PET113E_ipnge_Sept2014

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PET 113EINTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM

AND NATURAL GASENGINEERING ( & ENERGY)

Abdurrahman Satman

Sept. 2014

CONTENTS• World Energy Statistics

-Reserves-Production-Consumption-Prices, Emissions-Strategies About Energy

• Renewable Energy–Geothermal• Turkey Energy Statistics• Energy: Terms and Definitions-Units

• Introduction to PNGE


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What is Energy?• Energy is the ability to do work• Energy is what makes things move,

light up, give comfort, etc.• It is in the form of usable heat or

power• It is a source of usable power, such aspetroleum, natural gas,coal, nuclear

energy, hydropower, biomass, solarenergy, geothermal, wind, etc.


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Energy Careers

• Engineering• Business• Earth Sciences

• Energy Companies

What is ENERGY ?Energy makes change possible. It moves cars along the road,bakes food in the oven, lights our homes, operates televisions

and computers, and does a lot more.


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Where does ENERGY come from ?

BiomassEnergy

GeothermalEnergy

Fossil Fuels;Oil, Coal,

Natural Gas

Hydro Power andOcean Energy

Nuclear Energy

Solar Energy

WindEnergy

Wood Coal Petroleum N. Gas Hydrogen

17. Century 19. Century 20. Century 21. Century

H/C Ratio Increasing

Historical Development of Energy

Resources in the World

?

Clean Fuel


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World H/C Ratio

(Aguilera, R.F., JPT, June 2009)

As the primary source, the shift from wood to coal occured in 1885and from coal to oil in 1960. The question is what is next?

2000


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Time to Reach the Peak Oil

Production for the World?

2 0 1 3

33.3

Solar Wind

Geothermal

HydroPower

Biomass

Renewable Energy

Sources

Natural Gas Coal

OilNuclear

Non-Renewable Energy

Sources

Energy sources are divided into two groups:

Easily Replenished Supplies are limited,and cannot recreated


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Types of Primary Energy ResourcesCrude oil: Crude oil comprises crude oil, natural gas liquids, refineryfeedstocks and additives as well as other liquid hydrocarbons.Natural gas: Gas includes natural gas (excluding natural gas liquids) andgas works gas.Coal/peat: Coal/peat includes all coal, both primary (including hard coaland lignite/brown coal) and derived fuels (including coke oven coke, gascoke, coke oven gas, blast furnace gas, and peat (combustible organicsoil, partially carbonized matter).Nuclear: Nuclear shows the primary heat equivalent of the electricityproduced by a nuclear plant with an average thermal efficiency of 33%.Hydro: Hydro shows the energy content of the electricity produced in

hydro power plants. Hydro output excludes output from pumped storageplants.Combustible renewables & waste: It comprises solid biomass (wood),liquid biomass, biogas, industrial waste and municipal wasteOther: Other includes geothermal, solar, wind, tide/wave/ocean energy(in the form of electricity and heat).


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1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.187 kJ = 3.968 Btu1 kilojoule (kJ) = 0.239 kcal = 0.948 Btu1 British thermal unit (Btu) = 0.252 kcal = 1.055 kJ1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 860 kcal = 3600 kJ = 3412 Btu1 metric tonne = 2204.62 lb1 kilolitre = 6.2898 barrels = 1 cubic metre = 35 ft 31 barrel = 42 U.S. Gallon = 159 litre = 0.159 m 3 = 5.615 ft 3

Calorific equivalentsOne tonne of oil equvalent (= 7.33 barrels of oil equivalent) equalsapproximately:Heat units 10 million kilocalories

42 gigajoules40 million Btu

Solid fuels 1.5 tonnes of hard coal3 tonnes of lignite

Gaseous fuels 1111 m3 natural gas0.82 tonnes LNG

Electricity* 12 megawatt-hours (energy content ofelectricity)

* Primary energy equivalent of one million tonnes of oil or oil equivalentproduces about 4400 gigawatt-hours (=4.4 terawatt-hours) of electricity in amodern thermic power station with an average thermal efficiency of 37%.

The primary energy equivalent of geothermal energy is calculated assuming anefficiency of 10% so one million tonnes of equivalent geothermal energyproduces about 1.2 terawatt-hours of electricity.


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iea(2013)

iea(2013)


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World TotalPrimaryEnergy Supplyfrom 1971 to2011 by fuel(Mtoe)

13 113 Mtoe

(IEA, 2013)

BALANCE TABLEWorld Total Primary Energy Supply and Consumption (2011),by fuel (Mtoe)

(IEA, 2013)


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Primary (Commercial) EnergyBiofuels (wood, crops used for energy production) andwaste (industrial and municipal) are not considered

Primary energy world consumption12.7 billion toe in 2013

1 toe = ~3 tonnes of lignite=1111 m3 NG=40.4x106 Btu=12 MWh

(BP, 2013)


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Primary energy consumption per capita, toe

(BP, 2013)World Average = 1.57 toe per person

Fossil fuel reserves-to-production (R/P) ratiosat end 2013, years

(BP, 2013)

53 55

113 Years


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Illumination at night over the WorldI

(IEA;WEO, 2011)

People without access to electricity by region, 2009 (million)

1.3 billion people are without electricity!


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33

World Population

1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 20501960 1980 2000 2020 2040

YEAR

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

Population,milyon

%1.9

%1.6

2.535 milyar 1975

2005

9.19 milyar

WORLD POPULATIONRef: United Nations, http://esa.un.org/unpp, 2007

2030%0.98

%0.50

P o p u l a t i o n

, m i l l i o n

2.535 billion

9.19 billion

77

2 0 1 2

7

34

Energy Consumption Will Grow Even More RapidlyThan Population

0123456789

1 9 6 0

1 9 7 0

1 9 8 0

1 9 9 0

2 0 0 0

2 0 1 0

2 0 2 0

2 0 3 0

Population,

Billion Persons

0100200300400

500600700

Total EnergyConsumed,

Quadrillion

BTU

Population Total Energy Consumed

2014

Source: U.S. Department of Labor 2001 Occupational EmploymentStatistics; EIA, International Energy Outlook 2004

( 1 0 1 5 B T U )


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CRUDE OIL (PETROLEUM)

Oil reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios, Years

53 Years

(BP, 2013)


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Distribution of proved oil reserves, %

Oil reserves are increasing in years!(BP, 2013)

238 billion tonnes147 billion tonnes

Oil production/consumption by region, Million barrels daily

87 million barrels/day=4.1 billion tonnes/year

(2013)

91 million barrels/day=4.2 billion tonnes/year

(2013)

(BP, 2013)


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Oil consumption per capita, tonnes

World Average = 4.8 barrels or0.68 tonnes per person

(BP, 2013)

Producers, net exporters and net importers of crude oil*

(iea, 2013)


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Production of unconventional ″tight″ oil (about an estimated 1.5 million barrelsper day) is the main cause of growth in crude oil production in USA.

Chart of crude oil prices since 1861

Adjusted for Inflation vs. Money of the Day

(BP, 2013)


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Taxes Are The Primary Reason for Differencein Gasoline Prices Between U.S. and Europe

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

U.S. $/Gallon

F r a n c

e

G e r m

a n y

I t a l y

N e t h e

r l a n d

s U . K

. U . S

.

Gasoline Cost TaxesSource: EIA, Weekly Petroleum Status Report(Average for Jan-May 2004)

Major oil trade movements 2013Trade flows worldwide (million tonnes)

(BP, 2013)


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OPEC (Organization of PetroleumExporting Countries)

OPEC MembersMiddle East: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar,

Saudi Arabia, United Arab EmiratesNorth Africa: Algeria, Libya

West Africa: Angola, NigeriaSouth America: Ecuador, Venezuela.

(TPAO, 2012)

World Active Wells Distribution

Turkey

927Active Wells


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(TPAO, 2012)

Average Wellhead Crude Oil Production (Barrel/Day)

Turkey

36BOPD/Well

NATURALGAS


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Distribution of proved gas reservesin 1993, 2003 and 2013, %

Natural gas reserves are increasing in years!(BP, 2013)

185.7 trillion m3118.4 trillion m3

(BP, 2013)3.4 trillion m3/year 3.3 trillion m

3/year


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Gas consumption per capita 2013

World Average = 435 m3 or 0.40 toe per person (BP, 2013)

(BP, 2013)


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Major gas trade movements 2013

(BP, 2013)

World: Total trade = 1036 billion m3Pipeline trade = 711 billion m3 (69% of total)

LNG trade = 325 billion m3 (31% of total)

Producers, net exporters and net importers* of natural gas

iea(2013)


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Is the world running outof OIL and GAS ???

The remaining reserves (BP, 2013)

• 53 years of OIL• 55 years of NATURAL GAS

OILVenezuela

Saudi ArabiaCanadaIranIraq

KuwaitUnited Arab Emirates

Russian FederationLibya

Nigeria

The largest reserves ofNatural Gas

Iran

Russian FederationQatarUnited StatesSaudi Arabia

United Arab EmiratesVenezuela

NigeriaAlgeria

Iraq(BP, 2013)


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Oil and Natural gas will continue tobe the primary energy sources for

years to come.

Unconventional oil and gas willbecome increasingly more important.

