PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATIVE
BIODIESEL FUEL ON 4-STROKE MARINE DIESEL ENGINE
RIDWAN SAPUTRA BIN NURSAL
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the Master of
Engineering (Mechanical)
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
JULY 2015
v
ABSTRACT
Alternative fuels for diesel engines have become increasingly important due to several
socioeconomic aspects, imminent depletion of fossil fuel and growing environmental
concerns. Global warming concerns due to the production of greenhouse gases (GHGs)
such as carbon dioxide (CO2) as results from internal combustion engine have seen as
one of major factor the promotion of the use of biofuels. Therefore, the use of biodiesel
fuel (BDF) as an alternative for fossil diesel (DSL) is among the effective way to reduce
the CO2 emission since it is classified as green and renewable energy. However, it is
acknowledged that the use of BDF is restricted due to loss of efficiency and long term
problems upon the engine. Hence, a study focussed on investigating the effects of BDF
derived from crude palm oil (CPO), jatropha curcas oil (JCO) and waste cooking oil
(WCO) blended with DSL at various blending ratio on engine performance and exhaust
gas emissions has been performed. This experimental test was done using a small 4-
stroke marine diesel engine which operates through engine speeds stimulated at 800,
1200, 1600 and 2000 rpm under 0, 50 and 90% dynamometer loads integrated with
emission gas analyser that attached to the exhaust pipeline. As results of experimental
investigations, the increment in performance of torque, brake power, brake thermal
efficiency (BTE) and brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) while decrease in brake
specific fuel consumption (BSFC) has been observed for CPO and JCO fuels
comparative to DSL. Meanwhile a contrariwise outcome was obtained for WCO fuels.
In conjunction, CPO and JCO promotes lower carbon monoxide (CO) emissions but
signified higher nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrocarbon (HC)
emissions compared to DSL. Apart, WCO promotes lower CO, CO2 and HC emissions
but signified higher NOx emissions compared to DSL. It can be concluded that BDF is
useable in diesel engines without engine modifications. The outcomes of this study is
significantly contributed as a guidence and reference to the local authority in order to
evaluate and select the suitable and optimum BDF for development of policies,
regulations and standard.
vi
ABSTRAK
Bahan api alternatif bagi enjin diesel semakin mendapat perhatian disebabkan faktor-
faktor sosioekonomi, bahanapi fosil yang semakin berkurangan dan meningkatnya
kesedaran terhadap penjagaan alam. Pemanasan global akibat penghasilan gas rumah
hijau seperti karbon dioksida (CO2) daripada enjin pembakaran dalam merupakan faktor
besar yang mendorong penggunaan bahanapi bio. Maka, penggunaan bahanapi biodiesel
(BDF) sebagai alternatif bagi diesel fosil (DSL) merupakan antara langkah efektif untuk
menurunkan CO2 kerana ia diklasifikasikan sebagai tenaga boleh baharu dan bersih.
Namun, diketahui bahawa terdapat kekangan dalam penggunaan BDF seperti hilang
kecekapan dan kesan jangka masa panjang terhadap enjin. Oleh itu, satu kajian yang
fokus kepada mengkaji kesan-kesan campuran DSL dengan BDF yang dihasilkan
daripada minyak mentah kelapa sawit (CPO), minyak pokok jarak (JCO) dan minyak
masak terpakai (WCO) pada nisbah campuran yang berbeza terhadap prestasi enjin dan
gas-gas ekzos yang terbebas telah dilaksanakan. Kajian ini telah disempurnakan
menggunakan sebuah enjin diesel marin 4-lejang kecil yang beroperasi pada kelajuan
800, 1200, 1600 dan 2000 ppm di bawah beban dinamometer pada 0, 50 dan 90% serta
telah dipasangkan sekali alat penguji gas ekzos pada paip ekzos. Hasil kajian mendapati
bahawa terdapat peningkatan terhadap prestasi enjin dari segi daya kilas, kuasa brek,
kecekapan terma brek (BTE) dan tekanan min efektif brek (BMEP) manakala berlaku
penurunan penggunaan bahan api spesifik brek (BSFC) bagi bahan api CPO dan JCO
berbanding DSL. Sementara itu, hasil yang berlawanan diperoleh bagi bahan api WCO.
Sebagai kesinambungan, penggunaan CPO dan JCO membebaskan gas karbon
monoksida (CO) yang lebih rendah tetapi pengoksidaan gas nitrogen (NOx), gas karbon
dioksida (CO2) dan hidrokarbon (HC) yang lebih tinggi berbanding DSL. Selain itu,
WCO membebasan gas CO, CO2 dan HC yang lebih rendah tetapi NOx lebih tinggi
berbanding DSL. Dapat dirumuskan bahawa BDF boleh digunakan dalam enjin diesel
tanpa sebarang modifikasi enjin. Hasil kajian ini sangat berguna sebagai panduan dan
rujukan pihak berkuasa tempatan dalam menilai dan membuat pemilihan campuran BDF
yang sesuai dan optima dalam pembangunan polisi, peraturan dan piawai.
vii
CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xxv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of study 1
1.2 Problem statement 3
1.3 Objectives of study 4
1.4 Scopes of study 4
1.5 Significant of study 5
1.6 Project time scale 5
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Biodiesel fuels 6
viii
2.1.1 Advantages of biodiesel as diesel fuel 8
2.1.2 Disadvantages of biodiesel as diesel fuel 8
2.2 International standard specification for biodiesel 10
2.2.1 Policy and standard adopted for biodiesel in
Malaysia
15
2.3 Overview of feedstocks for biodiesel used in the
study
18
2.3.1 Oil palm 20
2.3.1 Jatropha curcas 23
2.3.3 Waste cooking oil 24
2.4 Properties of biodiesel fuels 26
2.4.1 Reviews on properties of crude palm oil as
compared to diesel fuel
27
2.4.1.1 Evaluation of 5 to 20% biodies blend
on heavy-duty common-rail diesel
engine
27
2.4.1.2 Performance, emissions and heat
losses of palm and jatropha biodiesel
blends in a diesel engine
28
2.4.2 Reviews on properties of jatropha curcas oil
as compared to diesel fuel
30
2.4.2.1 Biodiesel production from jatropha
curcas: A review
30
2.4.2.2 Particle number and size distribution
from a diesel engine with jatropha
biodiesel fuel
31
2.4.3 Reviews on properties of waste cooking oil as
compared to diesel fuel
33
2.4.3.1 Fuel and injection characteristics for
a biodiesel type fuel from waste
cooking oil
33
2.4.3.2 Performance, emission and
combustion characteristics of diesel
engine fueled with biodiesel
produced from waste cooking oil
34
ix
2.5 Impact of biodiesel fuel on engine performance 35
2.5.1 Reviews on the effects of crude palm oil on
engine performance
38
2.5.1.1 Performance and emissions
characteristics of diesel engine
fuelled by biodiesel derived from
palm oil
38
2.5.1.2 Performance and emissions of a
diesel engine fueled by biodiesel
derived from different vegetable oils
and the characteristics of combustion
of single droplets
40
2.5.2 Reviews on the effects of jatropha curcas oil
on engine performance
42
2.5.2.1 Influence of ethanol blend addition
on compression ignition engine
performance and emissions operated
with diesel and jatropha methyl ester
42
2.5.2.2 Experimental investigations on a
jatropha oil methanol dual fuel engine
45
2.5.3 Reviews on the effects of waste cooking oil
on engine performance
51
2.5.3.1 Effects of biodiesel derived by waste
cooking oil on fuel consumption and
performance of diesel engine
51
2.5.3.2 Characteristics of output performance
& emission of diesel engine employed
common rail fueled with biodiesel
blends from wasted cooking oil
54
2.6 Impact of biodiesel fuel properties on exhaust
emissions
57
2.6.1 Reviews on the effects of crude palm oil on
exhaust emissions
59
2.6.1.1 Experimental investigation of
emissions characteristics of small
diesel engine fuelled by blended
crude palm oil
59
x
2.6.1.2 Comparative study of performance
and emission characteristics of
biodiesels from different vegetable
oils with diesel
62
2.6.2 Reviews on the effects of jatropha curcas oil
on exhaust emissions
65
2.6.2.1 Performance, emission and
combustion characteristics of
jatropha oil blends in a direct
injection CI engine
65
2.6.2.2 Investigation of diesel engine using
bio-diesel (methyl ester of jatropha
oil) for various injection timing and
injection pressure
69
2.6.3 Reviews on the effects of waste cooking oil
on exhaust emissions
73
2.6.3.1 Emissions characteristics of small
diesel engine fuelled by waste
cooking oil
73
2.6.3.2 Comparison of particulate PAH
emissions for diesel, biodiesel and
cooking oil using a heavy duty DI
diesel engine
76
2.7 Critical literature review 79
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 84
3.1 Introduction 84
3.2 Research methodology flow chart 85
