 735-748.

Although hot conditions are not typically conducive to optimal sports performance, nutritional strategies play an important role in assisting an athlete to perform as well as possible in a hot environment. A key issue is the prevention of hypohydration during an exercise session. Fluid intake strategies should be undertaken in a cyclical sequence: hydrate well prior to the workout, drink as much as is comfortable and practical during the session, and rehydrate aggressively afterwards in preparation for future exercise bouts. There is some interest in hyperhydration strategies, such as hyperhydration with glycerol, to prepare the athlete for a situation where there is little opportunity for fluid intake to match large sweat losses. Recovery of significant fluid losses after exercise is assisted by the simultaneous replacement of electrolyte losses. Carbohydrate (CHO) requirements for exercise are increased in the heat, due to a shift in substrate utilization towards CHO oxidation. Daily food patterns should focus on replacing glycogen stores after exercise, and competition strategies should include activities to enhance CHO availability, such as CHO loading for endurance events, pre-event CHO intake, and intake of sports drinks in events lasting longer than 60 min. Although CHO ingestion may not enhance the performance of all events undertaken in hot weather, there are no disadvantages to the consumption of beverages containing 4-8% CHO and electrolytes. In fact, the palatability of these drinks may enhance the voluntary intake of fluid. Although there is some evidence of increased protein catabolism and cellular damage due to production of oxygen radicals during exercise in the heat, there is insufficient evidence to make specific dietary recommendations to account for these issues






Shirreffs, S. M. and R. J. Maughan (2000). "Rehydration and recovery of fluid balance after exercise." Exerc Sport Sci Rev 28(1): 27-32.

Restoration of fluid balance after exercise-induced hypohydration avoids the detrimental effects of a body water deficit on subsequent exercise performance and physiological function. Key issues in restoring fluid balance are consumption of a volume of fluid greater than that lost in sweat and replacement of electrolyte losses, particularly sodium.

Evans, G. H., S. M. Shirreffs, et al. (2009). "Postexercise rehydration in man: the effects of carbohydrate content and osmolality of drinks ingested ad libitum." Appl.Physiol Nutr.Metab 34(4): 785-793.

The effectiveness of different carbohydrate solutions in restoring fluid balance in situations of voluntary fluid intake has not been examined previously. The effect of the carbohydrate content of drinks ingested after exercise was examined in 6 males and 3 females previously dehydrated by 1.99 +/- 0.07% of body mass via intermittent exercise in the heat. Beginning 30 min after the cessation of exercise, subjects drank ad libitum for a period of 120 min. Drinks contained 31 mmol.L-1 Na+ as NaCl and either 0%, 2%, or 10% glucose with mean +/- SD osmolalities of 74 +/- 1, 188 +/- 3, and 654 +/- 4 mosm.kg-1, respectively. Blood and urine samples were collected before and after exercise, midway through rehydration, and throughout a 5 h recovery period. Total fluid intake was not different among trials (0%: 2258 +/- 519 mL; 2%: 2539 +/- 436 mL; 10%: 2173 +/- 252 mL; p = 0.173). Urine output was also not different among trials (p = 0.160). No differences among trials were observed in net fluid balance or in the fraction of the ingested drink retained. In conclusion, in situations of voluntary fluid intake, hypertonic carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions are as effective as hypotonic carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions at restoring whole-body fluid balance

Burke, L. M. (1997). "Nutrition for post-exercise recovery." Aust.J Sci.Med Sport 29(1): 3-10.

Recovery after exercise poses an important challenge to the modern athlete. Important issues include restoration of liver and muscle glycogen stores, and the replacement of fluid and electrolytes lost in sweat. Rapid resynthesis of muscle glycogen stores is aided by the immediate intake of carbohydrate (I g.kg-1 BM each 2 hours), particularly of high glycemic index carbohydrate foods, leading to a total intake over 24 hours of 7-10 g.kg-1 BM. Provided adequate carbohydrate is consumed it appears that the frequency of intake, the form (liquid versus solid) and the presence of other macronutrients does not affect the rate of glycogen storage. Practical considerations, such as the availability and appetite appeal of foods or drinks, and gastrointestinal comfort may determine ideal carbohydrate choices and intake patterns. Rehydration requires a special fluid intake plan since thirst and voluntary intake will not provide for full restoration of sweat losses in the acute phase (0-6 hr) of recovery. Steps should be taken to ensure that a supply of palatable drinks is available after exercise. Sweetened drinks are generally preferred and can contribute towards achieving carbohydrate intake goals. Replacement of sodium lost in sweat is important in maximising the retention of ingested fluids. A sodium content of 50-90 mmol.L-1 may be necessary for optimal rehydration; however commercial sports drinks are formulated with a more moderate sodium content (10-25 mmol.L-1). It may be necessary to consume 150% of fluid losses to allow for complete fluid restoration. Caffeine and alcohol containing beverages are not ideal rehydration fluids since they promote an increased rate of diuresis.

ProteinRennie, M. J. and K. D. Tipton (2000). "Protein and amino acid metabolism during and after exercise and the effects of nutrition." Annu Rev Nutr 20: 457-483.





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100150200250300350400450

I RE AA RE+AA RE+AA+I


Sustained dynamic exercise stimulates amino acid oxidation, chiefly of the branched-chain amino acids, and ammonia production in proportion to exercise intensity; if the exercise is intense enough, there is a net loss of muscle protein (as a result of decreased protein synthesis, increased breakdown, or both); some of the amino acids are oxidized as fuel, whereas the rest provide substrates for gluconeogenesis and possibly for acid-based regulation. Protein balance is restored after exercise, but no hypertrophy occurs with habitual dynamic exercise. Resistance exercise causes little change in amino acid oxidation but probably depresses protein synthesis and elevates breakdown acutely. After exercise, protein synthesis rebounds for </=48 h, but breakdown remains elevated, and net positive balance is achieved only if amino acid availability is increased. There is no evidence that habitual exercise increases protein requirements; indeed protein metabolism may become more efficient as a result of training.






Acid-BaseRemer, T. (2000). "Influence of diet on acid-base balance." Semin Dial 13(4): 221-226.

It is well established that diet and certain food components have a clear impact on acid-base balance. For adults, the following factors are involved: 1) the chemical composition of foods (i.e., their content of protein, chloride, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium), 2) the different intestinal absorption rates of the relevant nutrients, 3) the metabolic generation of sulfate from sulfur-containing amino acids, 4) the grade of dissociation of phosphorus at the physiologic pH of 7.4, and 5) the ionic valence of calcium and magnesium. All these factors allow us to estimate the potential renal acid load (PRAL) of any given food or diet. The PRAL (calculated for a 24-hour period), together with a relatively constant daily amount of urinary excreted organic acids (in healthy subjects proportional to body surface area or body weight), yields the daily net acid excretion. This article provides an overview of the current concepts of diet influences on acid-base balance and also focuses on the underlying physiologic and biochemical basis as well as on relevant clinical implications.






Massey, L. K. (2003). "Dietary Animal and Plant Protein and Human Bone Health: A Whole Foods Approach." J. Nutr. 133(3): 862S-865.

Urinary calcium excretion is strongly related to net renal acid excretion. The catabolism of dietary protein generates ammonium ion and sulfates from sulfur-containing amino acids. Bone citrate and carbonate are mobilized to neutralize these acids, so urinary calcium increases when dietary protein increases. Common plant proteins such as soy, corn, wheat and rice have similar total S per g of protein as eggs, milk and muscle from meat, poultry and fish. Therefore increasing intake of purified proteins from either animal or plant sources similarly increases urinary calcium. The effects of a protein on urinary calcium and bone metabolism are modified by other nutrients found in that protein food source. For example, the high amount of calcium in milk compensates for urinary calcium losses generated by milk protein. Similarly, the high potassium levels of plant protein foods, such as legumes and grains, will decrease urinary calcium. The hypocalciuric effect of the high phosphate associated with the amino acids of meat at least partially offsets the hypercalciuric effect of the protein. Other food and dietary constituents such as vitamin D, isoflavones in soy, caffeine and added salt also have effects on bone health. Many of these other components are considered in the potential renal acid load of a food or diet, which predicts its effect on urinary acid and thus calcium. "Excess" dietary protein from either animal or plant proteins may be detrimental to bone health, but its effect will be modified by other nutrients in the food and total diet.






FatsSeaton, T. B., S. L. Welle, et al. (1986). "Thermic effect of medium-chain and long-chain triglycerides in man." Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 44(5): 630-634.

The thermic effects of 400 kcal meals of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) and long-chain triglycerides (LCT) were compared in seven healthy men. Metabolic rate was measured before the meals and for 6 h after the meals by indirect calorimetry. Mean postprandial oxygen consumption was 12% higher than basal oxygen consumption after the MCT meal but was only 4% higher than the basal oxygen consumption after the LCT meal. There was a 25-fold increase in plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration and a slight increase in serum insulin concentration after MCT ingestion but not after LCT ingestion. Plasma triglyceride concentrations increased 68% after the LCT meal and did not change after the MCT meal. These data raise the possibility that long-term substitution of MCT for LCT would produce weight loss if energy intake remained constant

Tarnopolsky, M., A. Zimmer, et al. (2007). "Creatine monohydrate and conjugated linoleic acid improve strength and body composition following resistance exercise in older adults." PLoS.One. 2(10): e991.