• Reservoir properties –cannot changed by industry

• Technology–new techniques can be developed

• Economics–affects everything


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ConventionalResources

Gas Hydrates

Extra Heavy Oil

Bitumen

Oil Shale

Stranded Natural Gas

Gas Shale

Conventional and Non-Conventional ResourcesHow to obtain next generation’s energy supplies?

ENERGY ICEBERG

Visible Part

Invisible Part

Our current economy is based oncheap energy

Source: IEA

Availability of oil resources as a function of economic price

... in modern technology

. . .

a t a g r o w

i n g p r i c e


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Canada’s Oil Sands Have Become a Source ofNorth America Production Through

Advanced Drilling and Production Techniques

Steam injectedthrough a well drilledhorizontally allowsCanada’s oil sands

resources to be

produced.

Application of new technology has made oil sands commerciallyviable. Canada recently expanded its oil reserves by 174 billionbarrels to reflect the production expected to come from oil sandsin the future.

Photo Courtesy of Petro-Canada.

“Unconventional” oil and natural gas is exactly the samecommodity as “conventional” oil and natural gas. The word“unconventional” is typically applied to major new advances inextraction technology in the oil and natural gas industry thatallow access to resources not previously technically oreconomically recoverable. In recent years, “unconventionals”have included oil sands, extra-heavy oil extractiontechnologies and deep water drilling technologies.

As an example; unconventional natural gas is produced fromlow permeability source rock using a combination of horizontaldrilling, which exposes more of the subsurface to the well, andhydraulic fracturing, which creates pathways that allow the oiland natural gas to flow through the dense rock into thatwellbore.

What does unconventional mean?


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Unconventional Gas ResourcesUnconventional gas refers to a part of the gas resource base that hastraditonally been considered difficult or costly to produce. Three maincategories of unconventional gas:• Shale gas is natural gas contained within a commonly occuring rockclassified as shale. Shale formations are characterized by low permeabilitywith more limited ability of gas to flow through the rock than in the casewith a conventional reservoir. These formations are often rich in organicmatter and unlike most hydrocarbon reservoirs, are typically the originalsource of the gas, i.e. the shale gas is gas that has remained trapped orclose to its source rock.• Coalbed methane, also known as coal seam gas in Australia, is natural gascontained in coalbeds. Although extraction of coalbed methane was initiallyundertaken to make mines safer, it is now typically produced from non-mineable coal seams.• Tight gas is a general term for natural gas found in low-permeabilityformations. Generally, tight gas is clasiffied as those low permeability gasreservoirs that cannot be produced economically without the use oftechnologies to stimulate flow of the gas towards the well, such ashydraulic fracturing.

(AllConsulting, 2012)

Geology of Natural Gas Resources


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(IEA, 2012)

(IEA, 2012)


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Separation Between Drinking Water Aquifers and Hydraulic FracturesAbout 5-10thousand tonnes ofwater are neededto drill andfracture a singleunconventional gaswell. During thefracturing processwater is mixedwith chemicals andsand beforeinjection into thewell. This has ledto the emergenceof environmentaland communityconcerns about thechemicalcomposition offracturing fluid.

Migration of natural has and fracturing fluid from the source rock upwards throughthousands of feet of impermeable formations into drinking water aquifers is higlyunlikely, if not impossible.

US Natural Gas Production

(BP, 2010)

Unconventional gas, shale gasin particular, hastransformed the US gasmarket. Technologies such ashorizontal drilling or hydro-fracturing has madeaccessible deposits previouslyconsidered unrecoverable.The addition of shale gasreserves helped to boost USproved gas reserves byalmost 50% over the lastdecade.


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69

Heavy Oil:Make it Light

Heat Delivery

70

TarSands

Oil Shale

Resources Available!


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The volumes of unconventional resources arelarger than those of conventional resources.

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New Offshore Production Structures EnableDevelopment in Deeper Water

Industry has moved from fixed to floating structures to develop oil and gas in deeper water


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Complex Computer Models Let Industry

“See” Below the Subsurface3D Seismic–Reflection of sound

waves from subsurface are usedto create models of formationsbelow the ground to identify oiland gas deposits

Increased accuracy in locatingresources leads to fewer wellsdrilled and less waste, for thesame volume of oil and gas

Visualization Theaters–3D seismic models are projected in a 180degree view. Geoscientists virtually step into the subsurface andexplore what is there.

Photo courtesy of Schlumberger

Non-conventional World Oil ResourcesRef: http://energy.ihs.com (2007)

http://energy.ihs.com/http://energy.ihs.com/


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“The Stone Age did not end forlack of stone, and the Oil Agewill end long before the world

runs out of oil.”

Sheikh Zaki YamaniFormer Petroleum Minister of Saudi Arabia

Source: “The End of the Oil Age”The Economist, 25 October 2003.

(JPT-Supplement:″Uncovering the Middle East and North Africa″, Jan. 2013)


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(JPT-Supplement:″Uncovering the Middle East and North Africa″, Jan. 2013)

I n c r e a s i n g C o s t

COAL


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(BP, 2013)

Total reserve: 892 (lignite: 456) billion tonnes, R/P ratio: 113 years

Coal reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios, Years

Distribution of proved coal reserves in1993, 2003 and 2013, %

(BP, 2013)

892 billion tonnes1 039 trillion tonnes

Coal reserves are decreasing in years!


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Coal production/consumption by region

(BP, 2013)

3.88 billion tonnes oil equivalent in 2013 3.83 billion tonnes oil equivalent in 2013

3.88 billion toe ≈ 7.8 billion tonnes of total coal (hard coal, lignite and others) by mass

Coal consumption per capitaTonnes oil equivalent

(BP, 2013)


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Producers, net exporters and net importers of coal

iea(2013)

(Coal Information IEA, 2011)Dünya Linyit Üretimi = 1.04 milyar ton

Lignite Producers of Coal (2010), million ton


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NUCLEAR ENERGY

(IEA;WEO, 2011)

Key nuclear power statistics by region, end-2010


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Producers of nuclear electricity

Turkey: - iea(2013)

Nuclear energy consumption by regionMillion tonnes oil equivalent

(BP, 2013)563 million tonnes oil equivalent/year or

2 584 TWh of gross generation of electricity/year

563 Mtoe/year ≈ 2 584 TWh ofgross generation of electricity,converted on the basis of thermalequivalence assuming 38%conversion efficiency in a modernthermal power plant

12 TWh = 109 kWh ≈ 1 Mtoe

2 584 TWh = (2 584/12)/0.38 =563 Mtoe


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Nuclear Power Plants

• Work best at constant power – Excellent for baseload power

• Power output range of 40 to2000 MW – Current designs are 600 to

1200 MW• 443 licensed plants operating in

31 countries• Produce about 16% of globalelectrical energy

• Uranium resources are widelydistributed around the world,with large known volumes inAustralia, Canada & Kazakhstan

Cooling Towers

Core of Nuclear Reactor

HYDRO-ELECTRICITY


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Hydroelectricity consumption by regionMillion tonnes oil equvalent

(BP, 2013)856 million tonnes oil equivalent/year or

3 900 TWh of gross generation of electricity/year

856 Mtoe/year ≈ 3 900 TWh ofgross generation of electricity,converted on the basis of thermalequivalence assuming 38%conversion efficiency in a modernthermal power plant

12 TWh = 109 kWh ≈ 1 Mtoe

3 900 TWh = (3 900/12)/0.38 =856 Mtoe

Producers of hydro* electricity

iea(2013)


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Renewable energy

Renewable energy consumption/share of power generation by region

(BP, 2013)


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World biofuels productionMillion tonnes oil equivalent

(BP, 2013)

SECONDARY ENERGYELECTRICITY


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iea(2013)

WorldElectricityGeneration*by Fuelfrom 1971to 2011

22 126 TWh

Electricity production from fossil fuels

iea(2013)


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iea(2010)

Producers, net exporters and net importers of electricity

TOTAL FINAL ENERGYCONSUMPTIONWORLD


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Total FinalConsumptionby Fuel from1971 to

2011 by fuel(Mtoe)

iea(2013)

8 918 Mtoe

Oil:Total FinalConsumptionfrom 1971 to2011 bySector (Mtoe)

iea(2013)

3 633 Mtoe


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Natural Gas:Total FinalConsumptionfrom 1971 to2011 by

Sector (Mtoe)

iea(2013)

1 380 Mtoe

Coal:Total FinalConsumptionfrom 1971 to2011 bySector (Mtoe)

iea(2013)

904 Mtoe


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Electricity:Total FinalConsumptionfrom 1971 to2011 by

Sector (Mtoe)

1 582 Mtoe

EMISSIONS


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Natural gas when combusted it results in

the lowest CO2 emissions of any fossil fuel.When used to generate electricity, naturalgas emits as much as 50% less CO2 thancoal. Natural gas use results in negligibleemissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogenoxides (NOx), mercury, and particulatescompared with other fuels.

Fossil fuel CO2 emissions (IHS Energy, 2014)

Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming

Wikipedia.org , Climate Change, Global Warming articles

http://www.wikipedia.org/http://www.wikipedia.org/


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109

Carbon Capture & Storage• Capture and store emissions of carbon dioxide

– Removed from the exhaust gases of thepower station

– Stored so as not to enter the atmosphere• thus reducing global warming.