3.3 Biodiesel fuels preparation 86
3.3.1 Procedure and production process of biodiesel 87
3.3.2 Procedure and blending process of biodiesel
with diesel fuel
89
3.3.3 Measuring procedure of biodiesel and
biodiesel blended fuel properties
91
3.4 Experimental approach 93
3.4.1 Tested engine 93
xi
3.4.2 Emission gas analyser 94
3.5 Experimental setup 96
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 98
4.1 Introduction 98
4.2 Measured properties of tested biodiesel fuel 99
4.3 Analysis of engine performance, combustion
characteristics and exhaust emission of diesel engine
fuelled by crude palm biodiesel oil
100
4.3.1 Effects analysis of crude palm biodiesel oil on
engine performance with respect to the
increasing of engine speed at different load
condition
100
4.3.2 Effects analysis of crude palm biodiesel oil on
engine performance with respect to the
increasing of blending ratio at different load
condition
102
4.3.3 Combustion analysis of crude palm biodiesel
oil at different engine speed and load
condition
104
4.3.4 Effects analysis of crude palm oil on exhaust
gas emissions with respect to the increasing of
engine speed at different load condition
109
4.3.5 Effects analysis of crude palm oil on exhaust
gas emissions with respect to the increasing of
blending ratio at different load condition
111
4.4 Analysis of engine performance, combustion
characteristics and exhaust emission of diesel engine
fuelled by jatropha curcas biodiesel oil
113
4.4.1 Effects analysis of jatropha curcas biodiesel
oil on engine performance with respect to the
increasing of engine speed at different load
condition
113
4.4.2 Effects analysis of jatropha curcas biodiesel
oil on engine performance with respect to the
increasing of blending ratio at different load
condition
115
xii
4.4.3 Combustion analysis of jatropha curcas
biodiesel oil at different engine speed and load
condition
117
4.4.4 Effects analysis of jatropha curcas oil on
exhaust gas emissions with respect to the
increasing of engine speed at different load
condition
121
4.4.5 Effects analysis of jatropha curcas oil on
exhaust gas emissions with respect to the
increasing of blending ratio at different load
condition
123
4.5 Analysis of engine performance, combustion
characteristics and exhaust emission of diesel engine
fuelled by waste cooking biodiesel oil
125
4.5.1 Effects analysis of waste cooking biodiesel oil
on engine performance with respect to the
increasing of engine speed at different load
condition
125
4.5.2 Effects analysis of waste cooking biodiesel oil
on engine performance with respect to the
increasing of blending ratio at different load
condition
127
4.5.3 Combustion analysis of waste cooking
biodiesel oil at different load condition and
engine speed
129
4.5.4 Effects analysis of waste cooking oil on
exhaust gas emissions with respect to the
increasing of engine speed at different load
condition
133
4.5.5 Effects analysis of waste cooking oil on
exhaust gas emissions with respect to the
increasing of blending ratio at different load
condition
135
4.6 Comprehensive analysis of engine performance and
exhaust gas emission characteristic on diesel engine
fuelled by all types of biodiesel blends
137
4.6.1 Comprehensive analysis of all biodiesel
blends on engine performance and exhaust gas
emissions during 800 rpm
137
xiii
4.6.2 Comprehensive analysis of all biodiesel
blends on engine performance and exhaust gas
emissions during 1200 rpm
140
4.6.3 Comprehensive analysis of all biodiesel
blends on engine performance and exhaust gas
emissions during 1600 rpm engine speed
143
4.6.4 Comprehensive analysis of all biodiesel
blends on engine performance and exhaust gas
emissions during 2000 rpm engine speed
146
4.6.5 Summary 149
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION 150
5.1 Conclusions 150
5.1.1 The effects of biodiesel blends fuel on fuel
characteristics
150
5.1.2 The effects of crude palm biodiesel oil blends
on engine performance and exhaust gas
emissions
151
5.1.3 The effects of jatropha curcas biodiesel oil
blends on engine performance and exhaust gas
emissions
151
5.1.4 The effects of waste cooking biodiesel oil
blends on engine performance and exhaust gas
emissions
152
5.2 Recommendation 152
REFERENCES 153
APPENDICES 159
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Stoichiometric quantity of methyl alcohol (% vol.) 6
2.2 Potential feedstocks for biodiesel worldwide 7
2.3 Comparison of biodiesel production technologies 9
2.4 ASTM D6751 biodiesel fuel standard 11
2.5 ASTM standards of biodiesel and petrodiesel 11
2.6 European standard, EN 14214 for biodiesel fuel 12
2.7 Status summary of biodiesel in Asian countries 14
2.8 National Biofuel Policy (NBP): Strategic objectives 15
2.9 General applicable requirements and test methods as in
MS 2008:2008
17
2.10 Physicochemical properties of palm oil methyl ester,
PME fuels test in various ratio blends
28
2.11 Fuel properties of the tested palm biodiesel oil and
diesel blends, (PB)
29
2.12 Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) compositions of the
tested biodiesels
29
2.13 Fuel properties of Jatropha oil, Jatropha biodiesel and
fossil diesel
30
2.14 Fatty acid composition (FFA) (%) of the seed oil of
Jatropha curcas
31
2.15 Basic physical and chemical properties of petroleum
diesel, B10, B20 and biodiesel fuels
32
2.16 Physical characteristics of the fuels 33
2.17 Comparative results for B100 34
2.18 Fuel properties of biodiesel in comparison with
conventional diesel and waste cooking oil
35
xv
2.19 Literatures summary on the fuel properties, effects on
performance and exhaust emissions of biodiesel
79
3.1 Test engine specification 94
3.2 Specification of emission gas analyser model IMR
2800-A
95
4.1 Properties of fuels tested in the experiment 99
4.2 The comprehensive variant on performance and
emissions of biodiesel in average relative to diesel fuel
149
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Production oil yield for various source of biodiesel
feedstocks
19
2.2 Oil palm tree and fruits 21
2.3 Fresh oil palm fruit and its longitudinal section 21
2.4 The example of palm kernel and PKO, and mesocarp
and CPO
22
2.5 Jatropha Curcas plant and seed 23
2.6 Grease content in waste cooking oil (WCO) 25
2.7 Transesterificatio reaction of triglycerides 26
2.8 Biodiesel fuel properties and their associated impact
27
2.9 Cumulative heat release at 100% engine load for a
medium-duty direct injection (DI) transportation engine
37
2.10 Effects of palm oil blending on engine performance
analysis without load conditions
38
2.11 Effects of palm oil blending and engine speed on engine
performance and emissions under medium load (50%
test load condition)
39
2.12 Engine performance and combustion characteristics
with BDF derived from palm oil, rape oil and soy oil
40
2.13 Heat release rates with gas oil and palm oil BDF 41
2.14 Variations in BSFC with blends of ethanol, diesel and
JME
42
2.15 Variations in BTE with blends of ethanol, diesel and
JME
43
2.16 Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle for
ethanol, diesel and JME
43
xvii
2.17 Variation of cumulative heat release with crank angle
for ethanol, diesel and JME
44
2.18 Variation of rate of heat release with crank angle for
diesel and JME
45
2.19 Variation of BTE with Methanol Energy Share 46
2.20 Variation of volumetric efficiency with methanol energy
share
46
2.21 Variation of exhaust gas temperature with methanol
energy share
47
2.22 Variation of ignition delay with methanol energy share 47
2.23 Variation of peak pressure with methanol energy share 48
2.24 Variation of MRPR with methanol energy share 48
2.25 Variation of combustion duration with methanol energy
share
49
2.26 Variation of heat release rate at maximum efficiency 50
2.27 Effects of biodiesel blending ratio on engine
performance (0% load condition)
51
2.28 Effects of biodiesel blending ratio on engine
performance (100% load condition)
52
2.29 Effects of engine speed on engine performance (0% load
condition)
53
2.30 Effects of engine speed on engine performance (50%
load condition)
53
2.31 Output power of different WCO biodiesel blends at two
speeds
54
2.32 BSFC of different WCO biodiesel blends at two speeds 55
2.33 Exhaust temperatures of different WCO biodiesel blends
at two speeds
56
2.34 Direct impact and corresponding interactions of
biodiesel fuel on emissions as compared to fossil diesel
58
2.35 Engine emission during 1500 rpm using OD and
biodiesel blends (B5, B10 and B15)
59
xviii
2.36 Engine emission during 2000 rpm using OD and