Aging is associated with lower muscle mass and an increase in body fat. We examined whether creatine monohydrate (CrM) and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) could enhance strength gains and improve body composition (i.e., increase fat-free mass (FFM); decrease body fat) following resistance exercise training in older adults (>65 y). Men (N = 19) and women (N = 20) completed six months of resistance exercise training with CrM (5g/d)+CLA (6g/d) or placebo with randomized, double blind, allocation. Outcomes included: strength and muscular endurance, functional tasks, body composition (DEXA scan), blood tests (lipids, liver function, CK, glucose, systemic inflammation markers (IL-6, C-reactive protein)), urinary markers of compliance (creatine/creatinine), oxidative stress (8-OH-2dG, 8-isoP) and bone resorption (Nu-telopeptides). Exercise training improved all measurements of functional capacity (P<0.05) and strength (P<0.001), with greater improvement for the CrM+CLA group in most measurements of muscular endurance, isokinetic knee extension strength, FFM, and lower fat mass (P<0.05). Plasma creatinine (P<0.05), but not creatinine clearance, increased for CrM+CLA, with no changes in serum CK activity or liver function tests. Together, this data confirms that supervised resistance exercise training is safe and effective for increasing strength in older adults and that a combination of CrM and CLA can enhance some of the beneficial effects of training over a six-month period. Trial Registration. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00473902

Racine, N. M., A. C. Watras, et al. (2010). "Effect of conjugated linoleic acid on body fat accretion in overweight or obese children." Am J Clin Nutr.

BACKGROUND: Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a supplemental dietary fatty acid that decreases fat mass accretion in young animals. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine CLA's efficacy with regard to change in fat and body mass index (BMI) in children. DESIGN: We conducted a 7- +/- 0.5-mo randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of CLA in 62 prepubertal children aged 6-10 y who were overweight or obese but otherwise healthy. The subjects were randomly assigned to receive 3 g/d of 80% CLA (50:50 cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 isomers) or placebo in chocolate milk. RESULTS: Fifty-three subjects completed the trial (n = 28 in the CLA group, n = 25 in the placebo group). CLA attenuated the increase in BMI (0.5 +/- 0.8) compared with placebo (1.1 +/- 1.1) (P = 0.05). The percentage change in body fat measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry was smaller (P = 0.001) in the CLA group (-0.5 +/- 2.1%) than in the placebo group (1.3 +/- 1.8%). The change in abdominal body fat as a percentage of total body weight was smaller (P = 0.02) in the CLA group (-0.09 +/- 0.9%) than in the placebo group (0.43 +/- 0.6%). There were no significant changes in plasma glucose, insulin, or LDL cholesterol between groups. Plasma HDL cholesterol decreased significantly more (P = 0.05) in the CLA group (-5.1 +/- 7.3 mg/dL) than in the placebo group (-0.7 +/- 8 mg/dL). Bone mineral accretion was lower (P = 0.04) in the CLA group (0.05 +/- 0.03 kg) than in the placebo group (0.07 +/- 0.03 kg). Reported gastrointestinal symptoms did not






differ significantly between groups. CONCLUSIONS: CLA supplementation for 7 +/- 0.5 mo decreased body fatness in 6-10-y-old children who were overweight or obese but did not improve plasma lipids or glucose and decreased HDL more than in the placebo group. Long-term investigation of the safety and efficacy of CLA supplementation in children is recommended.

Hagi, A., M. Nakayama, et al. (2010). "Effects of the omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio of fat emulsions on the fatty acid composition in cell membranes and the anti-inflammatory action." JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 34(3): 263-270.

BACKGROUND: This study investigated the effects of parenterally administered fish oil (FO) on the fatty acid composition in rats to determine the optimal omega-6:omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) ratio of fat emulsions to achieve an anti-inflammatory effect. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats were infused a parenteral nutrition (PN) solution containing fat emulsions with different omega-6:omega-3 PUFA ratios. The fatty acid content of phospholipids in the membranes of splenocytes was analyzed by gas chromatography (experiment 1). In addition, the amounts of leukotriene (LT) B(4) and LTB(5) released from peritoneal polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (experiment 2). RESULTS: In experiment 1, after infusion of the fat emulsion containing FO, the omega-3 PUFA content in cell membranes rose to 70% of the peak value on day 1 and nearly reached a plateau on day 3. The highest ratio of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) to arachidonic acid (AA) was achieved by administering a PN solution with the smallest omega-6:omega-3 PUFA ratio. In experiment 2, a larger amount of LTB(5) was released from Ca-ionophore-stimulated PMNs taken from rats given a larger quantity of FO. The ratio of LTB(5):LTB(4) released from PMNs correlated positively with the EPA:AA ratio in the membranous phospholipid and in serum. CONCLUSIONS: The omega-3 PUFAs were readily incorporated into the cell membrane within 3 days of infusion with the fat emulsion. The EPA:AA ratio in membranous phospholipid in PMNs was positively correlated with the LTB(5):LTB(4) production ratio and was a good indicator of anti-inflammatory effects.

Hibbeln, J. R., J. C. Umhau, et al. (1997). "Do plasma polyunsaturates predict hostility and depression?" World Rev Nutr Diet 82: 175-186.

Simopoulos, A. P. (1991). "Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development." Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 54(3): 438-463.

Several sources of information suggest that man evolved on a diet with a ratio of omega 6 to omega 3 fatty acids of approximately 1 whereas today this ratio is approximately 10:1 to 20-25:1, indicating that Western diets are deficient in omega 3 fatty acids compared with the diet on which humans evolved and their genetic patterns were established. Omega-3 fatty acids increase bleeding time; decrease platelet aggregation, blood viscosity, and fibrinogen; and increase erythrocyte deformability, thus decreasing the tendency to thrombus formation. In no clinical trial, including coronary artery graft surgery, has there been any evidence of increased blood loss due to ingestion of omega 3 fatty acids. Many studies show that the effects of omega 3 fatty acids on serum lipids depend on the type of patient and whether the amount of saturated fatty acids in the diet is held constant. In patients with hyperlipidemia, omega 3 fatty acids decrease low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol if the saturated fatty acid content is decreased, otherwise there is a slight increase, but at high doses (32 g) they lower LDL cholesterol; furthermore, they consistently lower serum triglycerides in normal subjects and in patients with hypertriglyceridemia whereas the effect on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) varies from no effect to slight increases. The discrepancies between animal and human studies most likely are due to differences between animal and human metabolism. In clinical trials eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the form of fish oils along with antirheumatic drugs improve joint pain in patients with rheumatoid arthritis; have a beneficial effect in patients with ulcerative colitis; and in combination with drugs, improve the skin lesions, lower the hyperlipidemia from etretinates, and decrease the toxicity of cyclosporin in patients with psoriasis. In various animal models omega 3 fatty acids decrease the number and size of tumors and increase the time elapsed before appearance of tumors. Studies with nonhuman primates and human newborns indicate that DHA is essential for






the normal functional development of the retina and brain, particularly in premature infants. Because omega 3 fatty acids are essential in growth and development throughout the life cycle, they should be included in the diets of all humans. Omega-3 and omega 6 fatty acids are not interconvertible in the human body and are important components of practically all cell membranes. Whereas cellular proteins are genetically determined, the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) composition of cell membranes is to a great extent dependent on the dietary intake.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

CarbsAnti-oxidants

Price, J. A., C. G. Sanny, et al. (2006). "Application of manual assessment of oxygen radical absorbent capacity (ORAC) for use in high throughput assay of "total" antioxidant activity of drugs and natural products." J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 54(1): 56-61.

INTRODUCTION: Antioxidants are of particular interest in a spectrum of diseases, and thus are an active area of drug discovery and design. It is important to make considered choices as to which assay chemistry will best serve for particular investigations. We examined the manual oxygen radical absorbent capacity (ORAC) assay for "total" antioxidant activity, including a direct comparison to an alternative technique, the AOP-490 assay, using a panel of extracts from 12 phylogenetically unrelated algae. METHODS: The AOP-490 assay was done per manufacturer's protocol. The ORAC assay was done by hand, in 96-well plates, not by machine as had been previously published. Our ORAC calculations were done using an in-experiment antioxidant standard curve. Results were reported as equivalents of the antioxidant Trolox, which was used as a standard. RESULTS: With the AOP-490 kit (from Oxis Research) widespread activity was found, but not in all samples. When the ORAC method was used to assay aliquots of the same extracts there was significant activity detected in all samples, and the rank order of activity by the two methods was not identical. The data showed the wide occurrence of antioxidants in algae. The standard curve with the manual ORAC assay was linear in the range tested (0-100 mM Trolox) and had excellent reproducibility. DISCUSSION: The importance of the beneficial effects of antioxidants is currently an area of active interest for drug development, and thus it is of great value to have an assay that is robust and approximates "total" antioxidant activity in a high throughput format. The ORAC (oxygen radical absorbent capacity) method was adapted to microplates and an eight-channel pipette and was more effective in detecting "total" antioxidant activity than the AOP-490 assay. These results might vary with other types of samples, and would depend on the active agents measured, but do suggest the practical value of the ORAC assay for any laboratory not ready for robotics but using manual 96-well format assays, and the utility of the ORAC assay for evaluating algal, and probably other samples as well.






RecoveryLevenhagen, D. K., C. Carr, et al. (2002). "Postexercise protein intake enhances whole-body and leg protein accretion in humans." Med.Sci.Sports Exerc. 34(5): 828-837.

PURPOSE: Exercise increases the use of amino acids for glucose production and stimulates the oxidation of amino acids and other substrates to provide ATP for muscular contraction, and thus the availability of amino acids and energy for postexercise muscle protein synthesis may be limiting. The purpose of this study was to determine the potential of postexercise nutrient intake to enhance the recovery of whole-body and skeletal muscle protein homeostasis in humans. METHODS: Primed-continuous infusions of L-[1-13C]leucine and L-[ring-2H5]phenylalanine were initiated in the antecubital vein and blood was sampled from a femoral vein and a heated (arterialized) hand vein. Each study consisted of a 30-min basal, a 60-min exercise (bicycle at 60% VO2max), and a 180-min recovery period. Five men and five women were studied three times with an oral supplement administered immediately following exercise in random order: NO = 0, 0, 0; SUPP = 0, 8, 3; or SUPP+PRO = 10, 8, 3 g of protein, carbohydrate, and lipid, respectively. RESULTS: Compared to NO, SUPP did not alter leg or whole-body protein homeostasis during the recovery period. In contrast, SUPP+PRO increased plasma essential amino acids 33%, leg fractional extraction of phenylalanine 4-fold, leg uptake of glucose 3.5-fold, and leg and whole-body


TOP ANTIOXIDANT FOODS ORAC* UNITS PER





protein synthesis 6-fold and 15%, respectively. Whereas postexercise intake of either NO or SUPP resulted in a net leg release of essential amino acids and net loss of whole-body and leg protein, SUPP+PRO resulted in a net leg uptake of essential amino acids and net whole-body and leg protein gain. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the availability of amino acids is more important than the availability of energy for postexercise repair and synthesis of muscle proteins

ToxinsHowdeshell, K. L., A. K. Hotchkiss, et al. (1999). "Environmental toxins: Exposure to bisphenol A advances puberty." Nature 401(6755): 763-764.