• Carbon storage is not yet cost-effective

• Required technologies are already proven• Similar technologies used commercially in foodand chemicals industry

110

Carbon Capture• Absorption (chemical and physical)• Adsorption (physical and chemical)• Low-temperature distillation• Gas separation membranes• Mineralization and biomineralization

•Geologic Sequestration•Ocean Sequestration•Terrestrial Sequestration•Novel Sequestration Concepts

Types of CarbonSequestration


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111

• Porous rock bodies surrounded by impermeable rock are ideal for CO2 storage• Oil and gas reservoirs: Inject CO 2 to improve recovery• Coal bed methane: Inject CO2 into coal seams to extract methane

• Inject into deep saline (salt) formations: No direct economic benefit

Geologic Sequestration

112

CO2 sequestration in underground formations

( S p r u n

t , 2 0 0 6 )


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World Primary Energy Demand and GDP Growth,1971-2002

GDP:Gross Domestic Product

Regional Energy Intensity(1000 Btu/2000$ GDP)

Energy Intensity = Energy Consumed/GDP


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ENERGY PROJECTIONS TO 2035

(IEA;WEO, 2011)

HIGHLIGHTS• Global energy demand increases by 40-51% between 2009and 2035 depending on scenarios assumed. Demand grows forall energy sources.

• The focus of growth in both energy demand and supplyswitches away from the OECD. Nearly 90% of global energydemand growth is in non-OECD countries.

• Global investment in the energy infrastucture of $38 trillionis required over the period 2011 and 2035.

• Global energy-related CO2 emissions increase by 20%,following a trajectory consistent with a long-term rise in theaverage global temperature in excess of 3.5oC.

(IEA;WEO, 2011)

World primary energy demand by scenario


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(IEA;WEO, 2011)

Shares of energy sources in world primary energy demand by fuelin the New Policies Scenario

(IEA;WEO, 2011)

Energy intensity in selected countries and regions in the NewPolicies Scenario, 1990-2035


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(IEA, 2011)

World Primary Energy Demand

• Fossil fuels will remain indispensable• All sources of energy will be needed• Global demand grows by about 40% between 2009-2035

(IEA;WEO, 2011)

Cumulative investment in energy-supply infrastructure by fuel in theNew Policies Scenario, 2011 and 2035 (in year-2010 dollars)

Total investment: $37.9 trillion


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Other Projections

(BP, 2011)Other Projections


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WORLD ELECTRICITY MARKET

(IEA;WEO, 2011)

HIGHLIGHTS*World electricity (net) demand in the New Policies Scenario isprojected to increase from 17 200 TWh in 2009 to over 31 700TWh in 2035, an annual growth rate of 2.4%, driven by economicand population growth.•Renewable energy technologies account for half of cumulativeadditional capacity (5 900 GW) and 60% of the investment.•From 2009 to 2035, 44% of the increase in electricity generationcomes from renewables. Mainly driven by government policies,generation from non-hydro renewables increases from 3% of thetotal in 2009 to over 15% in 2035.•In the New Policies Scenario, over two-fifths of global investmentin the power sector goes to transmision and distribution (T&D) toreplace ageing infrastructure currrently in use.•The increased use of renewables and improved plant efficiencyreduce the CO2 intensity of the power sector by about 30% until2035.

(IEA;WEO, 2011)

Share of world electricity generation byfuel in the New Policies Scenario


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RENEWABLE ENERGY

128 You can choose clean renewable energy from wind,solar, small hydropower and geothermal resources.


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129

Renewable energy

• It is any energy resource that is naturallyregenerated over a short time scale and eitherderived directly from solar energy (solarthermal, photochemical, and photoelectric),indirectly from the sun (wind, hyrdopower, andphoto-synthetic energy stored in biomass), orfrom other natural energy flows (geothermal,

tidal, wave, and current energy).• Renewable resources can be converted tononrenewable resources if they are depleted ordegraded by humans faster than naturalprocesses renew them.

130

Renewable Energy• It is energy derived from natural processes that are replenished

constantly.• There are various forms of renewable energy, deriving directly or

indirectly from the sun, or heat generated deep within the earth.• They include energy generated from* solar* wind* biomass* geothermal* hydropower and ocean resources* solid biomass* biogas* liquid biofuels.


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131

Renewables classification into two groups

Renewables

Electricity-onlyrenewable sourcesand technologies

Heat-onlyrenewable sourcesand technologies

Hydro

Wind

Geothermal

Tide,wave,ocean

Solarphotovoltaic

Geothermal

Solar thermal

Biomass(solid, gas,Liquid)

(REN21, 2011)


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(REN21, 2011)

(REN21, 2011)


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135

Sources of New Energy

Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)

136

Renewables - Biomass

• Biomass is a collective term for allorganic substances of relatively recent(non-geological) originthat can be usedfor energy production, includingindustrial, commercial, and agriculturalwood and plant residues; municipal organicwaste; animal manure; and crops directlyproduced for energy purposes. Biomasscan be solid (e.g., wood, straw), liquid(biofuels), or gaseous (biogases).


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137

Biomass Resources

• Energy Crops – Woody crops – Agricultural crops

• Waste Products – Wood residues – Temperate crop wastes – Tropical crop wastes

– Animal wastes – Municipal Solid Waste(MSW)

– Commercial and industrialwastes

http://www.eere.energy.gov/RE/bio_resources.html

Corn Soybeans Sugar Cane

Wood Chips

Municipal

Solid Waste

Biogas is produced from the decay or digestion of organic matter and is considered a renewableresource. The organic matter can be plant or animal waste, such as that found in landfill, agricultural orforestry waste, sewage, or energy crops, including possibly algae.


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Landfill Gasses

Renewables– biofuels• Biofuels cover bioethanol, biodiesel, biomethanol,

biodimethylether, biooil.• Liquid biofuels are mainly biodiesel and bioethanol,

both are used as transport fuels. They can bemade from new or used vegetable oils and may beblended with or replace petroleum-based fuels.

• The natural plant feedstock includes soya,sunflower and oil seed rape oils.

BiodieselBus


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Renewables– hydropower• Potential and kinetic energy of water are converted intoelectricity in hydroelectric plants. It includes large as

well as small hydro, regardless of the size of the plants.

PotentialEnergy

KineticEnergy

ElectricalEnergy

MechanicalEnergy

Electricity

Renewables– solar energy• It is the solar radiation exploited for hot water

production and electricity generation, by:* Flat plate collectors, mainly of the thermosyphontype, for domestic hot water or for the seasonal

heating of swimming pools.* Photovoltaic cells.* Solar thermal electric plants.

The Sun provides 1,400 watts/meter²at the distance of the Earth's orbit,but less at ground level.

Solar Panel

Solar panels are devices forcapturing the energy in sunlight.The term solar panel can beapplied to either solar hot waterpanels (usually used forproviding domestic hot water) orsolar photovoltaic panels(providing electricity).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt


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Solar PV Applications International Space Station

Spacecraft

Probably the most successful use of solarpanels is on spacecraft, including mostspacecraft that orbit the Earth and Mars,and spacecraft going to other destinationsin the inner solar system. In the outer solar

system, the sunlight is too weak to producesufficient power and radioisotope thermal generators are used.

Recreational Use (Sailboat)

View of the small yachtat sea showing solarpanels (photovoltaicarrays) deployed.These can charge the12V batteries at up to 9

Amps under full, directsunlight.

Residential

Solar arrays can provide electricity and hot water to residences inisolated, well-lighted areas

Solar Thermal Collectors• Focus the sun to create to create heat

– Boil water – Heat liquid metals

• Use heated fluid to turn a turbine

• Generateelectricity

Solar Thermal Dish Collector

Schematic

10 megawattsolar thermalcentralreceiverpower plant,Solar I.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermal_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermal_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermal_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermal_generatorhttp://solstice.crest.org/renewables/re-kiosk/glossary/watt.shtmlhttp://solstice.crest.org/renewables/re-kiosk/glossary/watt.shtmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermal_generator


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(REN21, 2011)

(REN21, 2011)

Solar water heating technologiescontribute significantly to hotwater production.


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Renewables–Wind energy

• It is the kinetic energy of windexploited for electricitygeneration in wind turbines.Wind power depends on the windspeed raised to the third power(wind speed cubed).

Wind farm• It is an array or system ofmultiple wind turbines at a givensite, used to capture windenergy for the production ofbulk electricity for a grid.

148

Wind Power Classification

US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Wind Resource Wind Power Wind Speed Wind SpeedPower Potential Density at 50 m at 50 m at 50 mClass W/m2 m/s mph

1 Poor 0 – 200 0.0 – 5.9 0.0 – 13.22 Marginal 200– 300 5.9 – 6.7 13.2 – 15.03 Fair 300 – 400 6.7 – 7.4 15.0 – 16.64 Good 400– 500 7.4 – 7.9 16.6 – 17.75 Excellent 500 – 600 7.9 – 8.4 17.7 – 18.86 Outstanding 600– 800 8.4 – 9.3 18.8 – 20.87 Superb > 800 > 9.3 > 20.8

• MinimumClass 4 desired for utility - scale wind farm (>7 m/s athub height)• Capacity factor is typically 33% at a Class 4 wind site.


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(REN21, 2011)

Installed Wind Generation Capacity

152

Renewables–

tide/wave/oceanenergy

• It is the mechanical energy derived from tidal movement, wavemotion or ocean current and exploited for electricitygeneration.

