Philosophy of science 2 intro ii and qualitative research

PHILOSOPHYOF SCIENCE INTRODUCTION II

2

cssmayo.com:What Is On My Mind? (2011)

INTRODUKTION TIL VIDENSKABSTEORI > BEGREBER > KVALITATIV OG KVANTITATIV RESEARCH

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2 INTRODUCTION II

Me, You and all the Things

Introduction

Keywords: Perception, reality, relativity, theory

Scope: research; qualitative. Basic theory of research.

Note on Literature

International class:This lesson is generally(!) based based on Lisa Bartolotti (2010): An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Polity, UK. Author’s profile: www.lisabortolotti.comPhilosophy ressource: http://www.iep.utm.edu/

Danish class:This lesson is generally(!) based based on Carsten Rønn (2006): Almen Videnskabsteori for professionsuddannelserne. Alinea, DK. Se også: www.samfundsviden.dk under teorier og metoder > videnskabsteori




SensoryPerception

and the Self in the Perception


Classic experimentalPsychology

Foundation of psychology as science (1880, Germany)

Classic, intuitive knowledge:Perception is constructed by the parts of every particular

sensory perceptor.

The new theories addrepresentations of conceptsthrough the sensory stimuli. There are relative values and

particular differences.

ExamplesEmotions: Perception of touch

Perception of painHot and cold



SensoryPerception



Gestalt Psychology

Perception (1910, Germany)

Theories of isomorphism: relations between the mapping of our brain’sperception andand the

reality of the physical world.

Originally the theoriesassumed passive reactions to sensory stimuli and gestalts.But it made way for ideas, that human activity shapesand constructs the world, we’re not only consuming.



SensoryPerception



Sigmund Freud (1856‒1939), was ahead of his time and the classic experimental psychology.

Freud Thematisizes how subconscious* motivation can change the way we percieve of things. We are shaped by our past, our natural(often repressed) instincts and our self‐image, so we that the world we percieve is systematically framed in accordance with the way we want to “see ourselves.”

Prosumers and self representation

(*Freud himself didn’t approve of that concept)



SensoryPerception



New Look Psychology

Foundation of perception as depending on motivation and

personality (1940, USA)

Evaluation of perception via categories and narratives

Language and social status play a part.

Our observations are placedwithin a category/concept:I see X as (non‐objective, biased by expectations)

Jerome Bruner (born 1915)



SensoryPerception



Jerome Bruner’s theory of perception is to beunderstood as a dynamic interaction betweenthe seen and the person who is seeing:

S E E I N G

Category/concept is percieved as a firstimpression (judgement, categorized)

Verificality: To see as. A construct of a system of expectations. Verification starts between what is seen and what can beapplied to new perceptions of the category(recognition in forms).

Read‐iness: Knowledge of the world in forms of language and concept.



SocialConstructivism


Every person is unique. Every event is unique. We construct our world

Knowledge and perception is shaped by the particular relation the particular individual is a part of.

The seen is not objective concepts and things.

In qualitative research we work with the concept of meaning and people’sperceptions and preferences, of how people make meaning with things(personal epistemology)

When we say that something is socially constructed, we are focusing on its dependence on contingent variables of our social selves rather than any inherent quality that it possesses in itself (from wikipedia)



SocialConstructivism

L–R:Post modernism (Zygmunt Baumann, born 1925, Poland)Post‐traditional society (Anthony Giddens, born 1938, UK)Discourse theory (Michel Foucault, born 1926‒1984, France)

Micro‐ and macro sociological forces

Social Science




To Observe in a Complex

World


A pragmaticmeta‐approach:

The observer must precisely definethe areas that are governing the observations:a) Field‐ and subject areab) Focus points

The observer must preciselydescribe the fields of observations (quantitative and qualitative)

What is the educational context in which you are working?

Focus on communication betweenrelations.

What are the relational conditionsbetween persons, things, culture, actions etc. Relations are important, not the isolated elements. It is not about the dominant A, but about the relations between A, B and C, whichmakes A dominant (for example).

A network is often organized a contradicting structure within a structure with conflicting conceptsand actions. You must organize, conceptually describe and analyzethese conflicts. Keep the questionsand the scope relatively open.Demarcations can only be made by falsification.

RESEARCHPROCESSES THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS2

S T UD Y S H E E T


RESEARCH PROCESS 2 THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS

The ResearchProcess

Introduction

This is the second part of two lessons. During these lessons we will studyand work practically with two main types of research processes:

the quantitative research process and the qualitative research process

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Note on Literature: This lesson is based on Klaus Bruhn Jensen’s (editor) A Handboook of Media and Communication Research: “The Qualitative Research Process” by Klaus Bruhn Jensen (chapter 14, p. 235–253). Routledge 2005. On Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=Bt6kuYR‐mBsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

ResearchBasic Theory

1. The hypothesis … is a proposition to be tested. Hypotheses makes prognostications about the links between variables. They propose, that under a set of conditions, if an independent variable is manipulated in a certain way, or is assumed to have a certain strength, it may beexpected to exert a measurable impact on a designated dependent variable. Then it can betested, if this hypothesis can be proved or disproved. (Jensen 2005: 212).