Plastics and pesticides are examples of products that contain oestrogenic endocrine-disrupting chemicals, or EEDCs, which can interfere with mammalian development by mimicking the action of the sex hormone oestradiol1. For instance, the exposure of developing rodents to high doses of EEDCs advances puberty and alters their reproductive function2. Low environmental doses of EEDCs may also affect development in humans3. Effects have become apparent in humans over the past half century that are consistent with those seen in animals after exposure to high doses of EEDCs, such as an increase in genital abnormality in boys4 and earlier sexual maturation in girls5. Here we show that exposing female mouse fetuses to an EEDC at a dose that is within the range typical of the environmental exposure of humans alters the postnatal growth rate and brings on early puberty in these mice.

Miquel Porta a b, (2006). “Persistent organic pollutants and the burden of diabetes” The Lancet, Volume 368, Issue 9535, Pages 558 – 559.

Studies from the USA have drawn attention to the possibility that persistent organic pollutants might contribute to cause diabetes. Dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE, the main degradation product of the pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane [DDT ] ), trans-nonachlor, hexachlorobenzene, and the hexachlorociclohexanes (including lindane) are some of the persistent organic pollutants most commonly found in

human beings. Lipophilic and highly resistant ... “Virtually all of the risk of diabetes conferred by obesity is

attributable to persistent organic pollutants, and that obesity is only a vehicle for such chemicals. This possibility is shocking”.

EnduranceDefinition

To last, continue, or remain. In exercise, the ability to sustain exertion (repeated bouts / continuous) for an extended period. This exertion may make demands of aerobic or annaerobic ennergy stytems, or require sustained power or force generation.

Brain - Motivation• Athletes run faster in competition compared to when unobserved and this has to be

controlled for when desigining academic studies.

• A common practise in sprinting is to estimate the time possible in compitition by sprinting in practise from a rolling start.






• The following paper shows that motivational circuitry in the brain is responible for some of the benefits seen from carbohydrate supplementation in short-duration maximal exercise. Exercise bouts too short to compromise glycogen reserves are often aided by carb intake. Some studies have also shown the rate of carb absorption during exercise to be too low to make such an imediate impact on performance. This study showed that purely swilling carbohydrate in the mouth could stimulate areas of the brain untouched by artifical sweetner. The areas stimulated, such as the cingulate cortex and areas within the striatum, are believed to house dopaminergic pathways that link food to reward and motivation

Studies:

Chambers, E. S., M. W. Bridge, et al. (2009). "Carbohydrate sensing in the human mouth: effects on exercise performance and brain activity." J Physiol 587(Pt 8): 1779-1794.

Exercise studies have suggested that the presence of carbohydrate in the human mouth activates regions of the brain that can enhance exercise performance but direct evidence of such a mechanism is limited. The first aim of the present study was to observe how rinsing the mouth with solutions containing glucose and maltodextrin, disguised with artificial sweetener, would affect exercise performance. The second aim was to use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to identify the brain regions activated by these substances. In Study 1A, eight endurance-trained cyclists (VO2max 60.8 +/- 4.1 ml kg(-1) min(-1)) completed a cycle time trial (total work = 914 +/- 29 kJ) significantly faster when rinsing their mouths with a 6.4% glucose solution compared with a placebo containing saccharin (60.4 +/- 3.7 and 61.6 +/- 3.8 min, respectively, P = 0.007). The corresponding fMRI study (Study 1B) revealed that oral exposure to glucose activated reward-related brain regions, including the anterior cingulate cortex and striatum, which were unresponsive to saccharin. In Study 2A, eight endurance-trained cyclists (VO2max 57.8 +/- 3.2 ml kg(-1) min(-1)) tested the effect of rinsing with a 6.4% maltodextrin solution on exercise performance, showing it to significantly reduce the time to complete the cycle time trial (total work = 837 +/- 68 kJ) compared to an artificially sweetened placebo (62.6 +/- 4.7 and 64.6 +/- 4.9 min, respectively, P = 0.012). The second neuroimaging study (Study 2B) compared the cortical response to oral maltodextrin and glucose, revealing a similar pattern of brain activation in response to the two carbohydrate solutions, including areas of the insula/frontal operculum, orbitofrontal cortex and striatum. The results suggest that the improvement in exercise performance that is observed when carbohydrate is present in the mouth may be due to the activation of brain


Activations in the insula/frontal operculum, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the striatum and the cingulate cortex by the contrasts A, [Glucose – Control] and B, [Saccharin – Control], with corresponding effects on maximum power





regions believed to be involved in reward and motor control. The findings also suggest that there may be a class of so far unidentified oral receptors that respond to carbohydrate independently of those for sweetness.

Brain - Neurotransmitters and Adrenal Fatigue

• “Parasympathetic” type of overtraining also referred to as “Adrenal Fatigue”.• Decreased catecholamine levels or sensitivity

• Decreased density of b-receptors at the neuromuscular junction Decrease in submaximal heart-rate despit compormised performance

Dietary nutritional strategies and supplementation protocols• Supporting neurotransmitter/endocrine metabolism by ensuring adequate levels of dietary

precursors― Tyrosine (has treated overtraining and hypoxia)― Adrenal Cortex

• Supporting neurotransmitter metabolism indirectly ― B Vitamins

― Vitamin C

Studies:

Lehmann, M., C. Foster, et al. (1998). "Autonomic imbalance hypothesis and overtraining syndrome." Med Sci Sports Exerc 30(7): 1140-1145.

PURPOSE: The parasympathetic, Addison type, overtraining syndrome represents the dominant modern type of this syndrome. Beside additional mechanisms, an autonomic or neuroendocrine imbalance is hypothesized as underlying. METHODS/RESULTS: Several findings support this thesis. During heavy endurance training or overreaching periods, the majority of findings give evidence of a reduced adrenal responsiveness to ACTH. This is compensated by an increased pituitary ACTH release. In an early stage of the overtraining syndrome, despite increased pituitary ACTH release, the decreased adrenal responsiveness is no longer compensated. The cortisol response decreases. In an advanced stage of overtraining syndrome, the pituitary ACTH release also decreases. In this stage, there is additionally evidence for decreased intrinsic sympathetic activity and sensitivity of target organs to catecholamines. This is indicated by decreased catecholamine excretion during night rest, decreased beta-adrenoreceptor density, decreased beta-adrenoreceptor-mediated responses, and increased resting plasma norepinephrine levels and responses to exercise. However, this complete pattern is only observed subsequent to high-volume endurance overtraining at high caloric demands. CONCLUSION: The described functional alterations


The Hypothalamic Pituitary Response in Different Stages of Overtraining. Taken from Lehman et al (1997)





of pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathetic system can explain persistent performance incompetence in affected athletes.

Uusitalo, A. L., P. Huttunen, et al. (1998). "Hormonal responses to endurance training and overtraining in female athletes." Clin J Sport Med 8(3): 178-186.

OBJECTIVE: To examine different hormonal responses to heavy endurance training and overtraining in female athletes. DESIGN: Submaximal and maximal treadmill tests, self-report mood measures, and stress hormone analyses were repeated at baseline, after 4 weeks and at the end of 6 to 9 weeks of experimental intensive training and after 4 to 6 weeks of recovery. SUBJECTS: Fifteen healthy female endurance athletes increased their intensive training volume by 130% and base training volume by 100% (ETG, n = 9) or served as controls (CG, n = 6). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), mood dynamics, blood catecholamines, cortisol and testosterone at rest and after submaximal and maximal exercise, and nocturnal urine catecholamines. RESULTS: Five females from the ETG demonstrated an over-training state (OA subgroup) at the end of the training period. Their VO2max decreased (mean +/- SEM) from 53.0 +/- 2.2 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 46.8-59.2) to 50.2 +/- 2.3 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 43.8-56.6) (p < 0.01). Maximal treadmill performance expressed as oxygen demand decreased (mean +/- SEM) from 56.0 +/- 1.6 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 51.5-60.5) to 52.2 +/- 1.1 ml kg-1.min-1 (range, 49.1-55.3) (p < 0.01). Maximal heart rate also decreased (mean +/- SEM) from 190 +/- 1 bpm (range, 185-197) to 186 +/- 2 bpm (range, 184-193) (p < 0.05), and the athletes experienced mood disturbances. Plasma adrenaline levels at maximal and noradrenaline at submaximal work rate decreased during the last 2 to 5 training weeks (p < 0.05), and serum cortisol levels at maximal work rate decreased during the first 4 training weeks (p < 0.05) in the ETG. Plasma adrenaline at maximal work rate decreased during the first 4 training weeks (p < 0.05) in the OA subgroup. There were no changes in the CG. Individual hormonal response types to heavy training and overtraining were found. CONCLUSIONS: Hormone responses to exercise load are superior in indicating heavy training-induced stress when compared with resting hormone levels. These responses indicated decreased sympathoadrenal and/or adrenocortical activity (or exhaustion of the adrenal gland or the central nervous system). Individual hormonal profiles are needed to follow up training effects. Marked individual differences were found in training- and overtraining-induced hormonal changes.

Hooper, S. L., L. T. MacKinnon, et al. (1993). "Hormonal responses of elite swimmers to overtraining." Med Sci Sports Exerc 25(6): 741-747.