• Waves contain large amounts of energy and various effordshave been made in recent years to take advantage of this,though in general the technology is still at the research anddevelopment stage.

Tidal Turbine Farms


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Renewables– hydrogen• Hydrogen is like electricity in that it is an energy carrier,

not a primary source-it is derived from the conversion ofsome other form of energy. It can be manufactured froma variety of sources, including natural gas, coal, nuclearenergy and all forms of renewable energy.

• When used as a fuel in combustion processes or in fuelcells, hydrogen has minimal emissions relative toconventional fuels.

• Potential end uses of hydrogen include fuel cell vehicletechnology as well as stationary power generation.

• As a potential complement to electricity as one of the twoprimary long-term energy carriers, hydrogen ultimatelycould offer a transition from today’s energy mix that is assignificant as that from wood to coal, or coal to oil.

Hydrogen powered passenger aircraftwith cryogenic tanks along spine offuselage. Hydrogen fuel requires about 4times the volume of standard jet fuel(kerosene).

Hydrogen-PoweredVehicles

Renewables– hydrogen• Although hydrogen has about three times the energy

density of gasoline per kilogram, making it ideal as arocket fuel, it has a very low energy density on avolumetric basis.

•This poses significant economic and technical challengesto the transmission and storage of hydrogen.

Units Hydrogen Methane

Density kg/m3 0.0887 0.707

Gravimetric Energy MJ/kg 142.0 55.6

Volumetric Energy MJ/m3 12.7 40.0

Hydrogen vs. Methane


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155

Advantages of a Hydrogen Economy

• Waste product of burning H2 is water• Elimination of fossil fuel pollution• Elimination of greenhouse gases• Elimination of economic dependence• Distributed production

Disadvantages of Hydrogen• Low energy densities

• Difficulty in handling, storage, transport• Requires an entirely new infrastructure• Creates CO2 if made from fossil fuels• Low net energy yields: Much energy needed to create hydrogen• Possible environmental problems: Ozone depletion (not proven at this

point)

156

Renewables– geothermal

• Geothermal energy is the energy in the form ofnatural heat flowing outward from within the

earth and contained in rocks, water, brines, orsteam. This heat is poduced mainly by the decayof naturally occuring radioactive isotops ofthorium, potassium, and uranium in the earth’score.

• It is exploited at suitable sites:* For electricity generation usuing dry steam orhigh enthalpy brine after flashing* Directly as heat for district heating,agriculture, etc.


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157

Heat flow outward from Earth’s interior. The crust insulates us fromEarth’s interior heat. The mantle is semi-molten, the outer core is liquidand the inner core is solid.

158

Renewables–geothermalEarth Core• It is the central region of the earth, originating at a depth

of about 2900 km, outside of which are the mantle and thecrust.• It is thought to consist of a molten outer core and a solid

inner core; the temperature of the inner core is not knownbut has been estimated at 5000-7000 oC.

Crust• It is the outermost region of the earth, from the surface

itself to a depth of about 70 km beneath land surfaces(continental crust) and 10 km below ocean surfaces (oceaniccrust).


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161

When the rising hot water and steam is trapped inpermeable and porous rocks under a layer ofimpermeable rock, it can form a geothermal reservoir.

162

Methods of Heat Extraction

http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html


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163

Worldwide capacity ~ 12 000 MWe

164

Natural steam from the production wells power the turbine generator.The steam is condensed by evaporation in the cooling tower and pumped downan injection well to sustain production.


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165

Enhanced (Engineered) Geothermal Systems(Hot Dry Rock) Technology

• Wells drilled 3-6km into crust – Hot crystalline

rockformations

• Water pumpedinto formations

• Water flowsthrough naturalfissures picking upheat

• Hot water/steamreturns to surface• Steam used to

generate power

http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/Fenton Hill plant

166Geothermal power could serve 100% of the electrical needs of 39

countries in Africa, Central/ South America and the Pacific.


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167

Producing electricity is a relatively new use of geothermalenergy. People have used Earth's natural hot water directlysince the dawn of humankind.

Worldwide capacity > 51 000 MWt

168Since Roman times, we have piped the hot water into pools to better controlthe temperature. These are photos of outdoor and indoor pool and spa bathingin Turkey, Japan, the US, and Europe.


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169

This small greenhouse is heated with geothermal water.Plants grow faster and larger when they have additionalheat available.

170

Hot water from one or more geothermal wells is piped through a heatexchanger plant to heat city water in separate pipes. Hot city water ispiped to heat exchangers in buildings to warm the air.


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Realities About Energy-1• Petroleum, natural gas and coal will remain

indispensable to meeting total projected energydemand growth.

• The world is not running out of energy sources, butthere are accumulating risks to continuing expansionof petroleum and natural gas production from theconventional sources relied upon historically.

• To mitigate these risks, expansion of all economicenergy sources will be required, including coal,nuclear, biomass, other renewables, andunconventional petroleum and natural gas. Each ofthese sources faces significant challenges includingsafety, environmental, political, or economic hurdles,and imposes infrastructure requirements fordevelopment and delivery.

NPC/USA, 2007; NPC:National Petroleum Council

• “Energy Independence” should not be confused withstrengthening energy security. The concept of energyindependence is not realistic in the foreseeable

future, whereas energy security can be enhanced bymoderating demand, expanding and diversifyingdomestic energy supplies, and strengthening globalenergy trade and investment.

• The energy sector workforce, including skilledscientists and engineers, must be replenished andtrained.

• Policies aimed at curbing carbon dioxide emissions willalter the energy mix, increase energy-related costs,and require reductions in demand growth.

Realities About Energy-2

NPC/USA, 2007


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• Moderate demand by increasing energyefficiency

• Expand and diversify energy supply• Stengthen global and national energy

security

• Reinforce capabilities to meet newchallenges• Address carbon constraints

Suggested Core Strategies

About Energy-1

NPC/USA, 2007There is no single, easy solution

• Moderate demand by increasing energyefficiency

- Improve transportation (car, truck, etc.)fuel economy standards- Improve efficieny in residential andcommercial sectors by encouraging toimplement and enforce more aggressiveenergy efficiency building codes- Improve efficieny in industrial sector byconducting and promoting research,development, demonstration and deploymentof industrial efficiency technologies and bestpractices.

Suggested Core StrategiesAbout Energy-2

NPC/USA, 2007


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• Expand and diversify energy supply – Reduce declines in national conventional oil and

natural gas production – Increase access for new energy development – Diversify long-term energy production

* Accelerate development of energy from biomassand other renewable energies* Enable the long-term environmental viability ofcoal for power, fuel, and feedstock* Expand nuclear capability.


About Energy-3

NPC/USA, 2007

• Stengthen global and national energy security- Integrate energy policy into trade, economic,environmental, security, and foreign policies.- Continue to develop the international energymarketplace by expanding the energy dialog withmajor producing and consuming nations.- Promote an effective global energy marketplace bysustaining efforts to encourage global adoption oftransparent, market-based approaches.- Assist and encourage global adoption of energyefficiency technologies through technology transferprograms.


NPC/USA, 2007


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• Reinforce capabilities to meet new challenges- Rebuild national science and engineeringcapabilities.- Create research and developmentopportunities.- Improve the quality of energy data andinformation.- Develop a comprehensive forecast of nationalinfrastructure requirements.


About Energy-5

NPC/USA, 2007

• Address carbon constraints

- Develop legal and regulatoryframework to enable carbon capture andsequestration.


NPC/USA, 2007


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ENERGY STATISTICS

Turkey

BİRİNCİL ENERJİ TÜKETİMİ (2012)Enerji Tüketiminde Yıllık Artış:~ %2 ! Enerji Tüketiminde Yıllık Artış: ~%4.5 !

12.5 Milyar toe 121 Milyon toe

DÜNYA’DA VE TÜRKİYE’DE PETROL VE DOĞAL GAZA% 57 BAĞIMLILIK !

(BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2013) (ETKB, 2013)

DÜNYA TÜRKİYE

KÖMÜR%31

KÖMÜR%30

PETROL%26PETROL%33

D. GAZ%31

D. GAZ%24

DİĞER%14DİĞER%13

Primary Energy Consumption– World & Turkey (2012)


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TÜRKİYE

121

2 0 1 2

1970- 2012 Eğimi (Yıllık %4.5 Artış !)

Primary Energy Consumption– Turkey (2012)

Türkiye’de enerji talebininartmasının nedenleri:

Nüfus artışıHayatıkolaylaştıran fakat ek enerjitalep eden yeni teknolojiler vetüketici ürünlerinin artması(hayatstandartını yükseltmeçabaları)ŞehirleşmeSanayileşme

Reasons Why Energy Demand Grows in Turkey

- Growth in Population- Better Living Standards- Urbanization- Industrialization


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1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 20501960 1980 2000 2020 2040

YIL

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

Nüfus,milyon

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

Nüfus,milyonTÜRKiYE

DÜNYA

http://esa.un.org/unpp (2007)%2.6

%1.9

%1.9

%1.6

2.535 milyar21.48 milyon

1975

2005

98.95 milyon9.19 milyar

TÜRKiYE VE DÜNYA NÜFUSUKaynak: Birlesmis Milletler, http://esa.un.org/unpp

2030

%0.95

%0.34

%0.98

%0.50

Population Growth, World & Turkey

Share of Imports in Energy Consumption


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1950 1970 1990 2012

Kömür

Petrol%8

OHBA*%63

*OHBA : Odun, Hayvan ve Bitki Artıkları, +Diğer : Jeotermal, rüzgar, güneş, biyoyakıt, asfaltit...