biodiesel blends (B5, B10 and B15)
60
2.37 Engine emission during 2500 rpm using OD and
biodiesel blends (B5, B10 and B15)
61
2.38 Comparison of NOx emissions of biodiesels from
various sources with diesel
62
2.39 Comparison of CO emissions of biodiesels from various
sources with diesel
63
2.40 Comparison of HC emissions of biodiesels from various
sources with diesel
63
2.41 Comparison of soot emissions of biodiesels from
various sources with diesel
64
2.42 Comparison of CO2 emissions of Jatropha oil blend
fuelled engines
65
2.43 Comparison of CO emissions of Jatropha oil blend
fuelled engines
66
2.44 Comparison of HC emissions of Jatropha oil blend
fuelled engines
66
2.45 Comparison of oxygen content in exhaust gas of
Jatropha oil blend fuelled engines
67
2.46 Comparison of NO emissions of Jatropha oil blend
fuelled engines
67
2.47 Comparison of smoke opacity emissions of Jatropha oil
blend fuelled engines
68
2.48 Variation in NOx emission of different MEOJ blends
ratio and diesel at static injection timing in 23ºbTDC
69
2.49 Variation in NOx emission of MEOJ blends (B20 and
B80) at different injection timing
70
2.50 Variation in NOx emission of MEOJ blends (B20 and
B40) at different injection pressure
70
2.51 Variation in smoke density of different MEOJ blends
ratio and diesel at static injection timing in 23ºbTDC
71
2.52 Variation in smoke emission of MEOJ blends (B20 and
B80) at different injection timing
71
xix
2.53 Variation in smoke emission of MEOJ blends (B20 and
B40) at different injection pressure
72
2.54 Effects of WCO biodiesel blending ratio (vol %) on
different engine speed (rpm)
73
2.55 Effects of biodiesel blending with different period of
times (at 1500 rpm engine speed)
74
2.56 Effects of biodiesel blending with different period of
times (at engine speed from 2000 to 2500 rpm)
75
2.57 Gaseous specific emissions at 23kW, upstream of the
catalyst
76
2.58
Gaseous specific emissions at 23kW, downstream of the
catalyst
77
2.59 Gaseous specific emissions at 47kW, US catalyst 77
2.60 Gaseous Specific Emissions at 47kW, DS catalyst
78
3.1 Flow chart of overall research works 85
3.2 Biodiesel pilot plant in UTHM, Batu Pahat Johor 86
3.3 General flow-sheet for production of biodiesel 87
3.4 Block diagram of biodiesel production flow 88
3.5 Illustration of equipment apparatus setup for blending
process
89
3.6 Block diagram of blending process 89
3.7 Schematic diagram of biodiesel blending process 90
3.8 Kinematic viscosity tester model Hydromation Viscolite
700
91
3.9 Instrument analysis of flash point, Pensky-Martens
model PMA 4
92
3.10 Yanmar TF120-ML diesel engine 93
3.11 IMR 2800-A model gas analyser 95
3.12 Schematic of experimental setup 96
4.1 Effects of engine speed on engine performance by CPO
without load condition
101
xx
4.2 Effects of engine speed on engine performance by CPO
under 50% load condition
101
4.3 Effects of engine speed on engine performance by CPO
under 90% load condition
101
4.4 Effects of CPO blending ratio on engine performance
without load condition
103
4.5 Effects of CPO blending ratio on engine performance
under 50% load condition
103
4.6 Effects of CPO blending ratio on engine performance
under 90% load condition
103
4.7 Combustion characteristic of CPO during 800 rpm
engine speed without load condition
105
4.8 Combustion characteristic of CPO during 1200 rpm
engine speed without load condition
106
4.9 Combustion characteristic of CPO during 1200 rpm
engine speed under 50% load condition
106
4.10 Combustion characteristic of CPO during 1600 rpm
engine speed under 50% load condition
107
4.11 Combustion characteristic of CPO during 2000 rpm
engine speed under 50% load condition
108
4.12 Combustion characteristic of CPO during 2000 rpm
engine speed under 90% load condition
108
4.13 Effects of engine speed on exhaust gas emissions by
CPO without load condition
110
4.14 Effects of engine speed on exhaust gas emissions by
CPO under 50% load condition
110
4.15 Effects of engine speed on exhaust gas emissions by
CPO under 90% load condition
110
4.16 Effects of CPO blending ratio on exhaust gas emissions
without load condition
112
4.17 Effects of CPO blending ratio on exhaust gas emissions
under 50% load condition
112
4.18 Effects of CPO blending ratio on exhaust gas emissions
under 90% load condition
112
xxi
4.19 Effects of engine speed on engine performance by JCO
without load condition
114
4.20 Effects of engine speed on engine performance by JCO
under 50% load condition
114
4.21 Effects of engine speed on engine performance by JCO
under 90% load condition
114
4.22 Effects of JCO blending ratio on engine performance
without load condition
116
4.23 Effects of JCO blending ratio on engine performance
under 50% load condition
116
4.24 Effects of JCO blending ratio on engine performance
under 90% load condition
116
4.25 Combustion characteristic of JCO during 800 rpm
engine speed without load condition
117
4.26 Combustion characteristic of JCO during 1200 rpm
engine speed without load condition
118
4.27 Combustion characteristic of JCO during 1200 rpm
engine speed under 50% load condition
118
4.28 Combustion characteristic of JCO during 1600 rpm
engine speed under 50% load condition
119
4.29 Combustion characteristic of JCO during 1600 rpm
engine speed under 90% load condition
120
4.30 Combustion characteristic of JCO during 2000 rpm
engine speed under 90% load condition
120
4.31 Effects of engine speed on exhaust gas emissions by
JCO without load condition
122
4.32 Effects of engine speed on exhaust gas emissions by
JCO under 50% load condition
122
4.33 Effects of engine speed on exhaust gas emissions by
JCO under 90% load condition
122
4.34 Effects of JCO blending ratio on exhaust gas emissions
without load condition
124
4.35 Effects of JCO blending ratio on exhaust gas emissions
under 50% load condition
124
xxii
4.36 Effects of JCO blending ratio on exhaust gas emissions
under 90% load condition
124
4.37 Effects of engine speed on engine performance by WCO
without load condition
126
4.38 Effects of engine speed on engine performance by WCO
under 50% load condition
126
4.39 Effects of engine speed on engine performance by WCO
under 90% load condition
126
4.40 Effects of WCO blending ratio on engine performance
without load condition
128
4.41 Effects of WCO blending ratio on engine performance
under 50% load condition
128
4.42 Effects of WCO blending ratio on engine performance
under 90% load condition
128
4.43 Combustion characteristic of WCO during 800 rpm
engine speed without load condition
129
4.44 Combustion characteristic of WCO during 1200 rpm
engine speed without load condition
130
4.45 Combustion characteristic of WCO during 1200 rpm
engine speed under 50% load condition
130
4.46 Combustion characteristic of WCO during 1600 rpm
engine speed under 50% load condition
131
4.47 Combustion characteristic of WCO during 1600 rpm
engine speed under 90% load condition
132
4.48 Combustion characteristic of WCO during 2000 rpm
engine speed under 90% load condition
132
4.49 Effects of engine speed on exhaust gas emissions by
WCO without load condition
134
4.50 Effects of engine speed on exhaust gas emissions by
WCO under 50% load condition
134
4.51 Effects of engine speed on exhaust gas emissions by
WCO under 90% load condition
134
4.52 Effects of WCO blending ratio on exhaust gas emissions
without load condition
136
xxiii
4.53 Effects of WCO blending ratio on exhaust gas emissions
under 50% load condition
136
4.54 Effects of WCO blending ratio on exhaust gas emissions
under 90% load condition
136
4.55 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 800 rpm engine speed without load
condition
138
4.56 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 800 rpm engine speed under 50% load
condition
138
4.57 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 800 rpm engine speed under 90% load
condition
138
4.58 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 800 rpm engine speed without load condition
139
4.59 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 800 rpm engine speed under 50% load condition
139
4.60 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 800 rpm engine speed under 90% load condition
139
4.61 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 1200 rpm engine speed without load
condition
141
4.62 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 1200 rpm engine speed under 50% load
condition
141
4.63 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 1200 rpm engine speed under 90% load