Fourteen elite swimmers had measurements of stress hormones taken at five points during a 6-month season: early-, mid- and late-season, during tapering for National Trials, and 1-3 d after the Trials. Training details and subjective ratings of fatigue were recorded daily in log books. Plasma norepinephrine and epinephrine concentrations were significantly correlated with swim training volume (r = 0.37 and 0.33, respectively, P < 0.05 for each). No significant differences were seen in norepinephrine or cortisol concentrations at the five sampling times. Epinephrine levels were significantly lower (P < 0.05) after competition compared with values early in the season and shortly before competition. Symptoms of the overtraining syndrome were identified in three of the swimmers, based on performance decrements and high, prolonged levels of fatigue. In these three swimmers, norepinephrine levels tended to be higher than those of the other swimmers from mid-season onward and were significantly higher (P < 0.01) during tapering. If these findings can be confirmed in larger numbers and different types of athletes, norepinephrine level may provide a useful marker of the overtraining syndrome.

Banderet, L. E. and H. R. Lieberman (1989). "Treatment with tyrosine, a neurotransmitter precursor, reduces environmental stress in humans." Brain Res Bull 22(4): 759-762.

Acutely stressful situations can disrupt behavior and deplete brain norepinephrine and dopamine, catecholaminergic neurotransmitters. In animals, administration of tyrosine, a food constituent and precursor of the catecholamines, reduces these behavioral and neurochemical deficits. Using a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover design we investigated whether tyrosine (100 mg/kg) would protect humans from some of






the adverse consequences of a 4.5 hour exposure to cold and hypoxia. Tyrosine significantly decreased symptoms, adverse moods, and performance impairments in subjects who exhibited average or greater responses to these environmental conditions. These results suggest that tyrosine should be evaluated in a variety of acutely stressful situations.

Cardiopulmonary Oxygen Transport Essential for Aerobic Endurance

• Iron - Heamoglobin (Hb)/Oxygen transport essential for aerobic endurance-Supplementation seen to improve performance in deficient athletes

• Non Deficient elite athlete we’ve worked with shown significant performance improvements from addition of dietary iron

• A 0.3 g/dL increase in Hb can equate to ≈ 1% improvement in VO2max. • Elite runner (with EIS Physiologist Barry Fudge) • [Hb] from14 to 15.2 g/dL • VO2max from 4.32 to 4.49 L/min • ≈ 4.0%!

Studies:

Hinton, P. S., C. Giordano, et al. (2000). "Iron supplementation improves endurance after training in iron-depleted, nonanemic women." J Appl Physiol 88(3): 1103-1111.

Our objective was to investigate the effects of iron depletion on adaptation to aerobic exercise, assessed by time to complete a 15-km cycle ergometer test. Forty-two iron-depleted (serum ferritin <16 microg/l), nonanemic (Hb >12 g/dl) women (18-33 yr old) received 100 mg of ferrous sulfate (S) or placebo (P) per day for 6 wk in a randomized, double-blind trial. Subjects trained for 30 min/day, 5 days/wk at 75-85% of maximum heart rate for the final 4 wk of the study. There were no group differences in baseline iron status or in 15-km time. Iron supplementation increased serum ferritin and decreased transferrin receptors in the S compared with the P group. The S and P groups decreased 15-km time and respiratory exchange ratio and increased work rate during the 15-km time trial after training. The decrease in 15-km time was greater in the S than in the P group (P = 0.04) and could be partially attributed to increases in serum ferritin and Hb. These results indicate that iron deficiency without anemia impairs favorable adaptation to aerobic exercise.

Circulation• EFAs Impact on RBC properties• RBC deformability increases following Omega-3 supplementation, which may have benefits

for endurance

Studies:

Cartwright, I. J., A. G. Pockley, et al. (1985). "The effects of dietary [omega]-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte membrane phospholipids, erythrocyte deformability and blood viscosity in healthy volunteers." Atherosclerosis 55(3): 267-281.






Ho, M., C. Maple, et al. (1999). "The beneficial effects of omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acid supplementation on red blood cell rheology." Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 61(1): 13-17.

Twenty healthy, non-smoking subjects were enrolled into a study to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation with essential fatty acid (EFAs) on red blood cell rheology. Ten subjects were given 3 months dietary supplementation with long chain polyunsaturated EFAs containing omega-3 and omega-6 EFAs while 10 others were given placebo (sunflower oil). Venous sampling was performed at 0 and 12 weeks and red blood cell (RBC) aggregation and deformability measured by a filtration system. The results showed a reduction in RBC aggregation in the group given omega-3 and omega-6 EFAs but not in the placebo group. This may be related to changes in the RBC membrane and surface receptor characteristics. Such EFAs may be useful in Raynaud's phenomenon.

B12• Needed for “folate system” – methyl donation needed for gene expression and... RBC

FORMATION!• Deficient populations have improved exercise capacity on supplementation • Athletes show superior B-vitamin status

Studies:

Herrmann, M., R. Obeid, et al. (2005). "Altered vitamin B12 status in recreational endurance athletes." Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 15(4): 433-441.

This study aimed to compare the vitamin B(12)and folate status of recreational endurance athletes and inactive controls by modern biomarkers. In 72 athletes (38 +/- 7 y) and 46 inactive controls (38 +/- 9 y) serum levels of vitamin B(2), methylmalonic acid (MMA), holotranscobalamin II (holoTC), folate, and homocysteine (Hcy) were measured. Vitamin B(12)and folate levels of both groups were comparable, but athletes had higher median (25.-75. percentile) MMA [242 (196 to 324) versus 175 (141 to 266) nmol/L] and holoTC concentrations [67 (52 to 93) versus 55 (45 to 70) pmol/L] than controls. Hcy was slightly lower in athletes [9.2 (7.2 to 12.6) versus 10.8 (8.9 to 12.9) nmol/L]. In controls, we found the following correlations: vitamin B(12)and MMA (r = -0.38), vitamin B(12)and holoTC (r = 0.51), MMA and holoTC (r = -0.36). In athletes, MMA did not correlate with vitamin B(12)and holoTC. Our data suggests an altered vitamin B(12)metabolism in recreational athletes that needs further investigation.

Seshadri, S., K. Hirode, et al. (1982). "Behavioural responses of young anaemic Indian children to iron-folic acid supplements." Br J Nutr 48(2): 233-240.

Behavioural responses of young anaemic Indian children to iron-folic acid supplements were assessed in two separate studies using the Indian adaptation of Wechsler's (1967) intelligence scale for children (WISC). 2. The first study was an exploratory study in which the cognitive behaviour of 5-8-year-old children of both sexes was assessed before and after supplementation with 20 mg elemental Fe and 0.1 mg folic acid given daily for a period of 60 d. 3. The supplemented children showed a significant improvement in haemoglobin (Hb) as well as the WISC scores while the control children who did not receive any supplements failed to show an improvement either in Hb or in the WISC scores. However, within the supplemented group when the initially-anaemic children were compared with the initially-non-anaemic ones, only the 7-year-old anaemic children performed significantly poor in the tests than the non-anaemic group of the same age. The study raised the possibility that in addition to increasing the blood Hb levels, Fe-folic acid supplements may have additional benefits in improving the cognitive performance of children. 4. In the second study, cognitive behaviour of fourteen matched pairs of anaemic children in the age-range of 5-6 years was assessed before and after supplementation with 40 mg Fe and 0.2 mg






folic acid given daily in two divided doses or sugar placebos for a period of 60 d. The tester did not know the groups to which each child belonged. 5. The supplemented children showed a significant improvement in Hb as well as in the verbal and performance IQ of WISC. The control children showed no improvement in Hb but their verbal IQ improved significantly. However, there was no significant improvement in their performance IQ. 6. The results indicated that Fe-folic acid supplements to anaemic children not only raised Hb levels but also improved intelligence test results, particularly in the performance section.

Chlorophyll Supplementation• Chrolophyll’s similarity to Haemoglobin seems to induce synthesis by the body!

- For study details see included review by Reynolds

Borisenko, A. N. and A. D. Safonova (1965). "[The hemopoietic effect of sodium chlorophylline]." Vrach Delo 9: 44-46.

Circulation & Vasodilation• Adaptation occurs when the muscle recovers to surpass its initial abilities

(supercompensation), supported by nutrient provision and waste removal

• Blood-flow is increased by Nitric Oxide (NO) to causing vasodilation.

• Precursors of NO an interesting area of study…

• supplementation with inorganic nitrate in the form of beetroot juice may aid adaptation/performance by:

– Enhancing NO production

– Increasing bloodflow, fuel-delivery and waste removal from exercising muscle

• Study observed increased time to exhaustion and decreased systolic blood-pressure during exercise

• Natural Blood thinning factors; salicylates

– Work similarly to aspirin (derived from salicylic acid)






– blocks the formation of thromboxane A2 in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation

Bailey, S. J., P. Winyard, et al. (2009). "Dietary nitrate supplementation reduces the O2 cost of low-intensity exercise and enhances tolerance to high-intensity exercise in humans." J Appl Physiol 107(4): 1144-1155.

Pharmacological sodium nitrate supplementation has been reported to reduce the O2 cost of submaximal exercise in humans. In this study, we hypothesized that dietary supplementation with inorganic nitrate in the form of beetroot juice (BR) would reduce the O2 cost of submaximal exercise and enhance the tolerance to high-intensity exercise. In a double-blind, placebo (PL)-controlled, crossover study, eight men (aged 19-38 yr) consumed 500 ml/day of either BR (containing 11.2 +/- 0.6 mM of nitrate) or blackcurrant cordial (as a PL, with negligible nitrate content) for 6 consecutive days and completed a series of "step" moderate-intensity and severe-intensity exercise tests on the last 3 days. On days 4-6, plasma nitrite concentration was significantly greater following dietary nitrate supplementation compared with PL (BR: 273 +/- 44 vs. PL: 140 +/- 50 nM; P < 0.05), and systolic blood pressure was significantly reduced (BR: 124 +/- 2 vs. PL: 132 +/- 5 mmHg; P < 0.01). During moderate exercise, nitrate supplementation reduced muscle fractional O2 extraction (as estimated using near-infrared spectroscopy). The gain of the increase in pulmonary O2 uptake following the onset of moderate exercise was reduced by 19% in the BR condition (BR: 8.6 +/- 0.7 vs. PL: 10.8 +/- 1.6 ml.min(-1).W(-1); P < 0.05). During severe exercise, the O2 uptake slow component was reduced (BR: 0.57 +/- 0.20 vs. PL: 0.74 +/- 0.24 l/min; P < 0.05), and the time-to-exhaustion was extended (BR: 675 +/- 203 vs. PL: 583 +/- 145 s; P < 0.05). The reduced O2 cost of exercise following increased dietary nitrate intake has important implications for our understanding of the factors that regulate mitochondrial respiration and muscle contractile energetics in humans.

