philosophy

Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education

Philosophical Foundations of Agricultural and

Extension Education


Philosophy is:

A search for meaning and truthThe general beliefs and attitudes of an individual or group

The body of principles underlying a branch of learning or major discipline


Original Definition

“Love of Wisdom”

Definition was developed by Socrates


Of What Value is theStudy of Philosophy

Provide clarification for what is or has been done by others

Provides a framework for life and our action

Can be useful in solving educational problems

A good mental activity


Three Major Areas of Philosophy

Metaphysics - the nature of reality

Axiology - the nature of values

Epistemology - the nature of knowledge


Metaphysics

Concerned with theories of the nature of reality.

Why does the earth exist?

How did it come into being?

Is mankind free?

Is there a God?

What is real?


Metaphysics

Common terms used in metaphysics are: theology

creationism

evolution

spirit

free will

atheism

Metaphysics is the area many people think of when they hear the term philosophy.


Axiology

concerned with theories of value

Two major divisions of axiologyethics

• What is right and wrong?

• What is evil and good?

aesthetics • What is beautiful and ugly?

Some common terms used that relate to axiology are pessimism, optimism, hedonism, egoism, and altruism.


Epistemology

Concerned with theories of the nature of knowledgeEpistemological questions:

How do people learn? What knowledge is of utmost value? What are the different types of knowledge? What are the educational goals of agricultural education and extension?


Philosophical Schools of Thought

Idealism

Realism

Pragmatism

Existentialism

Reconstructionism


Idealism


Idealism (Idea-ism)

Idealist believe that ideas are the only true reality.

The material world is characterized by change, instability, and uncertainty; some ideas are enduring


Idealism

We should be concerned primarily with the search for truth. Since truth is perfect and eternal, it cannot be found in the world of matter that is both imperfect and constantly changing.


Methods of Idealism

Study the classics for universal truths

Mathematics (2+2=4 is an absolute truth)

Dialectic (critical discussion)The dialectic looks at both sides of an issue

Lecture is used to transmit known truths and to stimulate thinking.


The Dialectic

Thesis“War is good”

Antithesis“War is

bad”

Synthesis


Leaders of Idealism

Socrates (469-399 BC)

Plato (427-347 BC)

St. Augustine (350-4300

Descartes (1596-1650)

Berkeley (1685-1753)

Kant (1724-1804)


Socrates

Regarded as the father of philosophy

Believed we learned through questioning (the Socratic method)

Wrote nothing, what we know of his views were written by his followers, most notably Plato


Plato

A student of Socrates

Known as the father of idealism

Operated a school named the “Academy”


Plato’s views toward education

The state must take an active role in educational mattersThe curriculum must lead bright students from a concern with concrete data toward abstract thinkingStudents with little ability for abstraction should go into the military, business and industry.


Plato

Those who demonstrate proficiency in the dialectic would continue their education and become philosophers in positions of power to lead the state toward the highest good (the Philosopher-King)

Believed both boys and girls should be educated and girls should be equals.


Augustine (354-430)

Born in North Africa (Roman citizen)Mother - Christian, Father - Pagan

Attended Roman Primary Schoolgrammar and literature emphasized

At 16 went to Carthage and studied:rhetoric, music, geometry, grammar, mathematics

During his younger days “He lied, he stole, he wenched.”


Augustine. . .

Became a grammaticus in his native town

Taught rhetoric in Carthage, Rome, Milan

While in his 30’s was converted to Christianity, took his holy orders and became a great evangelist and priest.

Found great favor in the church andbecame a great religious leader.


Augustine

People do not create knowledge; God hasalready created it, but people can discover it through trying to find God.


Augustine’s Beliefs

Women were held in low regard (this view was incorporated into the church and held for a thousand years)

Only a few people possessed the mental ability to quest for the truth. Therefore most people should rely on the church for knowledge.


Augustine’s Beliefs

Augustine used Greek writings but began to have doubts how people who did not know God could write anything which could be of value to Christians.