condition
141
4.64 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 1200 rpm engine speed without load condition
142
4.65 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 1200 rpm engine speed under 50% load
condition
142
4.66 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 1200 rpm engine speed under 90% load
condition
142
xxiv
4.67 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 1600 rpm engine speed without load
condition
144
4.68 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 1600 rpm engine speed under 50% load
condition
144
4.69 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 1600 rpm engine speed under 90% load
condition
144
4.70 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 1600 rpm engine speed without load condition
145
4.71 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 1600 rpm engine speed under 50% load
condition
145
4.72 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 1600 rpm engine speed under 90% load
condition
145
4.73 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 2000 rpm engine speed without load
condition
147
4.74 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 2000 rpm engine speed under 50% load
condition
147
4.75 Performance of diesel engine by all types of biodiesel
blends during 2000 rpm engine speed under 90% load
condition
147
4.76 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 2000 rpm engine speed without load condition
148
4.77 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 2000 rpm engine speed under 50% load
condition
148
4.78 Emissions characteristic by all types of biodiesel blends
during 2000 rpm engine speed under 90% load
condition
148
xxv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
% - Percentage
0C - Degree Celsius (temperature unit)
0CA - Degree crank angle
AIST - National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and
Technology, Japan
AMP - Accumulation mode particles
ANP - Agéncia Nacional de Petróleo, Brazil
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM D975 - American Standards for Testing Materials for diesel fuel
ASTM D6751 - American Standards for Testing Materials for B100 biodiesel
aTDC - After top dead center
ATDC - After top dead center
B0 - 100% diesel content
B5 - 5% biodiesel blend with 95% diesel content
B10 - 10% biodiesel blend with 90% diesel content
B15 - 15% biodiesel blend with 85% diesel content
B20 - 20% biodiesel blend with 80% diesel content
B30 - 30% biodiesel blend with 70% diesel content
B40 - 40% biodiesel blend with 60% diesel content
B50 - 50% biodiesel blend with 50% diesel content
B80 - 80% biodiesel blend with 20% diesel content
B100 - 100% biodiesel content
bar - Pressure unit
BDF - Biodiesel fuel
BHP - Brake horse power
BIS - Bureau of Indian Standards
BMEP - Brake mean effective pressure
BO - Bleach oil
xxvi
BSEC - Brake specific energy consumption
BSFC - Brake specific fuel consumption
bTDC - Before top dead center
BTDC - Before top dead center
BTE - Brake thermal efficiency
CA - Crank angle
cc - centimetre cubic
CHR - Cumulative heat release
CI - Compression ignition
CO - Carbon monoxide
CO2 - Carbon dioxide
CPO - Crude palm oil
CPO5 - 5% crude palm oil blends with 95% diesel
CPO10 - 10% crude palm oil blends with 90% diesel
CPO15 - 15% crude palm oil blends with 85% diesel
CPO20 - 20% crude palm oil blends with 80% diesel
CSN - Czech Republic standard for biodiesel
D - Diesel
D-15 - 15% diesel blend with biodiesel
D-35 - 35% diesel blend with biodiesel
D-75 - 75% diesel blend with biodiesel
D2 - No. 2 diesel
DAQ - Data acquisition
DI - Direct injection
DIN 51606 - Austria standard for biodiesel
DOC - Diesel oxidation catalyst
DS - Downstream of the catalyst
Dsl - Standard diesel
DSL - Standard diesel
E-5 - 5% ethanol blend with biodiesel
ECD - Electronically controlled distributor
EN - European Nation
EN 14214 - European Committee for Standardisation of biodiesel
EU - Europe
xxvii
EURO 3 - Diesel engine model
F/W - Flywheel
FA - Fatty acid
FAME - Fatty acid methyl esters
FCO - Fresh cooking oil
FFA - Free fatty acid
g - gram
GHG - Greenhouse gases
GOM - Government of Malaysia
Hatz - Diesel engine model
HC - Hydrocarbon
HD - Heavy duty
HR - Heat release
HRR - Heat release rate
HSU - Hatridge Smoke Unit
IS 5607:2005 - India standard for biodiesel
J05 - 5% Jatropha biodiesel oil blends with 95% diesel
J5 - 5% Jatropha biodiesel oil blends with 95% diesel
J10 - 10% Jatropha biodiesel oil blends with 90% diesel
J20 - 20% Jatropha biodiesel oil blends with 80% diesel
J30 - 30% Jatropha biodiesel oil blends with 70% diesel
J75 - 75% Jatropha biodiesel oil blends with 25% diesel
JB10 - Jatropha biodiesel blends 10% v/v
JB20 - Jatropha biodiesel blends 20% v/v
JCO - Jatropha Curcas oil
JCO5 - 5% Jatropha biodiesel oil blends with 95% diesel
JCO10 - 10% Jatropha biodiesel oil blends with 90% diesel
JCO15 - 15% Jatropha biodiesel oil blends with 85% diesel
JIS - Japan International Standard
JME-20 - 20% Jatropha methyl esters blend with diesel
JME-60 - 60% Jatropha methyl esters blend with diesel
JME-80 - 80% Jatropha methyl esters blend with diesel
JME - Jatropha methyl esters
JTME - Jatropha oil methyl ester
xxviii
kg - kilogram (mass unit)
kJ - kiloJoule
kW - kiloWatt
kWh - kilowatt hour
KOH - Potassium hydroxide
LHV - Latent heat of vaporization
Ltd - Limited
m - meter (length unit)
m3 - meter cube (volume unit)
mm2 - millimetre square (area unit)
MEOJ - Methyl ester of Jatropha oil
mg - milligram (mass unit)
MJ - mega Joule
MPa - Mega Pascal (pressure unit)
MPIC - Ministry of Plantation Industry and Commodities
MPOB - Malaysian Palm Oil Board
MRPR - Mmaximum rate of pressure rise
MS 123:2005 - Malaysia standard for diesel
MS 2008:2008 - Malaysia standard for biodiesel
MT - Tonne matric (volume unit)
NA - Naturally aspirated
NBP - National Biofuel Policy
NMP - Nucleation mode particles
NO - Nitric oxide
NO2 - Nitrogen dioxide
NOx - Oxides of nitrogen
O2 - Oxygen
OD - Ordinary diesel or standard diesel
ON - Austria standard for biodiesel
P5 - 5% crude palm biodiesel oil blends with 95% diesel
P10 - 10% crude palm biodiesel oil blends with 90% diesel
P15 - 15% crude palm biodiesel oil blends with 85% diesel
PAH - Particulate emission
PAME - Palm oil methyl ester
xxix
PB - Palm base biodiesel and diesel blends
PB10 - Palm biodiesel blends 10% v/v
PB20 - Palm biodiesel blends 20% v/v
PD - Typical diesel fuel/standard diesel
PKO - Crude palm kernel oil
PM - Particulate matter
PMC - Premixed combustion
PME - Palm methyl ester
ppm - part per million
PUME - Pungam oil methyl ester
PUO - Politeknik Ungku Omar
R&D - Research and development
r/min - Revolution per minute
RBME - Rice bran methyl ester
RPM or rpm - Revolution per minute
s - Seconds
SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system
SOF - Soluble organic fraction
SO2 - Sulphur dioxide
SOx - Sulphur oxide
STD or Std - Standard diesel
SUME - Sunflower oil methyl ester
THC - Total hydrocarbon
TPN - Total particle number
UHC - Unburnt hydrocarbon
UK - United Kingdom
US - Uupstream of the catalyst
US ASTM - United State ASTM Standard
USA - United State of America
UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
v/v - Biodiesel volume by diesel volume
VE - Mechanical distributor
WCO - Waste cooking oil
WCO5 - 5% waste cooking biodiesel oil blends with 95% diesel
xxx
WCO10 - 10% waste cooking biodiesel oil blends with 90% diesel
WCO15 - 15% waste cooking biodiesel oil blends with 85% diesel
WCOB - Waste cooking oil biodiesel
WCOB100 - 100% Waste cooking oil biodiesel
WCO-ME - Waste cooking oil methyl ester
WCME - Waste cooking oil methyl ester
xxxi
LIST OF APPENDICES
A Project time scale 160
B Experimental data 161
C Variant relative to diesel throughout range of speeds 173
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study
Alternative fuels for diesel engines have become increasingly important due to several
socioeconomic aspects and increased environmental concerns. Global warming concerns
due to the production of greenhouse gases (GHGs) have seen as one of major factor the
promotion of the use of biofuels. Carbon dioxide (CO2) from fuel combustion is a major
contributor to GHGs and caused a shift in the climate system. Yet the use of biodiesel as
an alternative fuel for petroleum-diesel fuel operates in compression ignition (CI) diesel
engines is very effective for the reduction of CO2 emission since it is classified as green
and renewable energy derived from renewable biomass resources such as vegetable oils
and animal fats.