Mitochondria • Mitochondria are the power plants of the cell• Mitochondrial density associated with aerobic and anaerobic power• Co Q 10 involved in electron transport while supplementation has been seen to increase

endurance and anti-oxidant capacity

Studies:

Cooke, M., M. Iosia, et al. (2008). "Effects of acute and 14-day coenzyme Q10 supplementation on exercise performance in both trained and untrained individuals." J Int.Soc.Sports Nutr. 5: 8.

BACKGROUND: To determine whether acute (single dose) and/or chronic (14-days) supplementation of CoQ10 will improve anaerobic and/or aerobic exercise performance by increasing plasma and muscle CoQ10






concentrations within trained and untrained individuals. METHODS: Twenty-two aerobically trained and nineteen untrained male and female subjects (26.1 +/- 7.6 yrs, 172 +/- 8.7 cm, 73.5 +/- 17 kg, and 21.2 +/- 7.0%) were randomized to ingest in a double-blind manner either 100 mg of a dextrose placebo (CON) or a fast-melt CoQ10 supplement (CoQ10) twice a day for 14-days. On the first day of supplementation, subjects donated fasting blood samples and a muscle biopsy. Subjects were then given 200 mg of the placebo or the CoQ10 supplement. Sixty minutes following supplement ingestion, subjects completed an isokinetic knee extension endurance test, a 30-second wingate anaerobic capacity test, and a maximal cardiopulmonary graded exercise test interspersed with 30-minutes of recovery. Additional blood samples were taken immediately following each exercise test and a second muscle biopsy sample was taken following the final exercise test. Subjects consumed twice daily (morning and night), 100 mg of either supplement for a period of 14-days, and then returned to the lab to complete the same battery of tests. Data was analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA with an alpha of 0.05. RESULTS: Plasma CoQ10 levels were significantly increased following 2 weeks of CoQ10 supplementation (p < 0.001); while a trend for higher muscle CoQ10 levels was observed after acute CoQ10 ingestion (p = 0.098). A trend for lower serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) was observed following acute supplementation with CoQ10 (p = 0.06), whereas serum malondialdehyde (MDA) tended to be significantly higher (p < 0.05). Following acute ingestion of CoQ10, plasma CoQ10 levels were significantly correlated to muscle CoQ10 levels; maximal oxygen consumption; and treadmill time to exhaustion. A trend for increased time to exhaustion was observed following 2 weeks of CoQ10 supplementation (p = 0.06). CONCLUSION: Acute supplementation with CoQ10 resulted in higher muscle CoQ10 concentration, lower serum SOD oxidative stress, and higher MDA levels during and following exercise. Chronic CoQ10 supplementation increased plasma CoQ10 concentrations and tended to increase time to exhaustion. Results indicate that acute and chronic supplementation of CoQ10 may affect acute and/or chronic responses to various types of exercise

Carnitine• Acetyl-L-carnitine is a derivative of carnitine and is a precursor to the molecule acetyl

coenzyme A, important in the citric acid cycle

• N-acetyl-carnitine also assists in the transportation of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria for beta-oxidation

• Beta-oxidation is the process in which fatty acids are broken down in mitochondria to generate Acetyl-CoA, the entry molecule for the citric acid cycle

• The carnitines also have significant antioxidant activity, providing a protective effect against lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress.

• Lipoic acid is a potent antioxidant and has the ability to protect and repair age-induced mitochondrial DNA damage, thereby up-regulating mitochondrial function and improving energy production

• Animal studies have shown that supplementation with lipoic acid has dramatic effects on improving age-related declines in mitochondrial function

• Lipoic acid reverses the decline in oxygen consumption, increases mitochondrial membrane potential, decreases levels of ROS and markers of lipid peroxidation, increases ambulatory activity and improves the age-associated decline of memory, increases the levels of antioxidants, and restores the activity of key enzymes






• Interestingly, numerous studies have shown that acetyl-L-carnitine in combination with lipoic acid increases cellular metabolism and lowers oxidative stress better than either compound alone

Studies:

Liu, J. (2008). "The effects and mechanisms of mitochondrial nutrient alpha-lipoic acid on improving age-associated mitochondrial and cognitive dysfunction: an overview." Neurochem Res 33(1): 194-203.

We have identified a group of nutrients that can directly or indirectly protect mitochondria from oxidative damage and improve mitochondrial function and named them "mitochondrial nutrients". The direct protection includes preventing the generation of oxidants, scavenging free radicals or inhibiting oxidant reactivity, and elevating cofactors of defective mitochondrial enzymes with increased Michaelis-Menten constant to stimulate enzyme activity, and also protect enzymes from further oxidation, and the indirect protection includes repairing oxidative damage by enhancing antioxidant defense systems either through activation of phase 2 enzymes or through increase in mitochondrial biogenesis. In this review, we take alpha-lipoic acid (LA) as an example of mitochondrial nutrients by summarizing the protective effects and possible mechanisms of LA and its derivatives on age-associated cognitive and mitochondrial dysfunction of the brain. LA and its derivatives improve the age-associated decline of memory, improve mitochondrial structure and function, inhibit the age-associated increase of oxidative damage, elevate the levels of antioxidants, and restore the activity of key enzymes. In addition, co-administration of LA with other mitochondrial nutrients, such as acetyl-L: -carnitine and coenzyme Q10, appears more effective in improving cognitive dysfunction and reducing oxidative mitochondrial dysfunction. Therefore, administrating mitochondrial nutrients, such as LA and its derivatives in combination with other mitochondrial nutrients to aged people and patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases, may be an effective strategy for improving mitochondrial and cognitive dysfunction.






Muscle• Energy Provision and The Krebs Cycle

• Energy provided from a combination of aerobic, anaerobic and phosphocreatine systems; the relative contributions of each dependon intensity.

• Never a single system, always a combination. In an intermittent sport like rugby, all types of endurance will be alled upon!

–






Protein • Endurance athletes frequently underestimate the importance of protein;• Many roles

– Fuel (oxidation & gluconeogenesis)– Mitochondrial Biogenesis– Immune/sytemic factors

• Current Recommendations similar to strength athletes at 1.2-1.8g/Kg• Study below showed an increase in lean tissue mass in endruance athletes resulting from 2.1g

vs 1.2g protein per day.

Studies:Burke, D. G., P. D. Chilibeck, et al. (2001). "The effect of whey protein supplementation with and without creatine monohydrate combined with resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscle strength." Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 11(3): 349-364.

Our purpose was to assess muscular adaptations during 6 weeks of resistance training in 36 males randomly assigned to supplementation with whey protein (W; 1.2 g/kg/day), whey protein and creatine monohydrate (WC; 0.1 g/kg/day), or placebo (P; 1.2 g/kg/day maltodextrin). Measures included lean tissue mass by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, bench press and squat strength (1-repetition maximum), and knee extension/flexion peak torque. Lean tissue mass increased to a greater extent with training in WC compared to the other groups, and in the W compared to the P group (p < .05). Bench press strength increased to a greater extent for WC compared to W and P (p < .05). Knee extension peak torque increased with training for WC and W (p < .05), but not for P. All other measures increased to a similar extent across groups. Continued training without supplementation for an additional 6 weeks resulted in maintenance of strength and lean tissue mass in all groups. Males that supplemented with whey protein while resistance training demonstrated greater improvement in knee extension peak torque and lean tissue mass than males engaged in training alone. Males that supplemented with a combination of whey protein and creatine had greater increases in lean tissue mass and bench press than those who supplemented with only whey protein or placebo. However, not all strength measures were improved with


6 weeks of trainingHigh = 2.1 g/kg/dayModerate = 1.2 g/kg/dayBurke et al. IJSNEM 11: 349, 2001





supplementation, since subjects who supplemented with creatine and/or whey protein had similar increases in squat strength and knee flexion peak torque compared to subjects who received placebo.

Carbs• Greatest aerobic gains achieved with high intensity exercise, reliant on lactate• Low GI CHO can be most beneficial close to endurance exercise as HGI can impair fat

oxidation and cause CHO depletion faster • HGI best for glycogen storage, but impact on endurance may impair endurance-performance,

making HGI most suitable for recovery• Intermittent-sprint-sports, or sprints in warm up may counter insulin induced “carb-coma”• Combination of different energy pathways in rugby may highlight a role for amino-acid

supplementation...– Exercise/CHO-depletion/Training induces branched-chain oxidation for fuel

Studies:Wee, S. L., C. Williams, et al. (2005). "Ingestion of a high-glycemic index meal increases muscle glycogen storage at rest but augments its utilization during subsequent exercise." J Appl Physiol 99(2): 707-714.

The aim of this study was to compare the effect of preexercise breakfast containing high- and low-glycemic index (GI) carbohydrate (CHO) (2.5g CHO/kg body mass) on muscle glycogen metabolism. On two occasions, 14 days apart, seven trained men ran at 71% maximal oxygen uptake for 30 min on a treadmill. Three hours before exercise, in a randomized order, subjects consumed either isoenergetic high- (HGI) or low-GI (LGI) CHO breakfasts that provided (per 70 kg body mass) 3.43 MJ energy, 175 g CHO, 21 g protein, and 4 g fat. The incremental areas under the 3-h plasma glucose and serum insulin response curves after the HGI meal were 3.9- (P < 0.05) and 1.4-fold greater (P < 0.001), respectively, than those after the LGI meal. During the 3-h postprandial period, muscle glycogen concentration increased by 15% (P < 0.05) after the HGI meal but remained unchanged after the LGI meal. Muscle glycogen utilization during exercise was greater in the HGI (129.1 +/- 16.1 mmol/kg dry mass) compared with the LGI (87.9 +/- 15.1 mmol/kg dry mass; P < 0.01) trial. Although the LGI meal contributed less CHO to muscle glycogen synthesis in the 3-h postprandial period compared with the HGI meal, a sparing of muscle glycogen utilization during subsequent exercise was observed in the LGI trial, most likely as a result of better maintained fat oxidation.