Enerji Kaynakları Tüketimi (%)

Kömür Kömür Kömür

Petrol%42

Petrol%45

Petrol%26

D. Gaz%31

D. GazOHBAOHBA

OHBAHidrolik

HidrolikHidrolikHidrolik Diğer+ Diğer

Enerji Kaynakları Üretimi (%)

OHBA%56

KömürKömür Kömür Kömür

%55

Petrol%0.4

Petrol%26 Petrol

Petrol%7

Hidrolik

HidrolikHidrolik Diğer

Diğer

D. GazD. Gaz

OHBA OHBAOHBA

Diğer

6.9 milyon toe 121 milyon toe

4.6 milyon toe 34.5 milyon toe

Türkiye/Dünya Oranı, %• Nüfus:1.1• Birincil Enerji Tüketimi: 0.9

• Elektrik Tüketimi: 1.0

FosilKaynaklar

Rezerv Üretim Tüketim

Kömür 0.2 0.5 0.9Petrol 0.02 0.03 0.8Doğalgaz 0.004 0.06 1.2

Kişi başına enerjiveelektrik tüketimi dünyaortalamasından düşük!

Kaynakfakiriyiz

İthalatabağımlıyız

Energy Statistics: Comparison ofSelected Ratios, Turkey/World, %

Primary energy and electricity consumption per capita for Turkey is lowerthan the world average. Turkey is poor in reserves and production of fossilfuels. Only the gas comsumption per capita is above the world average.


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Türkiye’nin Enerji Görünümü (2011-2013)″Energy Outlook in Turkey (2011-2013 )″

(TPAO, 2014)

Türkiye’de Enerji –Gözlemler & Gerçekler• Enerji tüketimi kaynak sıralamasında doğal gaz lider durumundadır.• Enerji yatırımlarında özel sektör ağırlık kazanmıştır. Elektrik kurulu güçte

özel sektör payı %63’tür.• Yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarından doğrudan özel sektörün yatırım yaptığı

hidroelektrik, rüzgar ve jeotermalde hızlı gelişmeler görülmektedir.2013’te enerji yatırımlarının yarısını yenilenebilir kaynaklar oluşturdu.• Hidroelektrik potansiyelinin %38’i, rüzgar potansiyelinin %6’sı, jeotermal

elektrik potansiyelinin %16’sı kurulu güç olarak kullanılmaktadır.• Petrol ve doğal gazda enerji koridoru ve köprüsü kapsamında gelişmeler

sürmektedir. Avrupa ile Güney Koridoru Gaz Bağlantısı önemkazanmaktadır.

• Önemli şeyl gazı potansiyeli olduğu söylenen Türkiye’de, şeyl gazınınaranması ve üretimi için büyük yatırımlar ve ileri teknolojilergerekmektedir.

• Petrol ve doğal gazda yurtdışı yatırımlarının ve ortaklıklarının önemigittikçe artmaktadır. Uluslararası düzeyde hareket edebilecek veuluslararası şirketlerle rekabet edebilecek kurumların yapılandırılmasıgündemdedir. Petrol ve doğal gaz zengini komşu ülkelere açılımınhızlandırılması sektörü canlandıracaktır.

Energy in Turkey– Observations and Facts


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Türkiye’dePetrol 2013• Keşfedilmiş sahalarda kalan üretilebilir

petrol rezervimiz ~45 milyon tonkadardır.• Yurtiçi yıllık üretimi 2.4 ve

(yurtiçi+yurtdışı) üretimi 4.4 milyonton’dur.

• TPAO’nun yurtdışıprojelerde ortak lığıönemlikatkılar sağlamaktadır.

• Yıllık petrol tüketimi~31 milyon ton’dur.

Petroleum in Turkey, 2013

Petrol Üretimi (2002-2013)

2013 yılında gerçekleşen petrol üretimi 2.4 milyonton, ortalama günlük üretim 46 bin varil olup,

üretimin tüketimi karşılama oranı %8’dir.

2012

2,4

(ETKB, 2014)

2,4

2013

Petroleum Production - Turkey, 2002-2013


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Oil and Gas Production Regions in Turkey

Southeastern Anatolia:Oil Production

Thrace Region & Black SeaShallow: Gas Production

(PİGM, 2012)

Petroleum & Natural Gas Explorations in Turkey


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(TPAO, 2014)

Seismic Explorations

Delinen Petrol ve Doğal Gaz KuyularınınTürlerine GöreDağılımı, 1934-2012

(PİGM, 2013)

Exploration;1770

Production;1703

Others(Injection, etc);789

TOTAL # of WELLS : 4262 - ~7.9 million m drilled depth

Types of Petroleum and Natural Gas WellsDrilled, Turkey, 1934-2012


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(PİGM, 2013)

Number of Fields Discovered (1934-2012)

Total Number of Oil and Gas Fields Discovered (1934-2012) = 175

Petroleum Reserve, Turkey, 2011

About 18% of the oil in place is estimated to be recoverable, Recovery Factor=18%

(PİGM, 2012)

Oil in Place ProducibleReserve

CumulativeProduction

RemainingProducibleReserve


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API

YerindePetrol

Miktarı

(milyarvaril)

ÜretilebilirPetrol

Miktarı

(milyon varil)

Kurtarım

Oranı

(RF,%)

ToplamPetrol

Üretimi(milyon

varil)

KalanÜretilebilir

Petrol Miktarı

(milyon varil)

API < 18 2.64 215 8.1 119 97

18 < API <26 1.20 260 21.7 181 79

26 < API 0.84 247 29.4 211 35

TPAO 4.68 722 15.4 511 211

TPAO Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Petrol Sahaları (2009)

(TPAO, 2009)

Reserve Characteristics of TPAO Oil Fields inSoutheastern Anatolia by API Gravity (Density), 2009

API Gravity Oil in Place(billion barrel)

ProducibleReserve(million barrel)

RecoveryFactor, %

CumulativeProduction(million barrel)

RemainingProducibleReserve(million barrel)

Note: If API


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Countries From Which Turkey Imports Crude Oil

51% is imported from Iran, 17% from Iraq, 12% from Russia, and 2% from Saudi Arabia.

(PİGM, 2012)

• Türkiye’de En Derin Kuyu: 2007 yılında Burdur’da delinen Yuvaköy-1arama kuyusunun sondajı 7 216 m derinlikte tamamlanmıştır. Kuyununmaliyeti 50 milyon $’dır.• En Yüksek Üretim Yapan Petrol Sahası: 1961 yılında keşfedilen BatıRaman sahasıdır. Sahada halen 241 kuyudan günlük 6 454 varil üretim

yapılmaktadır.• En Yüksek Günlük Ham Petrol Üretimi Yapan Kuyu: Diyarbakır’daErgani ilçesinde Karacan-5 kuyusundan günlük 698 varil üretim yapılmaktadır.• En Az Günlük Ham Petrol Üretimi Yapan Kuyu: 1984 yılında delinenDiyarbakır’daki Şahaban-2 kuyusundan günlük 1 varil üretim yapılmaktadır.• Ham petrol sahalarının üretim derinliği1500-3000 m arasındadeğişmektedir.• En Yüksek Graviteli Ham Petrol Sahası: 2009 yılında Diyarbakır’dadelinen Beyazçeşme-1 kuyusundan üretilen ham petrolün gravitesi 41.1oAPI’dır.• En Düşük Graviteli Ham Petrol Sahası: Adıyaman’da Kahta-1kuyusundan üretilen ham petrolün gravitesi 11oAPI’dır.

(PİGM, 2012)

Some Statistics on Wells, Fields and Oil Produced


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Türkiye’deDoğalgaz 2013

• Yıllık doğalgaz talebi 1989-2010 döneminde yılda%14 arttı. (Dünyada yıllık artış %3.3)

• Yıllık doğalgazüretimi 555 milyon m3 oldu.(~%50 TPAO ve %50 diğerleri).

• Tüketim ise 47 milyar m3 olarak gerçekleşti.

• Keşfedilmiş sahalarda kalan üretilebilirdoğalgaz rezervi yaklaşık 7 milyar m3’tür.• 72 ile doğalgaz iletimi gerçekleşti. 7 ile iletim

hattı yapım ve 2 ile proje aşamasındadır.

Natural Gas in Turkey, 2013

Natural Gas Consumption, billion m3


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(EPDK, 2011)

Türkiye’de 2010 yılı sektörel doğal gaz tüketimi

Natural Gas Consumption by Sector in 2010, %

Power Generation;56%

Industry; 20%

Residential; 18.5%

Diğer; %5.5Others; 5.5%

Natural Gas Production, million m3


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(PİGM, 2012)

Natural Gas Reserve, Turkey, 2011

Gas in Place ProducibleReserve

CumulativeProduction

RemainingProducibleReserve

About 78% of the gas in place is estimated to be recoverable, Recovery Factor=78%

• En Yüksek Üretim Yapan Doğal Gaz Sahası:2006 yılında keşfedilen Düzce/Akçakoca sahasında3 kuyudan günde 360 bin m3 doğal gaz

üretilmektedir.• En Yüksek Günlük Doğal Gaz Üretimi YapanKuyu: Akçakoca-3 kuyusundan günlük 250 bin m3doğal gaz üretimi yapılmaktadır.• En Az Günlük Doğal Gaz Üretimi Yapan Kuyu:1975 yılında delinen Kırklareli’ndeki Kavakdere-1kuyusundan günlük 98 m3 üretim yapılmaktadır.• Doğal gaz sahalarının üretim derinliği225-3300m arasında değişmektedir.