The search for an alternative fuel for diesel engines has intensified in recent years
with the imminent depletion of fossil fuel in the future. Other key factors contributing to
this include growing environmental concerns and volatile crude oil prices. Among
alternative fuel options, biodiesel is currently favoured in the land and sea transportation
sector due to the availability of current production technology, and compatibility with
existing infrastructure of conventional diesel fuel. The announcement of the mandatory
use of biodiesel was made in October 2008 by the Prime Minister of Malaysia. The
Malaysia Biofuel Industry Act was gazette on November 1st, 2008, to regulate and
ensure the orderly development of the Malaysian biofuel industry (Oguma, Lee, & Goto,
2011). Owing to a combination of these factors and encouraging measures adopted by
policy makers in the form of mandatory blending, biodiesel standards and emission
legislations, biodiesel has seen a rapid annual increment in its worldwide production.
Nowadays, the ease of resources and use crude palm oil (CPO) in Malaysia
makes it possible for research and development to be conducted. CPO is obtained from
the seeds of the oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis). CPO is considered a prospective
2
biodiesel source in Malaysia and other parts of South East Asia owing to its large scale
cultivation. Furthermore, crude palm biodiesel oil can be used in diesel engine directly
without major modification. From the previous studies state that crude palm biodiesel
has been proven to be a good solution to help address the problem of global warming.
Comparing to palm oil biodiesel industry, biodiesel produced from Jatropha is
still in its nascent state in Malaysia even though considerable interest has been shown by
the government and private sectors. Jatropha oil (JCO) is obtained from the seeds of
Jatropha Curcas. Jatropha is non edible and one of the advantages of Jatropha is that it
can be cultivated on waste land and thus does not compete with food crops. Jatropha
crops do not require much fertilizer and water, yet lead to the reductions of plantation
cost which render the price of biodiesel produced from JCO extremely competitive with
diesel from fossil fuels (Suryanarayanan, Janakiraman, & Rao, 2008). It is also reported
that Jatropha biodiesel blend with petroleum diesel could provide optimum performance
without any engine modification nor preheating.
Waste cooking oil (WCO) can be identifying alternative sources of raw material
due to the lower price compared with other fuel sources. WCO refers to oil that has been
hydrogenated after cooking. WCO offers significant potential as an alternative low cost
biodiesel because it does need production cost compare to other type of biodiesel.
Conversion of used cooking not only provides an alternate fuel but also to the disposal
of WCO. The waste cooking biodiesel oil is produced by transesterification from WCO.
WCO provide a viable alternative to diesel, as they are abundantly available especially
in Malaysia (Khalid, Mudin, et al., 2014). It might be the most practical alternative of
all sources due to its availability.
In this sense, research and development (R&D) on biodiesel fuels on these three
types of biodiesel sources i.e. WCO, CPO and JCO are very important to be performed
in promising alternative to conventional diesel fuel in Malaysia and for further
comprehensive improvements as well.
3
1.2 Problems statement
Biodiesel fuel has a potential to be used as an alternative fuel that can reduce the total
emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the internal engine whereby the bio-
fuel in this study are made from waste cooking oil (WCO), crude palm oil (CPO) and
Jatropha oil (JCO). Biofuels based on vegetable oils offer the advantage being a
sustainable, annually renewable source of diesel engine fuel and yet receiving a lot of
attention nowadays. Source of biodiesel from vegetable oils such as crude palm oil,
soybean oil, raw rapeseed oil, waste cooking oil and etc. have become the main actor in
producing biodiesel rather than biodiesel from animal fat. The usage of this vegetable oil
is due to the great fuel properties such as flash point and acid value that comparable to
the petroleum-diesel fuel.
The capability of CPO to be used as biodiesel due to the higher level of molecular
saturation of it contains, which means a lower number of double bonds in the molecules.
This leads to a higher ignition quality in compression ignition (CI) engine. However, this
also leads to a higher cloud point which makes them difficult to be used in cold weather
unless certain cold flow additives are being added. As JCO is found to contain as much
as 34 wt.% of saturated fatty acids, Jatropha based biodiesel is expected to exhibit poor
operability at low temperature (Lim & Teong, 2010).
Despite years of improvement attempts, the key issue in using waste cooking oil
(WCO) based fuel is oxidation stability, stoichiometric point, bio-fuel composition,
antioxidants on the degradation and much oxygen with comparing to conventional diesel
fuel (Khalid, Anuar, Ishak, et al., 2014). Even though the application of WCO in the
diesel engines offer cheaper fuel in term of cost but it also creates the problems of higher
emissions as compared to petroleum based diesel especially on the emission of sulphur
oxide (SOx). Meanwhile the important issue is the emission exhausted from diesel
engines fuelled by biodiesel is required to meet the future stringent emission regulations.
As summary, most of biodiesel fuels have faced problems where the fuels are not
operating effectively in cold weather and some of them may lead the increasing of
emissions due to instable fuel properties or inappropriate blending ratio.
4
1.3 Objectives of study
The objectives of the study are:
(i) To investigate the effect of various biodiesel blending ratios on performance and
emissions of small marine diesel engine.
(ii) To recommend the biodiesel blending ratio that optimizes the engine
performance and lower exhaust emissions.
1.4 Scopes of study
The scopes of work in performing the research are:
(i) The fuels test will be carried out using a small marine diesel engine: Yanmar
Motor Diesel, Model TF120-ML, 0.638 litre capacity, 1-cylinder, horizontal,
water cooled, 4-cycle engine.
(ii) The fuels will be tested were standard diesel (DSL) fuel and biodiesel blends
with DSL. The ordinary gas oil of standard diesel (DSL) designated as a
reference standard fuel.
(iii) Using three types of biodiesel fuel: crude palm oil (CPO) based, Jatropha oil
(JCO) based and waste cooking oil (WCO) based with various blended rates i.e.
5%, 10% and 15% by volume (additional of 20% for CPO).
(iv) The test will be carried out with four difference engine speed at 800 rpm, 1200
rpm, 1600 rpm and 2000 rpm as well as various load conditions applied of 0%,
50% and 90%.
5
1.5 Significant of study
This study is based on the analysis of biodiesel fuel derived from three types of
feedstocks i.e. waste cooking oil (WCO), crude palm oil (CPO) and Jatropha oil (JCO).
The blending proportions of these fuels with diesel fuels by volume as per stated below:
(i) CPO5 (5% crude palm biodiesel oil, 95% standard diesel);
(ii) CPO10 (10% crude palm biodiesel oil, 90% standard diesel);
(iii) CPO15 (15% crude palm biodiesel oil, 85% standard diesel);
(iv) JCO5 (5% Jatropha biodiesel oil, 95% standard diesel);
(v) JCO10 (10% Jatropha biodiesel oil, 90% standard diesel);
(vi) JCO15 (15% Jatropha biodiesel oil, 85% standard diesel);
(vii) WCO5 (5% waste cooking biodiesel oil, 95% standard diesel);
(viii) WCO10 (10% waste cooking biodiesel oil, 90% standard diesel); and
(ix) WCO15 (15% waste cooking biodiesel oil, 85% standard diesel).