Coyle, E. F. (1995). "Substrate utilization during exercise in active people." Am J Clin Nutr 61(4 Suppl): 968S-979S.

When people walk at low intensity after fasting, the energy needed is provided mostly by oxidation of plasma fatty acids. As exercise intensity increases (eg, to moderate running), plasma fatty acid turnover does not increase and the additional energy is obtained by utilization of muscle glycogen, blood glucose, and intramuscular triglyceride. Further increases in exercise intensity are fueled mostly by increases in muscle glycogen utilization with some additional increase in blood glucose oxidation. Muscle glycogen and blood glucose contribute equally to carbohydrate energy production over 2-3 h of moderate-intensity exercise; fatigue develops when these substrates are depleted. Active people can deplete muscle glycogen with 30-60 min of high intensity, intermittent exercise. When the ingestion of dietary carbohydrate is optimal, it is possible to resynthesize muscle glycogen to high concentrations in approximately 24 h, which is the major factor in recovery of exercise tolerance. However, this requires that a 70-kg person eat at least 50 g carbohydrate per every 2 h, beginning soon after exercise, and ingest 500-600 g in 24 h (ie; approximately 7-9 g/kg body wt). Carbohydrate foods eliciting high glycemic and insulinemic responses promote more rapid glycogen resynthesis than do foods eliciting lower glycemic responses. Therefore, foods ingested for energy before, during, or after exercise should be classified according to their glycemic index. Although carbohydrate ingestion before and during exercise adds exogenous substrate to the body, it usually attenuates plasma fatty acid mobilization and oxidation











Cori-cycle and anaerobic concerns• Rugby will be heavily dependent on anaerobic repiration and glycolysis, making buffering

strategies vital for performance.• Carnosine is the body’s natural lactate’-buffer and supplementation of precursors (b-alanine)

is now an accepted part of orthodox sports nutrition.• The liver is als vital for anaerobic repiration as this is where lactate is reconverted to

pyruvate. • Aiding Buffereing (studies to follow) or liver-function (as well as systemic acid-base balance)

will therefore likely ease lactic acidosis

Carnosine

H +






Studies:

Zoeller, R. F., J. R. Stout, et al. (2007). "Effects of 28 days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on aerobic power, ventilatory and lactate thresholds, and time to exhaustion." Amino Acids 33(3): 505-510.

Summary. The effect of beta-alanine (β-Ala) alone or in combination with creatine monohydrate (Cr) on aerobic exercise performance is unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 4 weeks of β-Ala and Cr supplementation on indices of endurance performance. Fifty-five men (24.5 ± 5.3 yrs) participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study and randomly assigned to one of 4 groups; placebo (PL, n = 13), creatine (Cr, n = 12), beta-alanine (β-Ala, n = 14), or beta-alanine plus creatine (CrBA, n = 16). Prior to and following supplementation, participants performed a graded exercise test on a cycle ergometer to determine VO2peak, time to exhaustion (TTE), and power output, VO2, and percent VO2peak associated with VT and LT. No significant group effects were found. However, within groups, a significant time effect was observed for CrBa on 5 of the 8 parameters measured. These data suggest that CrBA may potentially enhance endurance performance.

Suzuki, Y., O. Ito, et al. (2002). "High level of skeletal muscle carnosine contributes to the latter half of exercise performance during 30-s maximal cycle ergometer sprinting." Jpn J Physiol 52(2): 199-205.

The histidine-containing dipeptide carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine) has been shown to significantly contribute to the physicochemical buffering in skeletal muscles, which maintains acid-base balance when a large quantity of H(+) is produced in association with lactic acid accumulation during high-intensity exercise. The purpose of the present study was to examine the relations among the skeletal muscle carnosine concentration, fiber-type distribution, and high-intensity exercise performance. The subjects were 11 healthy men. Muscle biopsy samples were taken from the vastus lateralis at rest. The carnosine concentration was determined by the use of an amino acid autoanalyzer. The fiber-type distribution was determined by the staining intensity of myosin adenosinetriphosphatase. The high-intensity exercise performance was assessed by the use of 30-s maximal cycle ergometer sprinting. A significant correlation was demonstrated between the carnosine concentration and the


Effects of Beta-Alanine and Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation on Anaerobic Threshold Measures (Zoeller, R. F., J. R. Stout, et al., 2007)

-40

10

60

110

160

210

Lact

ate

Thre

shol

d(w

atts

)

Placebo BA Cr CrBA





type IIX fiber composition (r=0.646, p<0.05). The carnosine concentration was significantly correlated with the mean power per body mass (r=0.785, p<0.01) during the 30-s sprinting. When dividing the sprinting into 6 phases (0-5, 6-10, 11-15, 16-20, 21-25, 26-30 s), significant correlations were observed between the carnosine concentration and the mean power per body mass of the final 2 phases (21-25 s: r=0.694, p<0.05; 26-30 s: r=0.660, p<0.05). These results indicated that the carnosine concentration could be an important factor in determining the high-intensity exercise performance.

Goldfinch, J., L. Mc Naughton, et al. (1988). "Induced metabolic alkalosis and its effects on 400-m racing time." Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 57(1): 45-48.

Six trained male athletes who competed regularly in 400 metre races, were studied under control, alkalotic (NaHCO3) and placebo (CaCO3) conditions to study the effect of induced metabolic alkalosis on 400 m racing time. Pre and post exercise blood samples in the three conditions were analysed for pH, bicarbonate and base excess. Following ingestion of NaHCO3, pre-exercise pH, bicarbonate and base excess levels were significantly higher than either control or placebo conditions. In the alkalotic condition the subjects ran significantly (p less than 0.005) faster (1.52 s) than either the control of placebo conditions. The post-exercise pH, bicarbonate and base excess levels were all lower in the alkalotic condition than in the others. The results suggest that NaH-CO3 can be used as an effective ergogenic aid and support the speculation that the increased extracellular buffering afforded by NaHCO3 ingestion facilitated efflux of H+ from the working tissues, thus decreasing intracellular pH and hence offsetting fatigue.

Fat• Fat Adaptation

– Fat a major substrate in endurance exercise with carb-sparing a possible benefit– Fat adaptation has been seen to prolong moderate intensity exercise while studies on

high-intensity intervals exist that show both detriment , and no-impairment from fat-adaptation

– This highlights a possible role for fat adaptation in rugby where sprinting is interspersed with low/moderate intensity

• Medium Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)

– Medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs - eg those from coconut) may increase capacity for fat oxidation

– Replacing dietary fats with MCFAs resulted in enhanced metabolic rate and fat-oxidation in athletes

Studies:

Burke, L. M. and J. A. Hawley (2002). "Effects of short-term fat adaptation on metabolism and performance of prolonged exercise." Med Sci.Sports Exerc. 34(9): 1492-1498.

The concept of manipulating an individuals habitual diet before an exercise bout in an attempt to modify patterns of fuel substrate utilization and enhance subsequent exercise capacity is not new. Modern studies have focused on nutritional and training strategies aimed to optimize endogenous carbohydrate (CHO) stores while simultaneously maximizing the capacity for fat oxidation during continuous, submaximal (60-70% of maximal O(2) uptake [(.)VO(2max)] exercise. Such "nutritional periodization" typically encompasses 5-6 d of a high-fat diet (60-






70% E) followed by 1-2 d of high-CHO intake (70-80% E; CHO restoration). Despite the brevity of the adaptation period, ingestion of a high-fat diet by endurance-trained athletes results in substantially higher rates of fat oxidation and concomitant muscle glycogen sparing during submaximal exercise compared with an isoenergetic high-CHO diet. Higher rates of fat oxidation during exercise persist even under conditions in which CHO availability is increased, either by having athletes consume a high-CHO meal before exercise and/or ingest glucose solutions during exercise. Yet, despite marked changes in the patterns of fuel utilization that favor fat oxidation, fat-adaptation/CHO restoration strategies do not provide clear benefits to the performance of prolonged endurance exercise

Burke, L. M. and J. A. Hawley (2006). "Fat and carbohydrate for exercise." Curr.Opin.Clin.Nutr.Metab Care 9(4): 476-481.

PURPOSE: To examine the results of new investigations that look at the efficacy of nutrient/training strategies on metabolism and athletic performance. RECENT FINDINGS: 'Dietary periodization' involves the manipulation of macronutrient intake in association with changes in physical training. Such interventions have a major effect on altering patterns of fuel utilization during exercise; however, they often fail to enhance performance capacity. In contrast, the ingestion of a combination of different types of carbohydrate during exercise results in high rates of muscle glucose oxidation (1.5 g/min) and can improve intense, short-duration (approximately 60 min), and prolonged (>90 min) submaximal steady-state exercise, either by metabolic or neural mechanisms. SUMMARY: Further investigation into the responses of specific nutrient/training strategies on metabolic and cellular signaling pathways is warranted to determine the underlying mechanisms by which such interventions exert their effect. Such studies, however, should be coupled with investigations that assess the outcomes of these responses on the 'real life' training adaptations in athletes

Carey, A. L., H. M. Staudacher, et al. (2001). "Effects of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on prolonged endurance exercise." J Appl Physiol 91(1): 115-122.