2. The Variable … is gender, age, nationality etc.

… is the empirical representation of a …

Concept and a… Construct (combination of concepts)

A concept representsan abstract idea thatembodies the nature of observable phenomena, or an interpretation of why such phenomeaoccur.

A combination of concepts used to define the characteristics of the individual users as grouped in concepts (in the example).Heavy users may be described by suchconcepts as sociability, tolerance for strong stimulation, risk‐taking etc. This is also what we call the constituent attributes, i.e. values orcategories into which variables can bedivided.

3. Independent Variables

… can be manipulated by the researcher. … means the way the research process is constructed to measure a response.

Example: Individualsare defined in terms of their use of a media. You define the notionsof a “light user” and a “heavy user” based onmedia types, levels of defined usage etc.

4. Dependent Variables

… is the measure of the outcome of the research based on its construct and itsdependent variables, i.e. it is the information created by the variables and the hypothesis.

Before

the research

Afterthe

research


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QuantitativeResearch

Introductionto the BasicConcepts

In this lessonwewill focus on basic, primary research

Remember: qualitative and quantitative approachescan both be primary and secondary:

P R I M A RY DATA

QualitativeData

S E CONDA RY DATA

• Observations• Interviews (open questions)• Movie recording (actively)• Think aloud test, etc.

• Documents• Notes (from secondary source)• Letters• Sound and movie recordings(others material)

• Artifacts• Articles and pictures, etc.Quantitative

Data

• Closed questions• Surveys• Clearly defined objectivesin observations, etc. • Statistics

• Registrations, etc.

Artifacts, letters etc. can becomequantifiable data for some purposes, and statistics can become proof of qualitative arguments

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QualitativeResearch


The Basic Concepts in Qualitative ResearchThe qualitative approach to conducting research has for many years been the ‘soft’ area of science.

The qualitative aspects deals also with observable facts, but not always the same ‘hard’, measurable emperical facts that is the focus for quantitativeresearch.

Qualitative reseach investigates the concept of meaning, its embeddingin and orientation of social actions. It is the connection between meaning and action—for example as performed inside media contexts—that tells us how weare, howwe think and act in a realistic context.

Qualitative research also perform sampling. Samplings of cultural settings, communities, periods and acivities, to mention a few.

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QualitativeResearch


The Basic Concepts in Qualitative Research (continued)What distinguishes qualitative research from quantitative reearch is alsothat quantative research projects has many fixed variables and concepts, often segregated between action as when it happened and how it can bemeasured as effects in scores—after the action.

Qualitative research has as its ambition to interpret in action.

Let’s have a look at how to design qualitative analysis methods (next slides).

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QualitativeResearchMethods

of QualitativeResearch

Designing Qualitative Research: InterviewingTo design an emperical study is to identify and delimit a portion of reality (Jensen 2005: 237). Ask into why instead of what. Relations.

Respondent interviews: The informant is percieved as a representative of a social and cultural category (concepts and constructs). This can be a keyto the decoding of the user‐pattern in relation to elaborating on the quantitative variables of user behaviour (think aloud test for example).

Group interviews: In order to explore what goes on in a more or lessnaturalistic social setting, a group can form the basis for discussions, thatexplore aspects of a product credibity, of lifestyles, advertisements etc.

Focus groups: Gathering a specific type of users, this kind of interviewingis often based on the strategy of getting to know attitudes toward a productor political and ethical issues. Again, it’s why instead of what.

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QualitativeResearchMethods

of QualitativeResearch

Designing Qualitative Research: Observing and Coding

Thick description: The thick description means that when you observe a situation, you usemeans of gathering data that accounts for everyhing. You could use movie‐recording devices and then later describe artefacts as well as actions. This can lead to a very detailed describtion of environmentand the interpretation of the actions. You can analyse actions and speech‐acts (rhetorics).

Coding: The coding means fixating and capturing certain qualities of the units, i.e. person/persons, texts, events (or other unit), you are observing.

For example can the thematic coding (concept variable) function as an important objective to make way for interpretations and for applyingabstract theory of culture and perception.

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Qualitative Research

(and Quantitative)

in Usability Tests

USABILITY TESTS—design a qualitative survey of a user experience

T E S T I N G1. Make a thinking‐aloud‐test of a website or a mobile application:2. Make a thematic coding in relation to the attitudes toward the

visual design, the ability to read the text and the pictures, etc.3. What is your hypothesis as a designer? 4. Record, write down, observe everything!5. Interview two or three people (in class)

Present according to the report‐template on the next slide →

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Qualitative Research

(and Quantitative)

in Usability Tests

USABILITY TESTS—design a qualitative survey of a user experience

R E P O R T I N G (validating your results)1. Summary of the main results with conclusion.2. Introduction

(hypothesis, problems and research questions, thematic coding?).3. Describtion of method/methods?

A mix of quantative and qualitative approaches with a focus?4. Observations and results. (Pie chart templates may be used in other

contexts, but in this case it’s fine just to present your basic findings)5. Conclusion (short, recap on 1)6. Recommendations for improvements.

Source: M

unk & M

ørk: Brugervenlighed på

internettet. Samfund

slitteratur 2002.

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Philosophy of science 2 intro ii and qualitative research

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