From the biodiesel fuels productions and mixtures, one of the most important
characteristic of biodiesel fuels i.e. fuel viscosity will be analysed because it significantly
control the combustion quality during fuel-air premixing at the early stage of combustion
process which resulting either shorten or prolong ignition delay.
The outcome of this research are very important for future research and
development as a direction to establish alternative fuels that signified lower emissions
yet less dependence on fossil fuels.
1.6 Project time scale
The planning schedule for the overall research works on Master Project 1 and 2 is
represented in a Gantt chart table in Appendix A.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Biodiesel fuels
Biodiesel is a clean-burning fuel produced from grease, vegetable oils, or animal fats.
Biodiesel is produced by transesterification of oils with short-chain alcohols or by the
esterification of fatty acids. The transesterification reaction consists of transforming
triglycerides into fatty acid alkyl esters, in the presence of an alcohol, such as methanol
or ethanol, and a catalyst, such as an alkali or acid, with glycerol as a by-product. Since
biodiesel is made entirely from vegetable oil or animal fats, it is renewable and
biodegradable. The majority of biodiesel today is produced by alkali-catalysed
transesterification with methanol, which results in a relatively short reaction time.
However, the vegetable oil and alcohol must be substantially anhydrous and have a low
free fatty acid (FFA) content, because the presence of water or FFA or both may
promotes soap formation (Vasudevan & Briggs, 2008). Table 2.1 shows the
stoichiometric quantity of methyl alcohol to be used which is usually said to be around
12.5% by volume.
Table 2.1: Stoichiometric quantity of methyl alcohol (% vol.)
(Rosca, Rakosi, & Manolache, 2005)
Owing to dwindling petroleum reserves and the deleterious environmental
consequences of exhaust gases from petroleum diesel, there has been renewed interest in
the use of vegetable oils for making biodiesel due to its less polluting and renewable
nature as opposed to conventional diesel, which is a fossil fuel that can be depleted
7
(Ghadge & Raheman, 2006). Moreover, biodiesel is an alternative liquid fuel that can be
used in any diesel engine without modification.
Biodiesel fuels produce slightly lower power and torque and consume more fuel
than No. 2 diesel (D2) fuel. Biodiesel is better than diesel fuel in terms of sulphur content,
flash point, aromatic content, and biodegradability (Bala, 2005). The cost of biodiesels
varies depending on the base stock, geographic area, variability in crop production from
season to season, the price of crude petroleum, and other factors. Biodiesel is more than
twice as expensive as petroleum diesel. The high price of biodiesel is in large part due to
the high price of the feedstocks. However, biodiesel can be made from various feedstocks
whereby the resources dominant at particular country as presented in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Potential feedstocks for biodiesel worldwide
(Atabani et al., 2012)
8
2.1.1 Advantages of biodiesel as diesel fuel
The biggest advantage of biodiesel is environmentally friendliness that it has over
gasoline and petroleum diesel. The advantages of biodiesel as a diesel fuel are its
portability, ready availability, renewability, higher combustion efficiency, lower sulphur
and aromatic content (Ma & Hanna, 1999; Knothe, Sharp, & Ryan, 2006), higher cetane
number, and higher biodegradability (Mudge & Pereira, 1999; Speidel, Lightner, &
Ahmed, 2000; Zhang, Dub, McLean, & Kates, 2003). The main advantages of biodiesel
given in the literature include its domestic origin, its potential for reducing a given
economy’s dependency on imported petroleum, biodegradability, high flash point, and
inherent lubricity in the neat form (Mittelbach & Remschmidt, 2004). Apart from those
advantages, Malaysia as the leading producer of biodiesel in the world will bring many
advantages to the country such as economic strengthened by exportations, job
opportunities, environment quality as well as preparations towards the status of
developed country (Lim & Teong, 2010).
2.1.2 Disadvantages of biodiesel as diesel fuel
The major disadvantages of biodiesel are its higher viscosity, lower energy content,
higher cloud point and pour point, higher nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions, lower engine
speed and power, injector coking, engine compatibility, high price, and higher engine
wear. Important operating disadvantages of biodiesel in comparison with commercial
diesel fuel are cold start problems as well as not operating effectively in cold weather,
lower energy content, higher copper strip corrosion, and fuel pumping difficulty from
higher viscosity (Dunn, 2001). This increases fuel consumption when biodiesel is used
instead of pure commercial diesel fuel, in proportion to the share of biodiesel content.
Taking into account the higher production value of biodiesel as compared to commercial
diesel, this increase in fuel consumption raises in addition the overall cost of application
of biodiesel as an alternative to petroleum diesel. Neat biodiesel and biodiesel blends
increase nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions compared with petroleum-based diesel fuel
used in an unmodified diesel engine (EPA, 2002).
Furthermore, biodiesels on average decrease power by 5% compared to diesel at
rated loads (Demirbas, 2005). Peak torque is lower for biodiesel than petroleum diesel
but occurs at lower engine speed and generally the torque curves are flatter. Peak torque
9
applies less to biodiesel fuels than it does to No. 2 diesel fuel but occurs at lower engine
speed and generally its torque curves are flatter (Demirbas, 2005). The effective
efficiency and effective pressure values of commercial diesel fuel are greater than those
of biodiesel (Canakci, Erdil, & Arcaklioglu, 2006). Fuel consumption at full load
condition and low speeds generally is high. Fuel consumption first decreases and then
increases with increasing speed. The reason is that, the produced power in low speeds is
low and the main part of fuel is consumed to overcome the engine friction (Ozkan,
Ergenc, & Deniz, 2005). Another advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel are
summarized in Table 2.3 as a comparison of main biodiesel production technologies.
Table 2.3: Comparison of biodiesel production technologies
(Atabani et al., 2012)
10
2.2 International standard specification for biodiesel
Since biodiesel is produced from differently sources, techniques, scaled plants of varying
origins and qualities, it is important to fit a standardization of fuel quality in order to
guarantee the fuels resulting the better emissions to the environment as well as the engine
performance. Austria was the first country in the world to define and approve the
standards for rapeseed oil methyl esters as a biofuel. Currently, there are two main
international biodiesel standard specifications in determining the properties and qualities
of biodiesel. These specifications include the American Standards for Testing Materials,
ASTM D6751 (ASTM, 2012) and the European Committee for Standardization, EN
14214 (European Standard, 2008) for biodiesel fuel.
The properties of biodiesel are characterized by physicochemical properties.
These properties include; caloric value (MJ/kg), cetane number, density (kg/m3),
viscosity (mm2/s), cloud and pour points (◦C), flash point (◦C), acid value (mg KOH/g-
oil), ash content (%), copper corrosion, carbon residue, water content and sediment,
distillation range, sulphur content, glycerine (% m/m), phosphorus (mg/kg) and
oxidation stability. The physical and chemical fuel properties of biodiesel basically
depend on the type of feedstocks and its fatty acids composition (Atabani et al., 2012;
Demirbas, 2009; Kinoshita, Myo, & Hamasaki, 2006; Knothe, 2010).
The ASTM D6751 standard is for B100 (usually produced from soy and waste
cooking oil in USA). There is no separate specification for blended biodiesel/diesel fuel
except that the petroleum diesel used in blending should meet ASTM D975 standard.
ASTM D6751 is used for standardizing blends up to B20 (Moser, 2009). Table 2.4 shows
the ASTM D6751 biodiesel fuel standard while Table 2.5 depicts the comparison of
standards between ASTM D975 (petrodiesel) and D6751 (biodiesel).
The European Committee for Standardization, EN 14214 is more stringent than
the US standard. In the European Union, biodiesel must be satisfactory according to EN
14214 before inclusion petrodiesel, as mandated by EN 590 (Moser, 2009). The
European EN 14214 standard is for B100 blend stock biodiesel. But, it is used also for
standardizing the blends up to B30 for their use in captive engines. However, the
specifications for blends above B5 are required (Cahill, 2007). Table 2.6 represents the
European standard, EN 14214 for biodiesel fuel.