We determined the effect of fat adaptation on metabolism and performance during 5 h of cycling in seven competitive athletes who consumed a standard carbohydrate (CHO) diet for 1 day and then either a high-CHO diet (11 g {middle dot} kg[-]1 {middle dot} day[-]1 CHO, 1 g {middle dot} kg[-]1 {middle dot} day[-]1 fat; HCHO) or an isoenergetic high-fat diet (2.6 g {middle dot} kg[-]1 {middle dot} day[-]1 CHO, 4.6 g {middle dot} kg[-]1 {middle dot} day[-]1 fat; fat-adapt) for 6 days. On day 8, subjects consumed a high-CHO diet and rested. On day 9, subjects consumed a preexercise meal and then cycled for 4 h at 65% peak O2 uptake, followed by a 1-h time trial (TT). Compared with baseline, 6 days of fat-adapt reduced respiratory exchange ratio (RER) with cycling at 65% peak O2 uptake [0.78 {+/-} 0.01 (SE) vs. 0.85 {+/-} 0.02; P < 0.05]. However, RER was restored by 1 day of high-CHO diet, preexercise meal, and CHO ingestion (0.88 {+/-} 0.01; P < 0.05). RER was higher after HCHO than fat-adapt (0.85 {+/-} 0.01, 0.89 {+/-} 0.01, and 0.93 {+/-} 0.01 for days 2, 8, and 9, respectively; P < 0.05). Fat oxidation during the 4-h ride was greater (171 {+/-} 32 vs. 119 {+/-} 38 g; P < 0.05) and CHO oxidation lower (597 {+/-} 41 vs. 719 {+/-} 46 g; P < 0.05) after fat-adapt. Power output was 11% higher during the TT after fat-adapt than after HCHO (312 {+/-} 15 vs. 279 {+/-} 20 W; P = 0.11). In conclusion, compared with a high-CHO diet, fat oxidation during exercise increased after fat-adapt and remained elevated above baseline even after 1 day of a high-CHO diet and increased CHO availability. However, this study failed to detect a significant benefit of fat adaptation to performance of a 1-h TT undertaken after 4 h of cycling.

Lambert, E. V., D. P. Speechly, et al. (1994). "Enhanced endurance in trained cyclists during moderate intensity exercise following 2 weeks adaptation to a high fat diet." Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 69(4): 287-293.

These studies investigated the effects of 2 weeks of either a high-fat (HIGH-FAT: 70% fat, 7% CHO) or a high-carbohydrate (HIGH-CHO: 74% CHO, 12% fat) diet on exercise performance in trained cyclists (n = 5) during consecutive periods of cycle exercise including a Wingate test of muscle power, cycle exercise to exhaustion at 85% of peak power output [90% maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), high-intensity exercise (HIE)] and 50% of peak






power output [60% VO2max, moderate intensity exercise (MIE)]. Exercise time to exhaustion during HIE was not significantly different between trials: nor were the rates of muscle glycogen utilization during HIE different between trials, although starting muscle glycogen content was lower [68.1 (SEM 3.9) vs 120.6 (SEM 3.8) mmol.kg-1 wet mass, P < 0.01] after the HIGH-FAT diet. Despite a lower muscle glycogen content at the onset of MIE [32 (SEM 7) vs 73 (SEM 6) mmol.kg-1 wet mass, HIGH-FAT vs HIGH-CHO, P < 0.01], exercise time to exhaustion during subsequent MIE was significantly longer after the HIGH-FAT diet [79.7 (SEM 7.6) vs 42.5 (SEM 6.8) min, HIGH-FAT vs HIGH-CHO, P < 0.01]. Enhanced endurance during MIE after the HIGH-FAT diet was associated with a lower respiratory exchange ratio [0.87 (SEM 0.03) vs (SEM 0.02), P < 0.05], and a decreased rate of carbohydrate oxidation [1.41 (SEM 0.70) vs 2.23 (SEM 0.40) g CHO.min-1, P < 0.05].(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Seaton, T. B., S. L. Welle, et al. (1986). "Thermic effect of medium-chain and long-chain triglycerides in man." Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 44(5): 630-634.

The thermic effects of 400 kcal meals of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) and long-chain triglycerides (LCT) were compared in seven healthy men. Metabolic rate was measured before the meals and for 6 h after the meals by indirect calorimetry. Mean postprandial oxygen consumption was 12% higher than basal oxygen consumption after the MCT meal but was only 4% higher than the basal oxygen consumption after the LCT meal. There was a 25-fold increase in plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration and a slight increase in serum insulin concentration after MCT ingestion but not after LCT ingestion. Plasma triglyceride concentrations increased 68% after the LCT meal and did not change after the MCT meal. These data raise the possibility that long-term substitution of MCT for LCT would produce weight loss if energy intake remained constant

Havemann, L., S. J. West, et al. (2006). "Fat adaptation followed by carbohydrate loading compromises high-intensity sprint performance." J Appl Physiol 100(1): 194-202.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a high-fat diet (HFD) followed by 1 day of carbohydrate (CHO) loading on substrate utilization, heart rate variability (HRV), effort perception [rating or perceived exertion (RPE)], muscle recruitment [electromyograph (EMG)], and performance during a 100-km cycling time trial. In this randomized single-blind crossover study, eight well-trained cyclists completed two trials, ingesting either a high-CHO diet (HCD) (68% CHO energy) or an isoenergetic HFD (68% fat energy) for 6 days, followed by 1 day of CHO loading (8-10 g CHO/kg). Subjects completed a 100-km time trial on day 1 and a 1-h cycle at 70% of peak oxygen consumption on days 3, 5, and 7, during which resting HRV and resting and exercising respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were measured. On day 8, subjects completed a 100-km performance time trial, during which blood samples were drawn and EMG was recorded. Ingestion of the HFD reduced RER at rest (P < 0.005) and during exercise (P < 0.01) and increased plasma free fatty acid levels (P < 0.01), indicating increased fat utilization. There was a tendency for the low-frequency power component of HRV to be greater for HFD-CHO (P = 0.056), suggestive of increased sympathetic activation. Overall 100-km time-trial performance was not different between diets; however, 1-km sprint power output after HFD-CHO was lower (P < 0.05) compared with HCD-CHO. Despite a reduced power output with HFD-CHO, RPE, heart rate, and EMG were not different between trials. In conclusion, the HFD-CHO dietary strategy increased fat oxidation, but compromised high intensity sprint performance, possibly by increased sympathetic activation or altered contractile function.

Hydration• Dehydration as little as 2% body mass impairs aerobic, anaerobic, strength and cognitive

performance • Can make physiological efforts increase for a given power output due to cardiovascular-drift

imposed by increased plasma viscosity/decreased plasma-volume • This degree of dehydration can also decrease cerebral ventricular volume by up to 30%,

increasing the risk of head trauma






• Pre Match: 500 ml of water or sports-drink in the 90 minutes before the game• During – aim to replace sweat losses, including electrolytes• If fluid-losses have not been prevented, drink 1.5x sweat-losses, including electrolytes

Studies:Coyle, E. F. (1998). "Cardiovascular drift during prolonged exercise and the effects of dehydration." Int J Sports Med 19 Suppl 2: S121-124.

Reductions in SV are the most striking component of "classic" CV drift as well as "dehydration induced" CV drift. Direct data for the widespread notion that increased skin blood flow causes SV to be reduced during "classic" CV drift is rather scarce. Reductions in SV due to dehydration and concomitant hyperthermia are clearly not due to increases in skin blood flow. Instead, skin blood flow declines as skin and systemic vascular resistance increase as the CV system attempts to cope with the severe challenge of large reductions in cardiac output. Approximately one-half of the reduction in SV is due to reduced blood volume from dehydration during exercise which produces hyperthermia. The remaining reduction in SV with dehydration and hyperthermia appears to be related to additional factors such as hyperthermia and their interaction with factors that further reduce ventricular filling, such as heart rate acceleration.

Maughan, R. J. (2003). "Impact of mild dehydration on wellness and on exercise performance." Eur.J Clin.Nutr. 57 Suppl 2: S19-S23.

Chronic mild dehydration is a common condition in some population groups, including especially the elderly and those who participate in physical activity in warm environments. Hypohydration is recognised as a precipitating factor in a number of acute medical conditions in the elderly, and there may be an association, although not necessarily a causal one, between a low habitual fluid intake and some cancers, cardiovascular disease and diabetes. There is some evidence of impairments of cognitive function at moderate levels of hypohydration, but even short periods of fluid restriction, leading to a loss of body mass of 1-2%, lead to reductions in the subjective perception of alertness and ability to concentrate and to increases in self-reported tiredness and headache. In exercise lasting more than a few minutes, hypohydration clearly impairs performance capacity, but muscle strength appears to be relatively unaffected

Dickson, J. M., H. M. Weavers, et al. (2005). "The effects of dehydration on brain volume -- preliminary results." Int.J.Sports Med. 26(6): 481-485.

In adults the cranium is a rigid bony vault of fixed size and therefore the intra-cranial volume is a constant which equals the sum of the volume of the brain, the intra-cranial volume of CSF and the intra-cranial volume of blood. There can be marked changes in the volumes of these three intra-cranial compartments which may influence susceptibility to brain damage after head injury. This is the first study to investigate the relationship between dehydration and changes in the volume of the brain and the cerebral ventricles. Six healthy control subjects underwent magnetic resonance imaging of the brain before and after a period of exercise in an environmental chamber. The subjects lost between 2.1 % and 2.6 % of their body mass due to water loss through sweating. We found a correlation between the degree of dehydration and the change in ventricular volume (r=0.932, p=0.007). The changes in ventricular volume caused by dehydration were much larger than those seen in day-to-day fluctuations in a normally hydrated healthy control subject

Enhancing Adaptation • Typical endurance adaptations include

– Mitochondrial Biogenesis– Capillary density increases– Ventricular volume increases






• Nutritional amino-acid interventions immediately post-training can support adaptation• Leucine/Whey/Branched-chain

– Fast release– Oxidation– mTOR-mediated anabolic signaling

Depleted state training

• Was employed throughout cycling-training by the world’s most successful triathlete Peter Robertson, who consumed only celery and carrot-juice on the bike to maximise endurance adaptation!

• Increases glycogen storage in the muscle • Increases Mitochondrial biogenesis and the capacity for energy production Is needed

for fat adaptation

Studies:Zong, H., J. M. Ren, et al. (2002). "AMP kinase is required for mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle in response to chronic energy deprivation." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99(25): 15983-15987.

