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8/14/2019 Pet-518 Elements of Geology
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Course content
Definition, significance and basic disciplines.
Earth as a dynamic terrestrial planet: Its shape, composition, surface relief, origin and age. Introduction to minerals , rocks and fossils . Definitions, method of study , description and classification of rock forming
minerals and major rock types, rock cycle .
Weathering and Soil . Sedimentary rocks and their classification. Basic concept of stratigraphy and sedimentation. Sedimentary environment and stratigraphic sequences. Basic concepts in geodynamics; interior model of earth. lithosphere and plate tectonic . Deformation of rocks: Classification of Fold , Fault and Unconformities. Geological Time Scale and significance of Fossils
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Course content
1. An Introduction to Geology 2. Matter and Minerals3. Earth's Interior 4. Kind of Rocks and Rock Cycle5. Igneous & Metamorphic rocks6. Weathering , Mass Wasting and Soil7. Sedimentary Environments8. Sedimentary Rocks 9. Principles of Stratigraphy and Sedimentation
10 . Crustal Deformation including Plate Tectonics 11. Deformational features of rocks
12. Classification of Fold Fault and Unconformities.13. Geological Time Scale
14. Fossils and Fossilization15 . Mountain Building and the Evolution of Continents
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Definition of Geology :
Geology is classically defined as the studyof the Earth .
Geology is the study of the Earth, thematerials of which it is made, the structureof those materials, and the processes acting
upon them.
It also includes the study of the organismswhich inhabit our planet.
A very important part of geology is the studyof how Earths materials, structures,processes and organisms have changedover time.
.
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
View of the Planet Earth
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Some Discipline of Geology
Mineralogy - formation, chemical and physical properties, andclassification of minerals
Petrology - formation, properties, and classification of rocks Sedimentology - genesis, transport, and deposition of
sediment, and the formation of sedimentary rocks Structural geology - deformation of earth materials and
resulting geologic structures Tectonics - regional to global-scale deformation and structures
resulting from interactions among pieces of the Earth's rigidouter layer, or lithosphere
Geomorphology - processes of landform evolution andlandscape development Hydrogeology - interrelationships of water and geologic
materials and processes
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
The two broad areas of the science of geology
(1) P hysical geology ,
is the study of Earth materials and structures; theprocesses and forces that act upon them; and how thesematerials, structures, processes, and forces have changedover time.
(2) Historical geology , which seeks to understand the origin of Earth and its
development through time.The relationship between people and the naturalenvironment is an important focus of geology.This includes natural hazards, resources, and humaninfluences on geologic processes
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Physical geology
Earth materialsatoms, chemicals, metals, oil, gas, rocks,minerals, salt, gems, coal, sand, gravel, clay, soil,atmosphere, hydrosphere, organisms, etc.How do Earth materials affect people?
building materials, fuels, soil to grow food, salt for food, jewelry, we are made of Earth materials
Earth processesearthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods,continental drift, weather, climate, landslides,subsidence and collapse, tides, geysers, erosion,etc. Any geologic processes recently in the news?How do these processes affect people?
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
How old is the Earth ?
4.5 to 4.6 billion years (4,500,000,000 to4,600,000,000 years) Determined throughradiometric dating (Uranium, Thorium).Using an instrument called a massspectrometer.
Multicellular life did not appear until about 1 billion years
ago.Before this, 3 billion years ago singlecelled life only.
Hard parts like shells don't appear until 600 million years ago. (Trilobites )
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Historical Geology
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Earth at a Glance
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Introduction to Historical Geology
Historical Geology is the study of changes to Earth and lifein time and space.
I. Time A. How much time? Oldest meteorites and oldest moon rocks are 4.6 billion years
old,4,600,000,000 years.
Oldest rocks found so far on Earth are zircon grains from a sandstonein western Australia, dated at 4.1 to 4.2 bilion years old.
Previously, the oldest Earth rocks were 3.96 billion years old, from theNorthwest Territories of Canada .
B. How do we know? Radioactive materials serve as geologic clocks.
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Introduction to Historical Geology
C. What happened on the Earth during this long period of time?
Many natural events: meteorite impacts volcanic eruptions and lava flows mountain building earthquakes erosion slow movement of continents (plate tectonics) formation and destruction of ocean basins
(plate tectonics) glaciations climatic changes
All of these natural events are still going on today -
We see evidence in the rock record that these events have beenoccurring for a long time. Geologists call this uniformitarianism. The physical laws governing the universe operate uniformly through
time .
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Introduction to Historical Geology James Hutton (1726-1797) believed that "the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be
happening now." Some events which occurred in the past, and left a record in the rocks, ARE
NOT OCCURRING TODAY, or have not occurred in the human lifespan :
Huge meteorite imapcts Large glacial ice sheets Other events occur so slowly that they are difficult to measure: Plate Tectonics - sea floor spreading, continental drift Erosion of mountain ranges Still other events are short lived but very catastrophic: Volcanic eruptions
Earthquakes Floods Mudflows, avalanches, etc (mass wasting) Evidence of all of these events is preserved in the geologic record.