In 401 the Church outlawed pagan writings such as Plato and Aristotle (even the church leaders were not allowed to read the ancient literature). This continued for 1000 years.


Augustine’s Beliefs about Teaching

Encouraged the use of summariesBelieved teachers should teach through persuasion and by leading impeccable lives.Teachers should not expect to increase their worldly stores through teaching.The “stick and fist” were needed to keep students in line since people were wicked (because of Adam).


The Church and Idealism

Idealism has exerted a great amount of influence on Christianity.For centuries the Christian church was the creator and protector of schooling. Generations educated in these schools were indoctrinated with the idealistpoint of view (including early American education).


Descartes (1596-1650)

A renown mathematician

Wrestled with the question of what was real and did he really exist (perhaps he was a dream). He finally concluded:

“I think, therefore I am”

Thinking and ideas are the ultimate truth.


George Berkeley (1685-1753)

Existence is dependent upon some mind to know it, and if there are no minds, nothing would exist unless it is perceived in the mind of God.


Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

“…the greatest and most difficult problem to which a man can devote himself is the problem of education…”

Education should teach students how to think according to principles - moral laws, moral ideals and moral imperatives

Enlightenment is the goal of education


Educational Aims of Idealism

Develop the mind

Search for true ideas

Character development

Self-realization


Educational Aims of Idealism

True education is concerned with ideas rather than matter.

The idealists wants to give students a broad understanding of the world in which they live.


The Idealist and the Chair

To an idealist, the concept of “chair” is important. You could destroy all the chairs in the world but they would still exist in the mind. The idea of a chair is the ultimate truth.


Realism


Realism

Reality, knowledge and value exist independent of the human mind. Trees, sticks and stones exist whether or not there is a human mind to perceive them.


Realism

Ideas must be subject to public verificationmust be proven through scientific experimentation

“Science for the sake of science”


Realism

Universal properties of objects remain constant and never change, whereas particular components do change


Realism

Need to study nature systematically

Deductive reasoning - truth is derived from generalizations

Earth is the center of the universe


Leaders of Realism

Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

John Locke (1632-1704)



Ideas may be important but a proper study of matter could lead us to better and more distinct ideas.



Golden Mean - a path between extremes

Balance is key - body and mind operate together in a balanced whole


Aquinas (1225-1274)

God created matter; therefore it must be ok to learn about it

This view helped lead civilization out of the dark ages, replaced the influence of Augustine


Aquinas

Truth was passed from God to Humans by divine revelation, but God alsohas endowed humans withthe reasoning ability toseek out truth.


Bacon (1561-1626)

Novum Organum - challenged Aristotelian logic

Science must be concerned with inquiry, pure and simple with no preconceived notions

We need to examine all previously accepted knowledge


Bacon (1561-1626)

Need to rid our mind of “idols”Idol of the Den - we believe things because of limited experienceIdol of the Tribe - we believe things because many people believe themIdol of the Marketplace - we are mislead by languageIdol of the Theatre - Religion and philosophy may prevent us from see the world objectively


Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Known as the father of inductive reasoningarrive at generalizations from systematic observations of particulars

Died as a result of the only experiment he performed - stuffed a dead chicken with snow to see if it would preserve the flesh, caught a cold and died


John Locke (1632-1704)

At birth, the mind is a blank sheet of paper - a tabla rasa

All ideas are derived from experience by way of sensation and reflection


Realism and Education

Promotes the study of science and the scientific method

There are essential ideas and facts to be learned; therefore lecture and other formal methods of teaching are useful



Find specialization to be desirableLike structure

ringing bells, departments, daily lesson plans

If something exists, it can be measuredIQ, Effective teaching

Approve of competencies, performance-based teaching, accountability



Teacher should present material in a systematic, organized way and teach that there are clearly defined criteria for making judgements in art, economics, politics, etc.


The Realist and the ChairTo a realist, the actuality of “chair” is important. A realist would measure the chair, weight it, examine the physical characteristics, etc. The fact that the chair exists is the ultimate truth.