Mitochondrial biogenesis is a critical adaptation to chronic energy deprivation, yet the signaling mechanisms responsible for this response are poorly understood. To examine the role of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an evolutionarily conserved fuel sensor, in mitochondrial biogenesis we studied transgenic mice expressing a dominant-negative mutant of AMPK in muscle (DN-AMPK). Both DN-AMPK and WT mice were treated with β-guanidinopropionic acid (GPA), a creatine analog, which led to similar reductions in the intramuscular ATP/AMP ratio and phosphocreatine concentrations. In WT mice, GPA treatment resulted in activation of muscle AMPK and mitochondrial biogenesis. However, the same GPA treatment in DN-AMPK mice had no effect on AMPK activity or mitochondrial content. Furthermore, AMPK inactivation abrogated GPA-induced increases in the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV (both master regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis). These data demonstrate that by sensing the energy status of the muscle cell, AMPK is a critical regulator involved in initiating mitochondrial biogenesis.

Wojtaszewski, J. F. P., C. MacDonald, et al. (2003). "Regulation of 5'AMP-activated protein kinase activity and substrate utilization in exercising human skeletal muscle." Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 284(4): E813-822.

The metabolic role of 5'AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in regulation of skeletal muscle metabolism in humans is unresolved. We measured isoform-specific AMPK activity and [beta]-acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC[beta]) Ser221 phosphorylation and substrate balance in skeletal muscle of eight athletes at rest, during cycling exercise for 1 h at 70% peak oxygen consumption, and 1 h into recovery. The experiment was performed twice, once in a glycogen-loaded (glycogen concentration ~900 mmol/kg dry wt) and once in a glycogen-depleted (glycogen concentration ~160 mmol/kg dry wt) state. At rest, plasma long-chain fatty acids (FA) were twofold higher in the glycogen-depleted than in the loaded state, and muscle [alpha]1 AMPK (160%) and [alpha]2 AMPK (145%) activities and ACC[beta] Ser221 phosphorylation (137%) were also significantly higher in the glycogen-depleted state. During exercise, [alpha]2 AMPK activity, ACC[beta] Ser221 phosphorylation, plasma catecholamines, and leg glucose and net FA uptake were significantly higher in the glycogen-depleted than in the






glycogen-loaded state without apparent differences in muscle high-energy phosphates. Thus exercise in the glycogen-depleted state elicits an enhanced uptake of circulating fuels that might be associated with elevated muscle AMPK activation. It is concluded that muscle AMPK activity and ACC[beta] Ser221 phosphorylation at rest and during exercise are sensitive to the fuel status of the muscle. During exercise, this dependence may in part be mediated by humoral factors.

Systemic Hormonal Effects • Testosterone essential for strength and power endurance, (rather than just aerobic)• Certain hormonal factors at centre of many types of fitness, especially in such an integrated

sport as rugby • Relative T/C ratios correlated with Performance in Elite Athletes, including Rugby and Aussie-

Rules • T/C seen to have similar relationships to each of strength, endurance and repeated sprints

following over-reaching in rugby players• Major determinant of recovery in endurance athletes, with subsequent anabolism dependent

on normalisation of T/C ratio• This highlights a role for nutritional hormonal protocols, with much evidence supporting

herbal remedies for T production, including Red Clover and Tribulus

Studies:Coutts, A., P. Reaburn, et al. (2007). "Changes in Selected Biochemical, Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance Measures during Deliberate Overreaching and Tapering in Rugby League Players." Int J Sports Med 28(02): 116-124.

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of overreaching on muscle strength, power, endurance and selected biochemical responses in rugby league players. Seven semi-professional rugby league players (V·O2max = 56.1 ± 1.7 mL · kg -1 · min-1; age = 25.7 ± 2.6 yr; BMI = 27.6 ± 2.0) completed 6 weeks of progressive overload training with limited recovery periods. A short 7-day stepwise reduction taper immediately followed the overload period. Measures of muscular strength, power and endurance and selected biochemical parameters were taken before and after overload training and taper. Multistage fitness test running performance was significantly reduced (12.3 %) following the overload period. Although most other performance measures tended to decrease following the overload period, only peak hamstring torque at 1.05 rad · s -1 was significantly reduced (p < 0.05). Following the taper, a significant increase in peak hamstring torque and isokinetic work at both slow (1.05 rad · s -1) and fast (5.25 rad · s -1) movement velocities were observed. Minimum clinically important performance decreases were measured in a multistage fitness test, vertical jump, 3-RM squat and 3-RM bench press and chin-upmax following the overload period. Following the taper, minimum clinically important increases in the multistage fitness test, vertical jump, 3-RM squat and 3-RM bench press and chin-upmax and 10-m sprint performance were observed. Compared to resting measures, the plasma testosterone to cortisol ratio, plasma glutamate, plasma glutamine to glutamate ratio and plasma creatine kinase activity demonstrated significant changes at the end of the overload training period (p < 0.05). These results suggest that muscular strength, power and endurance were reduced following the overload training, indicating a state of overreaching. The most likely explanation for the decreased performance is increased muscle damage via a decrease in the anabolic-catabolic balance.

Cormack, S. J. N., R.U.; McGuigan, R.M (2008). "Neuromuscular and Endocrine Responses of Elite Players During an Australian Rules Football Season" International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 3: 439-453.






Purpose: To examine variations in neuromuscular and hormonal status and their relationship to performance throughout a season of elite Australian Rules Football (ARF).

Methods: Fifteen elite ARF players performed a single jump (CMJ1) and 5 repeated countermovement jumps (CMJ5), and provided saliva samples for the analysis of cortisol (C) and testosterone (T) before the season commenced (Pre) and during the 22-match season. Magnitudes of effects were reported with the effect size (ES) statistic. Correlations were performed to analyze relationships between assessment variables and match time, training load, and performance. Results: CMJ1Flight time:Contraction time was substantially reduced on 60% of measurement occasions.

Magnitudes of change compared with Pre ranged from 1.0 ± 7.4% (ES 0.04 ± 0.29) to −17.1 ± 21.8% (ES −0.77 ± 0.81). Cortisol was substantially lower (up to −40 ± 14.1%, ES of −2.17 ± 0.56) than Pre in all but one comparison. Testosterone response was varied, whereas T:C increased substantially on 70% of occasions, with increases to 92.7 ± 27.8% (ES 2.03 ± 0.76). CMJ1Flight time:Contraction time (r = .24 ± 0.13) and C displayed (r = −0.16 ± 0.1) small correlations with performance. Conclusion:

The response of CMJ1Flight time:Contraction time suggests periods of neuromuscular fatigue. Change in T:C indicates subjects were unlikely to have been in a catabolic state during the season. Increase in C compared with Pre had a small negative correlation with performance. Both CMJ1Flight time:Contraction time and C may be useful variables for monitoring responses to training and competition in elite ARF athletes.

Brown, G. A., M. D. Vukovich, et al. (2001). "Effects of androstenedione-herbal supplementation on serum sex hormone concentrations in 30- to 59-year-old men." Int.J Vitam.Nutr.Res. 71(5): 293-301.

The effectiveness of a nutritional supplement designed to enhance serum testosterone concentrations and prevent the formation of dihydrotestosterone and estrogens from the ingested androgens was investigated in healthy 30- to 59-year old men. Subjects were randomly assigned to consume DION (300 mg androstenedione, 150 mg dehydroepiandrosterone, 540 mg saw palmetto, 300 mg indole-3-carbinol, 625 mg chrysin, and 750 mg Tribulus terrestris per day; n = 28) or placebo (n = 27) for 28 days. Serum free testosterone, total testosterone, androstenedione, dihydrotestosterone, estradiol, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and lipid concentrations were measured before and throughout the 4-week supplementation period. Serum concentrations of total testosterone and PSA were unchanged by supplementation. DION increased (p < 0.05) serum androstenedione (342%), free testosterone (38%), dihydrotestosterone (71%), and estradiol (103%) concentrations. Serum HDL-C concentrations were reduced by 5.0 mg/dL in DION (p < 0.05). Increases in serum free testosterone (r2 = 0.01), androstenedione (r2 = 0.01), dihydrotestosterone (r2 = 0.03), or estradiol (r2 = 0.07) concentrations in DION were not related to age. While the ingestion of androstenedione combined with herbal products increased serum free testosterone concentrations in older men, these herbal products did not prevent the conversion of ingested androstenedione to estradiol and dihydrotestosterone

Jarred, R. A., M. Keikha, et al. (2002). "Induction of apoptosis in low to moderate-grade human prostate carcinoma by red clover-derived dietary isoflavones." Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11(12): 1689-1696.

Epidemiological evidence suggests a geographical basis for the incidence of prostate cancer and dietary factors, including isoflavone consumption, may be linked to this phenomenon. This paper reports a nonrandomized, nonblinded trial with historically matched controls from archival tissue designed to determine the effects of acute exposure to a dietary supplement of isoflavones in men with clinically significant prostate cancer before radical prostatectomy. Thirty-eight patients were recruited to the study upon diagnosis of prostate cancer. Before surgery, 20 men consumed 160 mg/day of red clover-derived dietary isoflavones, containing a mixture of genistein, daidzein, formononetin, and biochanin A. Serum PSA, testosterone, and biochemical factors






were measured, and clinical and pathological parameters were recorded. The incidence of apoptosis in prostate tumor cells from radical prostatectomy specimens was compared between 18 treated and 18 untreated control tissues. There were no significant differences between pre- and posttreatment serum PSA, Gleason score, serum testosterone, or biochemical factors in the treated patients (P > 0.05). Apoptosis in radical prostatectomy specimens from treated patients was significantly higher than in control subjects (P = 0.0018), specifically in regions of low to moderate-grade cancer (Gleason grade 1-3). No adverse events related to the treatment were reported. This report suggests that dietary isoflavones may halt the progression of prostate cancer by inducing apoptosis in low to moderate-grade tumors, potentially contributing to the lower incidence of clinically significant disease in Asian men. The assessment of new prostatic therapies aimed at increasing apoptosis should control for intake of dietary isoflavones.





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