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Geologic record
D. What do you mean by geologic record? The geologic record consists of rock units, each of which
records some event or series of events that occurred in thepast.
What are rocks? Rocks are defined as aggregates of one or more
minerals . What are minerals?
naturally occurring inorganic
solids definite chemical composition characteristic internal crystal structure (arrangement of
atoms in lattice)
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Course content
E. How do rocks form?
By cooling, hardening, and crystallizing from hot, molten lava Igneous rocks By forming from the compaction and cementation of sediments
Terrigenous, clastic or detrital sedimentary rocks
By forming from the precipitation of dissolved chemicals inwater Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks
By forming from accumulated organic matter Organic sedimentary rocks (coals)
By the alteration of pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocksby heat and pressure Metamorphic rocks
Geologic record
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Other basic principles of Geology Principle of intrusive relationships
The intrusion is younger than the rocks it cuts.
Principle of cross-cutting relationships The fault is younger than the rocks it cuts.
Principle of components or inclusions
Note the irregular erosional surface. This is an unconformity.
The clasts (in the bed above the unconformity) are derived from the underlying (older) bed. The gravel clasts are older than the layer which contains them. The layer containing the gravel must be younger than the layer from
which the clasts originate.
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Sometimes papers pile up on mydesk for several weeks before I have
time to put them away. The oldest papers are at the bottom
of the pile, the most recentadditions near the top.
The lowermost objects must beplaced first. Rocks are no different.This is simple idea behind the
principle of superposition . When we examine a series of
undisturbed sedimentary rocklayers we assume the rocks at thebottom of the stack are the oldestand the rocks at the top are theyoungest (Fig. ).
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Principle of Superposition
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Principle of Original Horizontality
Sedimentary rocks are deposited in nearly horizontallayers (beds; Fig. ). If layers are no longer horizontal theymust have undergone deformation after formation.The majority of sedimentary rocks are deposited under
water. They may be pushed above sea level and tiltedduring the formation of mountains. These processesexpose rocks to weathering and erosion that serves toerase parts of the geologic record as rock units are wornaway.
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Course content Superposition: A lies below B so A must be the oldest unit.
Original horizontality: A, B, and C must have beendeposited as horizontal layers.
Becausethey have the same orientation we can probablyconsider them a discrete group that experienced asimilar geologic history
Original horizontality: Because A, B, and C are more steeplytilted than the overlying units they must have been upliftedand tilted early in the history of the region.
A, B, and C were subjected to weathering and erosion at
Earth's surface. A relatively flat land surface was formed byerosion. A significant time interval may have passed whileerosion occurred. This eroded surface is known as anunconformity and is the physical expression of a gap in time.An unconformity occurs when no beds are deposited or when part of the rock record is removed by erosion
l f l
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Course content Superposition: D must have been deposited after C
as it overlies B and C.Original horizontality: D was deposited as a
horizontal bed.Cross-cutting: D must be younger than B and Cbecause it cuts across the underlying layers.
Original horizontality: D is no longer horizontal so it
must have been slightly tilted after formation. Thiswould also have increased the inclination of layers A,B, and C.
Cross-cutting: All layers A through D are cut by theyounger igneous pluton. The pluton containsinclusions of layers B and C, further indication that itmust have formed subsequent to the deposition of those beds. We have no evidence to tell us whether Eformed before or after D was tilted
P 518 El f G l
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Course content
D and E were subjected to weathering anderosion at Earth's surface.
A relatively flat land surface was formed byerosion.
A second unconfomity surface is formed.
Superposition: Layers F and G must have beendeposited after E because they lie atop all other units.Original horizontality: F and G were deposited ashorizontal beds.Cross-cutting: F must be younger than D and Ebecause it cuts across the underlying units. Theriver carved a valley through the upper part of G.
P 518 El f G l
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Fossils occur in a consistentvertical order in sedimentaryrocks all over the world.
(William"Strata Bill" Smith, late1700's, England).
This principle is valid and does
not depend on any pre-existingideas of evolution.
(In fact, Charles Darwin's ideason evolution did not appear until50 years later - 1858).
Geologists interpret fossilsuccession to be the result of evolution - the naturalappearance and disappearanceof species through time.
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Principle of fossil succession
P 518 El f G l
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Geological time Scale
P t 518 El t f G l
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
The Rock Cycle and Geological Cycle
P t 518 El t f G l g
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Course content
P t 518 El t f G l g
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Course content
Pet 518 Elements of Geology
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
PRESENT IS KEY TO THE PAST
The " present is key to thepast" is a simple butimportant statement inpaleontology . Paleontologists look atpresent day organisms tohelp interpret fossils."Paleo" means old and"onto" means life .
Present day organismshelp us to understand thelife and environment of past organisms.
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
PRESENT IS KEY TO THE PAST
Pet-518 Elements of Geology
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Pet-518 Elements of Geology
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi
Kinds of Rocks
Pet 518 Elements of Geology
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Pet-518 Elements of GeologyCourse content