11
Table 2.4: ASTM D6751 biodiesel fuel standard
(ASTM, 2012; Tyagi, Atray, Kumar, & Datta, 2010)
Table 2.5: ASTM standards of biodiesel and petrodiesel
(Demirbas, 2008)
12
Table 2.6: European standard, EN 14214 for biodiesel fuel
(Cahill, 2007; European Standard, 2008)
The guidelines for standards and the quality of biodiesel have also been defined
in other countries such as in Germany, Italy, France, the Czech Republic, Brazil, Canada,
Australia, Philippines, China, Malaysia, Taiwan (Chinese Taipei), New Zealand,
Thailand, United States and West European countries (Meher, Vidya, & Naik, 2006;
Tyagi et al., 2010).
In Brazil, the biodiesel standard produced by ANP (Agéncia Nacional de
Petróleo, Brazil) i.e. ANP Act. No. 42 which enacted in the year 2004 is more flexible
than the European or American standard. It recognizes biodiesel itself as a blend
(mixture) of some fatty acids methyl esters (FAME) whose properties may not comply
with the standard. Hence, like the blending operations for diesel in a petroleum refinery,
the composition of biodiesel too may have to be tailored to meet all performance
requirements of an engine (Tyagi et al., 2010). This Brazilian approach appears to be
reasonable when different raw materials with diverse compositions have to be utilized in
13
the production of biodiesel for meeting the demand of biodiesel in a particular region.
There are another various standards available in western countries such as in Germany
(DIN 51606), Austria (ON) and Czech republic (CSN) (Lin, Cunshan, et al., 2011). Apart
from that, Japan has a national standard JIS K2390 for B100 biodiesel. The National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan is
working to improve this standards with an objective to improve the low-temperature
performance and oxidation stability of biodiesel fuel (Tyagi et al., 2010). In India,
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has produced an Indian Standard IS 15607:2005 for
B100 biodiesel (FAME) which derived mainly from the European standard EN 14214
and partly from US standard ASTM D6751.
Meanwhile in eastern region, the status summary of biodiesel in Asian countries
as depicted in the following Table 2.7 also clarify the own standard been used in those
countries. However, the development of standard for any country basically adopting
either ASTM or EN standard in part or full.
14
Table 2.7: Status summary of biodiesel in Asian countries
(Oguma et al., 2011)
15
2.2.1 Policy and standard adopted for biodiesel in Malaysia
The National Biofuel Policy (NBP) was formulated in 2005 following stakeholder
consultations, and was based on earlier research findings by the Malaysian Palm Oil
Board (MPOB) (Chin, 2011). The NBP envisions that biofuel will be one of the five
energy sources for Malaysia, enhancing the nation’s prosperity and well-being. The
policy is primarily aimed at reducing the country’s dependence on depleting fossil fuels,
promoting the demand for palm oil as well as stabilising its prices at a remunerative level
(MPIC, 2006). The Policy is underpinned by five strategic thrusts as depicts in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8: National Biofuel Policy (NBP): strategic objectives
(Lopez & Laan, 2008; MPIC, 2006)
The policy was expected to bring the following main benefits:
(i) reduce dependency on fossil fuels;
(ii) mobilise local resources for biofuels;
(iii) exploit local technology for biofuel production;
(iv) create new demand for palm oil;
(v) stabilise the CPO price; and
(vi) mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
16
The quality standards for Malaysian biodiesel are developed comprehensively to
specify the minimum requirements of the biodiesel properties for diesel engine
operations. The evaluation of fuel quality is based on a standardised benchmark to ensure
the biodiesel been used may overcome the worldwide environment focused issue i.e.
CO2 emissions and greenhouse gases (GHGs) yet raises public confidence in accepting
the fuel as an alternative to fossil diesel. Hence, testing are conducted by the MPOB on
Malaysian biodiesel and yet certified that it met international biodiesel standards i.e. US
ASTM and EU Standard (Lopez & Laan, 2008).
As part of the goals of the National Biofuel Policy, quality standards for Palm
Methyl Ester (PME) biofuels were to be established by SIRIM Bhd. The quality standard
for 100% biodiesel (B100) in Malaysia, MS 2008:2008 was published in 2008, majorly
based on European standard EN 14214, with some minor modifications. For blended
biodiesel, on the other hand, the quality standard is MS 123:2005, which is essentially a
quality standard for Euro diesel (Chin, 2011). The Malaysia standard developed, MS
2008:2008 (Automotive fuels - Palm Methyl Esters (PME) for diesel engines –
Requirements and test methods) for biodiesel is shows in Table 2.9. However, the
adherence to the published Malaysian biodiesel standards at the moment is still voluntary
and they are mostly used in research and development (R&D) as well as a business to
business tool.
The local implementation of the B5 program by the government of Malaysia
(GOM) was started on February 3, 2009. Even though, there is no biodiesel limit set for
diesel fuel. (Oguma et al., 2011). Yet the GOM has implemented the B5 mandate to be
fulfilled immediately, with the product available throughout Malaysia by the end of
2013. GOM will then introduce B10, a blend of 10 percent PME and 90 % petroleum
based diesel, in mid-2014. The Ministry of Plantation Industry and Commodities (MPIC)
is reportedly working with automotive manufacturers to develop fuel standards to ease
acceptance of B10 biodiesel. In addition to the GOM support provided to develop
marketing infrastructure, the MPOB is backing a consortium to mobilize the private
sector. Despite the government support, it is unlikely that the B10 mandate will be able
to be implemented until mid-2015 (Wahab, 2014). Nevertheless, the R&D and
improvements will keep continuing in order to lead the greatest solution to the standard
specification as well as the regulatory upon the implementation of biodiesel as an
alternative diesel fuel in Malaysia for the future excellence.
17
Table 2.9: General applicable requirements and test methods as in MS 2008:2008
(Department of Standards Malaysia, 2008)
18
Table 2.9 (continued)
2.3 Overview of feedstocks for biodiesel used in the study
By an overview of feedstocks for biodiesel, there are more than 350 types of
crops identified as potential sources for production of bio-oil. The wide range of
available sources of feedstocks signifies one of the most important factors of producing
biodiesel. As the availability of the feedstocks is concerned for biodiesel production
purposes, the feedstocks should fulfill two main requirements i.e. low production costs
and large production scale. Figure 2.1 shows the oil yield of various oil sources for
biodiesel feedstocks (Karmakar, Karmakar, & Mukherjee, 2010). The availability of
feedstocks for producing biodiesel depends on the regional climate, geographical
locations, local soil conditions and agricultural practices of any country.
19
Figure 2.1: Production oil yield for various source of biodiesel feedstocks
(Karmakar, Karmakar, & Mukherjee, 2010)
In general, biodiesel feedstocks can be divided into four main categories as below
(Ahmad, Mat Yasin, Derek, & Lim, 2011; Demirbas, 2008; Masjuki, 2010):
(i) Edible vegetable oil: rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, palm and coconut oil
(ii) Non-edible vegetable oil: jatropha, karanja, sea mango, algae and halophytes
(iii) Animal fats: tallow, yellow grease, chicken fat and by-products from fish oil
(iv) Waste or recycled oil.
Edible oils resources such as soybeans, palm oil, sunflower, safflower, rapeseed,
coconut and peanut are considered as the first generation of biodiesel feedstocks because
they were the first crops to be used for biodiesel production. Their plantations have been
well established in many countries around the world such as Malaysia, USA and
Germany. Currently, more than 95% of the world biodiesel is produced from edible oils
such as rapeseed (84%), sunflower oil (13%), palm oil (1%), soybean oil and others
(2%). However, the use of such edible oils to produce biodiesel is not feasible in the long
term because of the growing gap between demand and supply of such oils in many
countries.
Meanwhile non-edible oils resources are gaining worldwide attention because
they are easily available in many parts of the world especially wastelands that are not
suitable for food crops, eliminate competition for food, reduce deforestation rate, more
efficient, more environmentally friendly, produce useful by-products and they are very
economical comparable to edible oils. The main sources for biodiesel production from
20
non-edible oils are jatropha or ratanjyote or seemaikattamankku (Jatropha curcas),
karanja or honge (Pongamia pinnata), Aleurites moluccana, Pachira glabra nagchampa
(Calophyllum inophyllum), rubber seed tree (Hevca brasiliensis), Desert date (Balanites
aegyptiaca), Croton megalocarpus, Rice bran, Sea mango (Cerbera odollam),
Terminalia belerica, neem (Azadirachta indica), Koroch seed oil (Pongamia glabra
vent.), mahua (Madhuca indica and Madhuca longifolia), Tobacco seed (Nicotiana
tabacum L.), Chinese tallow, silk cotton tree (Ceiba pentandra), jojoba (Simmondsia
chinensis), babassu tree and Euphorbia tirucalli. Non-edible oils are regarded as the
second generation of biodiesel feedstocks (Atabani et al., 2012).