Some Statistics on Wells, Fields and Natural GasProduced


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2010 yılı ülkelere göre doğal gaz ithalatının yüzde payı

(EPDK, 2011)

Countries From Which Turkey Imports Natural Gas, 2010

46% is imported from Russia, 21% from Iran, 12% from Azerbaijan, 10% from Algeria,and 3% from Nigeria.


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Türkiye’den Avrupa’ya doğalgazve Avrupa’nın kazançları (BOTAŞ, 2009)

Natural Gas Supply to Europe through Turkey and Advantages of Europe

Advantages: Security of supply, price competition, diversification of supply routes,improves international relations,..

Europian Union: EnergyImporting Countries

Middle East & Eurasia:Oil & Gas Rich Region

Russian Federation: Oil &Gas Rich Country and wantsto control export routes

Geopolitical Importance of Turkey


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Uluslararası Doğal Gaz Boru Hattı Projeleri (Mevcut + Planlanan)

(BOTAŞ, 2013)

International Natural Gas Pipeline Projects (Existing, Planned)Existing Planned

Mevcut Planlanan

Natural Gas Pipelines, LNG Terminals, and NaturalGas Underground Storage Facilities in Turkey


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(TPAO, 2012)

Enerji Köprüsü Türkiye

International Oil and Natural Gas Pipelines andLNG Terminalsin Turkey

Energy Bridge - Turkey

Turkey is a natural bridge between oiland gas producing and consuming

countries

Ceyhan Energy Center

″Security andDiversificationof Supply″

″Transit andTrade Income″

″Cheaper Oil andGas Import″

″AIMS in INTERNATIONAL PIPELINE PROJECTS″


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International and National Crude Oil PipelineProjects and Their Capacities - Turkey

About 5% of Daily World Oil Consumption is transported thru Turkey!

Major Straits and Canals Considered to be SupplyChoke Points for Transportation of Crude Oil and LNG


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(TPAO, 2012)

Nakil Darboğazları ″World Oil Supply Choke Points″(Share in Daily World Oil Consumption, %)

(3%)

(2)

(20%)

(18%)(5%)(0.8%)

(4%)

(About 5% of Daily World Oil Consumption is transported thru Turkey!)

Ülke(2008)

YıllıkTüketim,109 m3

DepoSayısı

DepolamaKapasitesi,109 m3

DepolamaKapasitesi/YıllıkTüketim, %

DepolamaKapasitesi/KonutsalTüketim, %

ABD 657 417 110 17 48Rusya 420 23 90 21 61

Ukrayna 60 13 34 57 109

Almanya 82 41 19 23 105

Fransa 44 15 12 27 52

İtalya 78 10 12 15 65

Türkiye ~38 1 1.6 4 18

Dünyada Yeraltı Gaz Deposu Olanakları″Underground Gas Storage Facilities- World″


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Doğal Gaz Piyasası Kanununa (# 4646) göre yıllık tüketilen gazın%10’unun depolanma zorunluluğu vardır.

Underground Gas Storage Facilities and LNG Terminals– Storage Capacities

According to the Natural Gas Market Law (# 4646), 10% ofthe annual natural gas consumption is required to be stored.

(TPAO, 2012)

KuzeyMarmaraDoğal GazSahası

Türkiye’ninİlk ve Tek

YeraltıDoğal GazDepolamaTesisi:TPAO SilivriDGYDT

First and only Existing Underground Gas Storage Facility in Turkey:Silivri Underground Gas Storage Facility and the Northern MarmaraOffshore Gas Field in which gas is stored


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(TPAO, 2012)

Faz-III K. Marmara Sahası Depolama Tevsi ÇalışmalarıDevelopment Project to Increase the Storage Capacity

New Offshore Wellsto be Drilled

Underground Gas Storage:Injection Capacity (million m3/day),Withdrawal Capacity (million m3/day), Storage Capacity (billion m3)

(TPAO, 2014)


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Türkiye’de Kömür• Linyit rezervi ~14 milyar ton ve taşkömürü rezervi 1.3

milyar ton kadardır. ETKB’na göre son 5 yıl içinde 3.2milyar ton ek linyit rezervi tespit edilmiştir.

• 2012 yılında yerli kömür üretimi linyit için 77 ve taşkömürü için 2.3 milyon ton ve taş kömürü ithalatı 23milyon ton oldu.

• Linyitten elektrik üretim potansiyeli toplam 120 milyarkWh/yıl’dır.Not: Bu potansiyel 8.3 milyar ton linyitrezervi için geçerliydi. Yeni rezerve (14 milyar ton)göre potansiyel yeniden hesaplanmalı!

• Linyitlerimizin ısıl değeri düşüktür (toplam rezervin%66’sının ısıl değeri=1000-2000 Kcal/kg).

Coal in Turkey

(ETKB, 2013)


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AID : Alt Isıl Değer(MTA, TKİ, EÜAŞ, MİGEM, 2013)

2013 Yılı TürkiyeLinyit Rezervleri

~14 milyar ton


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1.3 milyar ton

2013 Türkiye Asfaltit Rezervleri

~105 milyon ton

(ETKB, 2013)


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Electricity - Turkey

Annual Electricity Production - Turkey


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Türkiye’deElektrik (2013)

- 2013 yılında245 milyar kWh elektrik üretiminin %44’üdoğalgaz, %25’i kömür ve %25’i hidroliksantrallarındansağlanmıştır.- 64 bin MW* kurulu gücün kaynaklara göredağılımı:%35hidroelektrik, %32 doğalgaz ve LNG, %19 kömür, %9 sıvı

yakıtlar, %4 rüzgar ve %1 diğer kaynaklar.- Toplam kurulu güç içindeözel sektörün payı%63’tür.

(DEKTMK, 2011)

* Temmuz 2014itibariyle kurulugüç 67.4 bin MWoldu.

Bugün için kullanılmaya hazır birincil kaynaklarımızdan345.5 milyar kWh elektrik üretmek mümkündür.

Electricity Generation PotentialFrom Domestic Energy Resources


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(EİE Genel Müdürlüğü, 2007)

Türkiye Rüzgar Enerjisi Potansiyel Atlası (REPA)

KARA DENİZ TOPLAMKurulu Güç*, MW 47 849 10 464 ~58 Bin

* Rüzgar Hızı > 7.5 m/siçin

As of July 2014, installed power capacity for wind is 3 424 MW.

ParabolikAynalı Sistem PV Sistem

Yıllık Ortalama Güneşlenme Süresi = 2740 SaatYatay Yüzeye Gelen Ortalama Radyasyon = 4.17 kWh/m2-gün

Türkiye Güneş Enerjisi Potansiyel Atlası (GEPA) (EİEİ Genel Müdürlüğü, 2008) Yıllık Güneş Enerjisi potansiyeli ~ 380 milyar kWh

(= ~56 bin MW’lık bir doğal gaz santralının ürettiği enerji)


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NAFZ

__ Faults NAFZ Northern Anatolian Fault ZoneEAFZ Eastern Anatolian Fault Zone

VI

IV

EAFZ

I

II

IIIV

VIIV

I Aegean Geothermal RegionII Ankara Geothermal RegionIII Kayseri Geothermal RegionVI Amanos Geothermal RegionV Erzurum Geothermal RegionVI Diyarbak ı r Geothermal Region

Western Anatolia

Central Anatolia

Eastern Anatolia

20 oC20 - 45 oC45 - 75 oC75 - 100 oCT> 100 oC

NAFZ

__ Faults NAFZ Northern Anatolian Fault ZoneEAFZ Eastern Anatolian Fault Zone

VI

IV

EAFZ

I

II

IIIV

VIIV

I Aegean Geothermal RegionII Ankara Geothermal RegionIII Kayseri Geothermal RegionVI Amanos Geothermal RegionV Erzurum Geothermal RegionVI Diyarbak ı r Geothermal Region

Western Anatolia

Central Anatolia

Eastern Anatolia

20 oC20 - 45 oC45 - 75 oC75 - 100 oCT> 100 oC

(Başel vd.,2014)Türkiye’de Jeotermal Alanlar

Geothermal Areas in Turkey

Türkiye’nin toplam elektrik üretimi, EÜAŞ (2013)- 245 milyar kWh

%6.5- 7.5 /yıl

(Aksoy, 2013)

Jeotermal Enerji Kullanımı, Türkiye* 87 000 konut ısıtması * 3 000 dönüm sera ısıtması* Kaplıca turizmi: 12 Milyon kişi/yıl * 120 000 ton/yıl CO2 üretimi* 1.2 milyar kWh elektrik üretimi.

