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Philosophers on why be moral Michael Lacewing enquiries@alevelphilosoph y.co.uk
Hobbes on contract
• Morality is product of a contract, which it is rational for each of us to agree to
• Because it is in my self-interest (egoism)
• Morality as means to end, given by egoism
• This is also ‘rational’: it is rational to do what benefits oneself
The moral contract
• Better not to be harmed by others – hence constraints on others’ behaviour; but better not to be constrained
• Solution: agree to constraints given that others agree; not best for me, but best I can get
• Better to trust and co-operate; agreement to be moral generates trust
The ‘free rider’ problem
• In a situation of trust, if everyone else is acting morally, it is even better to act self-interestedly – at least if you can get away with it.• But how can I trust others to keep the
contract?
• Morality is collectively in everyone’s self-interest, but it is in each person’s self-interest to break the agreement – knowing this, we won’t trust each other!
Plato on self-interest
• Would it be bad for you to get away with being immoral?
• Yes: the soul has ‘parts’ that can be in conflict, e.g. desire v. reason– Desires do not consider what is good
for us; when desires control us, we cannot recognise what is good
• Only when reason is in charge is inner conflict avoided– We recognise what is morally right and
want to do it– We are happier
Self-interest and morality
• Can we say what is in our self-interest without referring to morality?– E.g. cheating - might make you feel happy
at the time, but you don’t gain what is of real value (‘achievement’)
• Self-interest is getting what is truly valuable– But some values are moral values - so
morality precedes self-interest, and can’t be defined as a means to self-interest
Objections to Plato
• Plato shows that we must be prudent, but not that prudence is the same as morality.– He assumes that reason will lead us
to act morally – but this is what we are questioning.
• Is happiness the absence of inner conflict?
Kant on reason
• Being moral because it benefits me doesn’t explain the importance of morality.
• Morality is the same for everyone. Therefore, to act morally is to act in a way everyone can act.
• This can be worked out using reason alone, independent of desires.– Why be moral? Because it is the
same as being rational.
Hume on sympathy
• It is not irrational to do what not everyone can do. Reason only works out how to get what we want (means-end reasoning).
• Morality is based on sympathy, which is a natural human motivation.– We are moral because we care. So it
would be inconsistent with your own desires to act immorally.
– If you really don’t care about other people, you are probably a sociopath.
More on sympathy
• This doesn’t mean that morality is subjective.– You might not care the ‘right’ amount: ‘in
order to pave the way for [sympathy], and give a proper discernment of its object, it is often necessary, we find, that much reasoning should precede’.
• Someone who is immoral is not always irrational – but we can still criticise them for being immoral.
Aristotle on ‘flourishing’
• We all aim at living the best life we can. But what this is depends on what we are.
• Human beings are capable of reason.
• So living well is living in accordance with reason.
• Our character is important here - to be virtuous is to have desires and emotions that are ‘reasonable’.
Virtue
• As we are social, we need to consider what counts as the most appropriate response to living with others.
• E.g. anger; to feel it ‘at the right times, with reference to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive, and in the right way’
• The moral life is the life that is best for us.
Development
• The best life for you involves recognising other people’s value, and treating them accordingly.
• Failing to be motivated by other people’s rights or needs means not having the right relationship with them.
• Morality is not distinct from self-interest - a good person does not think that being moral is no good for them.