In this study, three types of biodiesel which produced from different type of
feedstocks sources has been selected to perform the performance and emissions test on
compression ignition (CI) engine specifically a small marine diesel engine:
(i) Crude palm oil (CPO);
(ii) Jatropha Curcas oil (JCO); and
(iii) Waste cooking oil (WCO).
However, only two types of those biofuel are freshly produced from vegetables
feedstocks sources while another one is made from waste cooking oil whereby originally
based from vegetables as well. Deeper brief of the biodiesel used in the research and its
feedstocks will be explained in the following topics.
2.3.1 Oil palm
The oil palm is botanical classification as Elaeis guineensis and native to the West Africa
where it was growing wild and later developed into an agricultural crop, widely in south
East Asia. The oil palm tree is contributes in releasing a large quantity of O2 to the
atmosphere than other annual crops and absorbed a lot CO2 during photosynthesis. The
economics life span of oil palm is 25–30 years of total 200 years (Lim & Teong, 2010;
Ong, Mahlia, Masjuki, & Norhasyima, 2011). The fleshy orange reddish coloured fruits
grow in large and tight female bunches each fruit weight as much as 10–40 kg and
contain up to 2000 fruitlets as shown in Figure 2.2. The fruitlet consists of a fibrous
mesoscarp layer and the endocarp (shell) containing the kernel which contains oil and
carbohydrate as shown in Figure 2.3 (Ong et al., 2011). Oil palm plants is well-known
with highest yield of vegetable oil. It produce on average about 4–5 tonnes of oil/ha
annually (Lim & Teong, 2010; Ong et al., 2011).
21
Figure 2.2: Oil palm tree and fruits
Figure 2.3: Fresh oil palm fruit and its longitudinal section
(Ong et al., 2011)
There are two types of oil produced by the oil palm fruit i.e. crude palm oil (CPO)
and crude palm kernel oil (PKO). CPO is obtained from the palm mesocarp which
contains about 49% of palm oil, while PKO is obtained from the endosperm (kernel)
which contains about 50% of kernel oil (Ong et al., 2011). Figure 2.4 illustrates both of
the crude palm oil and palm mesocarp as well as palm kernel oil and the palm kernel.
There are great differences between CPO and PKO with respect to physical and chemical
characteristics. The CPO contains mainly palmitic (16:0) and oleic (18:1) acids, the two
common fatty acids, and 50% saturated fat, while PKO contains mainly lauric acid (12:0)
and more than 89% saturated fat (Demirbas, 2009).
22
Figure 2.4: The example of palm kernel and PKO, and mesocarp and CPO
(Choo, Puah, & Wahid, 2007)
Located in the tropical South East Asia, air temperature in Malaysia barely
changes as the country enjoys an equatorial climate, the geographical location and annual
precipitation make the country perfect for oil palm growth (Hossein, Ashnani, Johari, &
Hashim, 2014). The oil palm plantations in Malaysia are planted with a density of 148
palms per hectare makes a total 4.5 million hectares of land is occupied under oil palm
cultivation (Ong et al., 2011). Malaysia is currently the world’s largest exporter and the
second largest producer of CPO with the production of 17.6 million tonnes in 2009 as
reported (Chin, 2011). 90% of the palm oil produced is used for food and the remaining
10% for non-food consumption, such as oleo-chemicals. Biodiesel produced from palm
oil has also proven to be of higher quality in several attributes as fuel than another
vegetable oil. The differences arise due to the fact that palm oil biodiesel contains higher
level of molecular saturation, which means lower number of double bonds in the
molecules. This leads to a higher ignition quality in CI engine. Production of biodiesel
from palm oil has also sparked several controversial issues notably the fuel versus food
debate and clearance of indigenous rainforests. The strong demand in other countries
especially in Europe one of the implementation reason for transportation usage, yet will
drive a more vibrant exportation and production of palm oil biodiesel in Malaysia
(Demirbas, 2009; Lim & Teong, 2010).
23
2.3.2 Jatropha curcas
Jatropha Curcas is a drought-resistant tree belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family, which
is cultivated in Central and South America, South-east Asia, India and Africa. It is easy
to establish, grows almost everywhere even on gravelly, sandy and saline soils. It
produces seeds after 12 months, can live 30-50 years and reaches its maximum
productivity by 5 years with a high oil content of about 37% or more. The oil from the
seeds has valuable properties such as a low acidity, good stability as compared to
soybean oil, low viscosity as compared to castor oil and better cold properties as
compared to palm oil. Besides, Jatropha Curcas oil (JCO) has higher a cetane number
compared to diesel which makes it a good alternative fuel with no modifications required
in the engine (Atabani, Silitonga, Ong, Mahlia, & Masjuki, 2013; Koh, Idaty, & Ghazi,
2011; Ong et al., 2011). The optimum combination for reducing the free fatty acids
(FFA) of Jatropha curcas oil ensuring an average yield of biodiesel is more than 99%
(Vasudevan & Briggs, 2008). Fresh Jatropha is a slow drying, odourless and colourless
oil and become yellow after aging as shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Jatropha Curcas plant and seed
Jatropha curcas may not necessarily resolve the conflict between biofuels, food
production and the environment. The focused on environmental impacts and some
socioeconomic issues, that jatropha plantations could have overall favourable benefits
for sustainable development, subject to the proviso that only wastelands or degraded
lands were used (Lopez & Laan, 2008).
Comparing to palm oil biodiesel industry, biodiesel produced from Jatropha is
still in its nascent state in Malaysia. Interest has been shown lately by both the
24
government and private sectors due to its lower plantation cost can be significantly
reduced to render the price of biodiesel produced extremely competitive with diesel from
fossil fuels without government subsidies. Therefore, Jatropha Curcas in Malaysia is
widely regarded as a supplementary feedstocks for biodiesel production instead of an
alternative especially during high crude palm oil rises when producing biodiesel from
palm oil will incur profit losses (Lim & Teong, 2010).
2.3.3 Waste cooking oil
Waste cooking oil (WCO) also known as restaurant waste oil refers to oil that has been
hydrogenated after cooking. Cooking oils, used for frying food, have a limited life in
food production due to their contamination with debris from food and due to fatty acids
formation. As a result, waste cooking oil can be seen as a “near to waste” byproduct of
food production industry (Rosca et al., 2005). WCO offers economic advantages and
significant potential as an alternative low cost biodiesel because it does need production
cost compare to other type of biodiesel. By using of WCO as biodiesel, it can solve the
environment pollution problems either to avoid WCO dumped in the river or to avoid
the purification of the main drainage water system water (Atabani et al., 2013; Demirbas,
2009; Khalid, Mudin, et al., 2014; Payri, Macián, Arrègle, Tormos, & Martínez, 2005).
WCO blends promotes the reduction of NOx and CO2 emission due to more
oxygen present during combustion, thus the combustion will become more complete and
in oxygenated fuel (Khalid, Anuar, Ishak, et al., 2014). The use WCO biodiesel as an
alternative fuel also has advantages in term of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons
(HC) emissions in the exhaust gas (Khalid, Mudin, et al., 2014). It has been reported that
the cetane number of used frying oil methyl ester is potential to replace diesel. Also has
been found that the properties of WCO are closed to the ordinary diesel. (Demirbas,
2009; Khalid, Mudin, et al., 2014).
However, issue arise due to kinematic viscosity of the WCO is ten times higher
than diesel, and it is estimated that the spray characteristics get significantly worse with
increasing WCO addition (Yoshimoto, Onodera, & Tamaki, 1999). WCO is known as
yellow greases as viewed in Figure 2.6, even the free fatty acids (FFA) level is less than
15 wt.% , due to greatest abundance it can be considered similar to brown greases (FFA
content is in excess of 15 wt.%).
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