Geothermal Energy Use in Turkey


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#

Sıcaklık Aralığı, oC

25.2-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-120 120-150 150-278.4

Δ: Genç Volkanlar __: Faylar

Türkiye 1000 m Yeraltı Sıcaklık Dağılımı Haritası(İTÜ PDGMB)

Underground Temperature Distribution Map for 1000 m Depth - Turkey

Türkiye’de Jeotermal Enerji: Kapasite ve Potansiyel (2014)

Doğrudan KullanımKurulu Kapasitesi 2 705 MWtElektrik Kurulu Kapasite 310 MWe(~6200MWt)

Kullanılan Toplam Jeotermal Kapasite ~ 9 000 MWtTanımlanmışKapasite (290 alan) ~10 000 MWtElektrik Potansiyeli (38 saha, T>100oC, T ref :100 oC)(Başel vd., 2013)

min: 1 673 MWemax: 3 140 MWe

Isıl Potansiyel (97 saha, T


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Hidroelektrik•Teorik Potansiyel: 442 milyar kWh•Teknik Potansiyel: 237 milyar kWh•Teknik-Ekonomik Potansiyel: 216 milyar kWh*•Kurulu Güç: 22.3 bin MW (2013)•Üretilen Elektrik: ~ 60 milyar kWh (2013)

•KapasiteKullanımı: %32 (2013)

* Kaynak: DSİ(2014)

Hydroelectricity in Turkey, 2013

SONUÇLAR-1• Türkiye birincil enerji kaynakları tüketiminde

stratejik enerji kaynakları olan fosil kaynaklarınpayı %88’dir.• Türkiye kişibaşına enerji tüketiminde dünya

ortalamasının altında olup, fosil kaynakrezervlerinde fakir sayılabilir, ithalat bağımlısıbir ülkedir.

CONCLUSIONS-1


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SONUÇLAR-2• Türkiye, 2020 yılına kadarki 6 yıllık dönemde bugünkü

elektrik üretim kapasitesini %60-70 artırmakdurumundadır.

• Rüzgar dahil tüm yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları ve yerli konvansiyonel enerji kaynaklarımızın tamamıkullanılsa dahi, talebin karşılanması olanaklıgörülmemektedir.

• Enerjide dışa bağımlılığı azaltmak için Türkiye’ninenerji yatırım portföyünde enerji türüçeşitlendirilmesi açısından mümkün olan her enerjitürünün yer alması zorunludur.

• Rezerv ve potansiyel değerleri statik değildirler,rakamlar güncellenmelidir.

CONCLUSIONS-2

Energy

Terms & DefinitionsUnits & Conversion Factors


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Energy• It is defined classically as the capacity to do work.

It is used to perform useful functions for humans,such as heating or cooling buildings, poweringvehicles and machinary, lighting, coolking foods, andso on.

• Forms of energy: Potential energy, kinetic energy,thermal energy, nuclear energy, electromagneticenergy, and gravitational energy.

•Energy can be transformed from one form toanother. For example, a steam turbine convertsthermal energy to mechanical energy.

• A form of matter that can transport energy fromone point to another, e.g., electricity, hydrogen. Sothey are called energy carriers.

246

Energy• The scientific concept of energy serves to reveal the common

features in processes such as burning fuels, propelling machinesor charging batteries.

• Work is simply the application of a force over a distance. Workis energy that has been used. When you do work, you useenergy. Work and energy are closely related. The units of workare the same as the units of energy.

• Power is a measure of how quickly work can be done. It is therate at which energy is converted from one form to another, ortransferred from one place to another.

• To change the motion of any object, a force is needed.Whenever a force is moving something, it must be providingenergy.Force (N, newton) = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s 2 ) Power (W, watt) = Force (N) x Speed (m/s) Energy (J, joules) = Force (N) x Distance (m)


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247

Energy• Mass is defined as the measure of how much matter an object orbody contains – the total number of subatomic particles (electrons,

protons and neutrons) in the object. If you multiply your mass bythe pull of Earth’s gravity, you get your weight.

• When you step on a bathroom scale, you exert a force on thescale. If your mass is 60 kg, the force (weight) you exert is:Force = 60 kg x 9.81 m/s 2 = 589 N = 60 kg since 1 N =0.102 kg- force

• If the power of an electric heater is 1 kW, and it runs for anhour, we say that it consumed one kilowatt-hour (kWh) of energy.If the power is 10 kW, it consumes 1 kWh in just six minutes.1 kW = 1000 W = 1000 J/s, 1 kWh = 3.6x10 6 Joules =3.6 MJ

• Energy is also often measured simply in terms of quantities of fuel,such as tonnes of coal or oil. Energy statistics often use the unit“million tonnes of oil equivalent” ( 1 Mtoe = 41.9 PJ ).P = peta = 10 15

Forms of Energy• Potential energy is awating to be converted into power. The

potential energy (PE) (in joules) stored in raising an object ofmass m (in kilograms) to a height h (in meters) is:PE (J) = force (N) x distance (m) = weight x height = mxgxh

• Kinetic energy (KE) is energy of motion. This is equal to halfthe mass of the object times the square of its speed:KE (J) = ½ x mass (kg) x speed2 [(m/s)2] = ½ x m x v 2• Thermal energy, or heat , is the name given to the kineticenergy associated with rapid random motion of atoms of amaterial.

• Chemical energy of an object is the energy which maypotentailly be liberated as a result of transformations ofchemical substances it is composed of. When atoms cometogether to form molecules or solid materials, the distributionof electrons is changed, often with dramatic effect. When afuel is burned, the chemical energy it contains is convertedinto heat energy.

• Nuclear energy provides the energy released from nuclearfission and nuclear fussion processes.

• Electromagnetic energy is a type of electrical energy carriedby electromagnetic radiation.


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• Energy density: It is a statement of the energy contentof a fuel or energy storage device per unit mass orvolume.

• Energy intensity: It is amount of energy required toproduce a given economic product or service, e.g., theamount of energy used to heat or cool a certain livingspace, or transport a person over a certain distance. Theenergy/GDP (Gross Domestic Product or national income) isa common indicator of the energy intensity of an entireeconomy.

• Energy efficiency: It describes a reduction in the quantityof energy used per unit service provided, e.g., a reductionin the quantity of motor gasoline used per kilometerdriven.

Energy Density, Intensity, and Efficiency

Energy – Conversion and Efficiency• When we convert energy from one form to another, the useful

output is never as much as the input. The ratio of the usefuloutput to the required input (usually expressed as apercentage) is called the efficiency of the process.

• It can be as high as 90% in a water turbine or well-runelectric motor, around 35-40% in a coal-fired power station(if the waste heat is not put to use), and as low as 10-20% ina typical internal combustion engine.

• The difference between the high and low conversionefficiencies is because the low conversion efficiency involvethe conversion of heat into mechanical or electrical energy.Heat is the kinetic energy of randomly-moving particles, anessentially chaotic form of energy. No machine can convertthis chaos completely into the ordered state associated withmechanical or electrical energy.


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Fuel• Any substance burned as a source of heat

or power. The heat is derived from thecombustion process in which carbon andhydrogen in the fuel substance combinewith oxygen and release heat.

• The provision of energy as heat or power in

either mechanical or electrical form is themajor reason for burning fuel.

Primary and secondary energycommodities

• Energy commodities are:- either extracted or captured directly from natural

resources and are termed primary such as crude oil, hardcoal, natural gas,- or are produced from primary commodities and aretermed secondary commodities.

• Secondary energy comes from the transformation ofprimary energy.- The generation of electricity (secondary) from coal

(primary)- Petroleum products (secondary) from crude oil(primary)


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Primary and secondary energy

commodities• Both electricity and heat may be produced in a primaryor secondary form.

• Primary electricity is obtained from natural sources suchas hydro, wind, solar, tide and wave power. Secondaryelectricity is produced from the geothermal heat and byburning primary combustible fuels such as coal, naturalgas, oil and renewables.

• Primary heat is the capture of heat from natural

sources (solar panels, geothermal reservoirs) andrepresents the arrival of “new” energy into the suppliesof energy commodities. Secondary heat is derived fromthe use of energy commodities already captured orproduced (heat from a combined heat and power plant,for instance).

Terminology for energy commodities

N u c

l e a r CoalsCrude oil

NGLsNatural gasOil shale

Petrolum productsManufacturedsolidfuels and gases

H e a

t a n

d n o n -

t h e r m a

l

e l e c

t r i c i t y Biofuels

Any fuels derivedfrom renewables

H e a

t a n

d e

l e c

t r i c i t y

Wastes

CombustibleSecondaryPrimary

NonRenewables

Renewables


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Fossil fuels - renewable energy

• Fossil fuels are taken from naturalresources which were from from biomassin the geological past.

• Renewable energy is obtained directly orindirectly from current or recent flows ofconstantly available solar and gravitationalenergy. For example, the energy value ofbiomass is derived from the sunlight usedby plants during their growth.

Measuring quantities and heating values

• Mass units for solid fuels (kilograms or tonnes)• Volume units for liquids and gases ( litres or cubic

meters)• Electrical energy is measured in an energy unit,kilowatt-hour (kWh).• Conversion from volume to mass requires the

densities of the liquids.• Once it is expressed in its energy unit, a fuel

quantity may be converted into another unit. Useof energy units also permits the summing of theenergy content of different fuels in differentphysical states.