Pragmatism


Pragmatism

The root of the word Pragmatism is a Greek word meaning “work”.It is primarily a 20th century philosophy developed by Americans.Truth is what works in the real world. We must keep the desired end in mind.Ideas should be applied to solving problems; including social problems.


Leaders in Pragmatism

Auguste Comte, 1798-1857 Not a pragmatist but emphasized using science to solve social problems


Leaders in Pragmatism

Charles Darwin, 1809-1882Reality is not found in Being, but in Becoming

Reality is open-ended, in process, with no fixed end.


American Pragmatists

Charles Sanders Peirce, 1839-1914Widely acknowledged as the father of pragmatismWrote an article on “How to make our Ideas Clear” in Popular Science Monthly that is regarded as the basis for pragmatism.True knowledge of anything depends upon verfication of our ideas in actual experience



William James, 1842-1910The truth of an idea is its “workability”

Truth is not absolute and immutable; rather it is made in actual, real-life

James called his philosophy “radical empericism”

James’s 1907 book “Pragmatism” did much to promote pragmatism.

Rufus Stimson, a leader in agricultural education, studied under James.



John Dewey, 1859-1952Need to concentrate on real-life problems

Sought practical solutions for practical problems

How We Think• Felt Difficulty

• Define the problem

• Formulate possible solutions

• Examine & Evaluate possible solutions

• Accept or reject solutions


Pragmatism and Education

Education should be preparation for lifeSolving problems is important; therefore use real-life situationsTeaching methods should be varied and flexible Education should be action orientedNeeds and interests of students should be considered


Pragmatism and Education

Project approach to teaching is desirable

Curriculum is varied

A broad education is more desirable


The Pragmatist and the Chair

To a pragmatist, the use of the “chair” is important. What is the purpose of the chair and does it fulfil that purpose? The “workability” of a chair is the ultimate truth.


Reconstructionism


Reconstructionism

Society is in need of constant reconstruction

Such social change involves both a reconstruction of education and the use of education in reconstructing society

Problems are viewed holistically

Futuristic thinking (utopian thinking)


Reconstructionism

Do not believe preparing students for the world as it exists today will be sufficient (too much emphasis on the status quo)


Reconstuctionists want to:

link thought with action

theory with practice

intellect with activism


Reconstructionism

The goal of education should be to emphasize the need for change

Students should be out in the real world

“World” curriculum

Technology is valuable in solving problems


Noted Reconstructionists

George S. Counts

Theodore Brameld

Paole Freire

Karl Marx

Ivan Illich

John Dewey (he is also recognized as a pragmatist)


The Reconstructionist and the Chair

To a reconstructionist, the redesign of the “chair” to better serve the needs of society is important. How can the chair be improved to prepare society for the future?


Existentialism


Existentialism

Received new emphasis in the 60s and 70sCivil rights

Women rights

Individual rights

Special needs


Existentialism

In educationcurriculum was revamped to meet the needs (more accurately - demands) of individuals

mainstreaming

Pass or fail grade policies

extended drop deadlines in college

elimination of core courses

decline of corporal punishment


Existentialism

In extension there was a focus on serving non-traditional clientele

Focus shifted toward the urban environment


Existentialism

Traditional philosophies - consider questions about the nature of knowledge, truth and meaning but:

Existentialists are concerned with how these things are educationally significant within the lived experiences of individuals.


Existentialism and Education

People come first, then ideasPeople create ideas

Emphasis on self discovery


Existentialism and Schools

A good education emphasizes individuality

Students should take a positive role in shaping their schools


Existentialism and Schools

Students shouldn’t have to:attend classes

take examinations

receive grades

There is no set curriculum


Noted Existentialists

Soren Kierkegaard

Martin Heidigger

Martin Buber

Jean-Paul Sartre


The Existentialist and the ChairTo an existentialist, the individuals use of “chair” is important. Whatever the individual wants to do with the chair is important. The experience of the individual with the chair is the ultimate truth.


Match the philosophyto the image

Idealism

Realism

Pragmatism

Reconstructionism

Existentialism

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