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Conventional energy

• It describes energy sources that have beenwidely used in the industrial world for anextended period of time, such as petroleum,natural gas, or coal, as opposed to alternativesources such as wind or solar energy. Large scalehydropower and nuclear power generation areusually also considered conventional forms ofenergy.

Conventional oil and gas• It is a term for oil and gas obtained by

traditional production methods (e.g., well drilling)from deep-lying geologic formations, rather thanfrom unconventional sources such as shale, tarsands, coalbed methane, biofuels, and so on.

262

Nonrenewable energy

• It describes the energy source formedand accumulated over a very long periodof time in the past, such as a fossilfuel, whose rate of formation is manyorders of magnitude slower than the rateof its use, so that it will be depleted ina finite time period at the current rateof consumption.

• It is not renewed at a rate comparablewith human use; likely to be effectivelydepleted or exhausted at some futuredate.


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263

Units to express renewables

• Solid products like wood are often measured in mass(tones) and volume (cubic meters) units.

• Biogases can be measured on a volume basis (cubicmeters) and on an energy content basis (kilowatt-hours or therms), and bioliquids in terms of volume(liters), mass (tones) and/or energy content (joulesor megajoules)

• Electricity-only renewable sources and technologieslike hydro, solar-photovoltaic, tide, wave, ocean andwind can be measured in terms of electricity output(usually kilo-, mega- or gigawatt-hours).

264

Units to express renewables

• Electricity production is expressed ingigawatt-hours (GWh) and generatingcapacity in megawatts (MWe).

• Heat production and generation areexpressed in terajoules (TJ).

• Energy values for most fuels are reported interajoules (TJ) except for charcoal andliquid biofuels which are reported by mass(in thousand tones).


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Units and conversion equivalents

• The most common units employed to expressquantities of fuels and energy are those relating tovolume, mass and energy. The actual units employedvary according to country and local conditions andreflect historical practice in the country.

• The internationally recognized units which coveralmost all of the measurements of fuel and energyquantities are the cubic meter, tonne (metric ton)and joule. They are derived from the meter,kilogram and second included in the SystemeInternational d’Units (SI) and serve as aninternational basis for science, technology andcommerce. These are the SI units.

266

Units of volume ( cubic meter in SI) andconversion equivalents

To:From:

gal U.S.multiply by:

gal U.K. bbl ft3 l m3

U.S. gallon (gal) 1 0.8327 0.02381 0.1337 3.785 0.0038

U.K. gallon (gal) 1.201 1 0.02859 0.1605 4.546 0.0045

Barrel (bbl) 42.0 34.97 1 5.615 159.0 0.159

Cubic foot (ft3) 7.48 6.229 0.1781 1 28.3 0.0283

Liter (l) 0.2642 0.220 0.0063 0.0353 1 0.001

Cubic meter (m3) 264.2 220.0 6.289 35.3147 1 000.0 1


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267

Units of mass ( kilogram in SI) andconversion equivalents

To:From:

kgmultiply by:

t lt st lb

Kilogram (kg) 1 0.001 9.84x10-4 1.102x10-3 2.2046

Tonne (t) 1000 1 0.984 1.1023 2204.6

Long ton (lt) 1016 1.016 1 1.120 2240.0

Short ton (st) 907.2 0.9072 0.893 1 2000.0

Pound (lb) 0.454 4.54x10-4 4.46x10-4 5.0x10-4 1

268

Energy units ( joule (J) in SI) andconversion equivalents

To:From:

TJmultiply by:

Gcal Mtoe MBtu GWh

Terajoule (TJ) 1 238.8 2.388x10-5

947.8 0.2778

Gigacalorie 4.1868x10-3 1 10-7 3.968 1.163x10-3

Mtoe* 4.1868x104 107 1 3.968x107 11630

Million Btu 1.0551x10-3 0.252 2.52x10-8 1 2.931x10-4

Gigawatt-hour 3.6 860 8.6x10-5 3412 1

* Million tons of oil equivalent.


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271

Units1 metric tonne = 2204.62 lb = 1.1023 short tons1 kilolitre = 6.2898 barrels = 1 cubic metre1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.187 kJ =3.968 Btu1 kilojoule (kJ) = 0.239 kcal = 0.948 Btu1 British thermal unit (Btu) = 0.252 kcal = 1.055 kJ1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 860 kcal = 3600 kJ = 3412 Btu

One tonne of oil equivalent (Toe) equals approximately:

Heat units 10 million kilocalories = 42 gigajoules = 40million British thermal units

Solid fuels 1.5 tonnes of hardcoal = 3 tonnes oflignite

Gaseous fuels See Natural gas and Liquefied natural gas tableElectricity 12 megawatt-hours

One million tonnes of oil produces about 4500 gigawatt-hours (= 4.5terawatt-hours) of electricity in a modern power station with a 37.5%conversion efficiency.

BP, 2009

Calorific equivalents

272

Units and Conversions

Rate Joules Kilowatt-hours Oil equivalent Coal equivalentper hour per year per year per year per year

1 kW 3.6 MJ 31.54 GJ 8760 0.75 toe 1.1 tce1 GW 3.6 TJ 31.54 PJ 8.76x10 9 0.75 Mtoe 1.1 Mte

Power

Other Quantities

Quantity Unit SI equivalent InverseMass 1 lb (pound) = 0.4536 kg 1 kg = 2.205 lb

1 t (tonne) = 1000 kg 1 kg = 10 -3 tLength 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m 1 m = 3.281 ft

1 yd (yard) = 0.9144 m 1 m = 1.094 yd1 mi (mile) = 1609 m 1 m = 6.214x10 -4 mi

Speed 1 km hr -1 (kph) = 0.2778 m s -1 1 m s -1 = 3.6 kph1 mi hr -1 (mph) = 0.447 m s -1 1 m s -1 = 2.237 mph1 knot = 0.5144 m s-1 1 m s -1 = 1.944 knots

Area 1 acre = 4047 m 2 1 m 2 = 2.471x10 -4 acre1 ha (hectare) = 10 4 m 2 1 m 2 = 10 -4 ha

Volume 1 litre = 10 -3 m 3 1 m 3 = 1000 litre1 gal (UK) = 4.546x10 -3 m 3 1 m 3 = 220.0 gal (UK)1 gal (US) = 3.785x10 -3 m 3 1 m 3 = 264.2 gal (US)

Energy 1 eV (electron-volt) = 1.602x10-19

J 1 J = 6.242x1018

eVPower 1 HP (horse power) = 745.7 W 1 W = 1.341x10 -3 HP


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273

Most common multiple and sub-multipleprefixes

Multiple Sub-Multiple

101 deca (da) 10-1 deci (d)102 hecto (h) 10-2 centi (c)103 kilo (k) 10-3 milli (m)106 mega (M) 10-6 micro (µ)109 giga (G) 10-9 nano (n)1012 tera (T) 10-12 pico (p)1015 peta (P) 10-15 femto (f)1018 exa (E) 10-18 atto (a)

INTRODUCTION TOPETROLEUM & NATURAL GAS


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PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS ENGINEERS

Looking for An Exciting Future?Become a Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineer

Petroleum and natural gas engineers work allaround the world, on land and offshore, to findoil and gas supplies. They keep the energyflowing to light and heat our homes, fuel ourtransportaion systems, and keep our industriesoperating.

They spark the creation of thousands ofproducts, from medicines to plastics to textilesand cosmetics. Petroleum and natural gasengineers work in an industry that is both rich inhistory and the excitement of discovery and on

the cutting edge of today’s technologies.


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The right education for a career in petroleum and natural gasengineering requires taking courses on earth science, science(chemistry, physics and math), basic engineering courses (fluidmechanics, thermodynamics, statistics, etc), and specialized courses inpetroleum and natural gas engineering (geology, formation evaluation,drilling, reservoir properties, and production).

Because the oil and gas industry is international in scope, foreignlanguages are encouraged. Since it is a high-tech industry, computerskills are fundamental.

Entry-level salaries for graduates are among the highest of any

engineering field.Graduates move to field, district, area, staff and chief engineeringpositions. They may prefer to advance through such management postsas supervisor, manager and president. The route you follow depends onthe type of career you want to make for your self. Once you haveacquired some experience, you might decide to become a consultant orenter the oil and gas business on your own.


They are involved in drilling and petroleum and natural gas-producingoperations. Many different specialties are available, each with its ownunique challenges and rewards.

They work thorough studies of geologic and engineering data in order topredict maximum oil and gas recovery as well as ultimate production andproduction rates.

You can bea drilling engineer, working with geologists and contractors indesigning and supervising drilling operations. The job is to implement aprocedure to drill the well as economically as possible. These operationsare conducted to protect the safety of the drilling crew and under theguidelines of national rules and regulations. It is also important that thewell be drilled so that the formations of interest can be evaluated as toits commercial value to the oil company.


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You can work asa production engineer, developing processes andequipment to optimize oil and gas production. The job is to analyze,interpret, and optimize the performance of individual wells. Theproduction engineer is responsible for determining how to bringhydrocarbons to the surface. The production engineer will determine themost efficient means to develop the field considering the viscosity ofthe oil, the gas-oil ratio, the depth and type of formation. The engineeris also responsible for the developing a system of surface equipmentthat will separate the oil, gas, and water.

You can becomea reservoir engineer and help determine ideal recoverypro

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