Phylogeography of Parnassius apollo: hints on taxonomy and ......pattern variation, including...

Phylogeography of Parnassius apollo: hints ontaxonomy and conservation of a vulnerable glacialbutterfly invader

VALENTINA TODISCO*, PAOLO GRATTON, DONATELLA CESARONI andVALERIO SBORDONI

Department of Biology, University of Rome ‘Tor Vergata’, Via della Ricerca Scientifica, 00133 Rome,Italy

Received 10 January 2010; revised 14 March 2010; accepted for publication 14 March 2010bij_1476 169..183

Parnassius apollo (Linnaeus, 1758) is probably the most renowned Eurasian montane butterfly. Its specializedecology makes it very sensitive to habitat and climate changes, so that it is now experiencing range contractionand local extinction across most of its range. We sequenced 869 bp of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochromeoxidase I gene in 78 P. apollo populations (201 individuals) in order to: (1) assess the phylogeographic pattern ofthe species; (2) shed light on the historical biogeographic processes that shaped the distribution of the species; and(3) identify geographic population units of special value for the conservation of the species’ genetic diversity. Ouranalyses revealed a very strong phylogeographic structure in P. apollo, which displays a number of distinctivemtDNA lineages populating geographically distinct areas. Overall sequence divergence is relatively shallow, andis consistent with a recent (late Pleistocene) colonization of most of the range. We propose that P. apollo is bestviewed as an atypical glacial invader in southern and western Europe, the isolated, montane populations of which,threatened by climate warming, retain a large fraction of the species evolutionary heritage. © 2010 The LinneanSociety of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 101, 169–183.

ADDITIONAL KEYWORDS: butterflies – mtDNA – Pleistocene.

INTRODUCTION

Climate change is a new and potent risk to biodiver-sity. The species most threatened are the mostecologically demanding, as they require special con-ditions for their survival. This is particularly true forthose species inhabiting high-altitude and high-latitude environments. Insects, especially butterflies,are highly sensitive to environmental change, as aresult of their specialized ecology and coarse-grainedperception of habitats. Butterflies are among thegroups of organisms in which distribution has beenstudied most across time, so that an extensive anddetailed volume of data is available (Parmesan et al.,1999; Kudrna, 2002). For this reason, they are par-ticularly suited to serve as indicators of ecosystemresponse to climate variation (Parmesan et al., 1999;Araújo & Luoto, 2007).

Biogeographic and phylogeographic informationmay be essential in developing models of past andfuture response of species and biota to climate change(e.g. DeChaine & Martin, 2005; Schmitt & Hewitt,2004). Despite its high potential relevance, the phylo-geography of European butterflies is still not thor-oughly known. With a few exceptions (e.g. Wahlberg &Saccheri, 2007; Gratton, Konopiński & Sbordoni,2008), most available data consist of allozyme polymor-phisms surveyed over a portion of the range of a species(e.g. Cassel & Tammaru, 2003; Habel, Schmitt &Müller, 2005; Schmitt, Röber & Seitz, 2005; Schmitt,Hewitt & Müller, 2006; Schmitt, 2007; Schmitt &Haubrich, 2008). Though these data are certainlyinformative about genetic diversity and geographicstructure of populations, they need to be comple-mented by range-wide surveys of DNA variation,which can offer more detailed views on the evolution-ary and historical significance of geographic patterns.Moreover, established models of phylogeographic pat-terns associated with climate oscillations mostly focus*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 101, 169–183. With 2 figures

© 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 101, 169–183 169

on temperate species, the biogeographic history ofwhich reflects the retreat and advance of forests andwoodlands (Hewitt, 1996, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2004;Taberlet et al., 1998). On the other hand, steppic andalpine species are expected to have been influencedconversely, and to have actually experienced rangeexpansion and long-distance connectivity through cold/arid periods (DeChaine & Martin, 2004; Schmitt, 2007;Varga & Schmitt, 2008).

Papilionid butterflies of the genus Parnassiusmight be regarded as the invertebrate epitome of theconservation of mountain habitats, and may serve asone of the ‘flagship species’ for the whole montaneenvironment. Parnassius apollo (Linnaeus, 1758) isthe most representative species of the genus, and hasa high priority for conservation. Parnassius apollo ispresently included in the Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna andFlora (CITES) lists, categorized by the InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as vulner-able by meeting criterion A1cde, and enlisted inannex IV of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC. Par-nassius apollo is decreasing in 12 out of 28 countries,and is extinct in three countries (Collins & Morris,1985; Van Swaay & Warren, 1999). The primarycauses of the observed decline fall into two generalcategories: (1) change in land management (affores-tation of former pastures and meadows); and (2)global climate change. Climate change in particular,has been cited as the main cause of extinctions ofmany of the most marginal populations, occupyinglow-latitude and low-altitude sites (Descimon, 1995).

Parnassius apollo is a widely distributed Eurasianbutterfly, usually represented by small, local popula-tions. It inhabits diverse open, rocky, subalpine–montane habitats across all main ranges from SierraNevada (Spain) to Altai (Mongolia and Russia), and atlow-altitudes sites scattered through north-easternEurope and Siberia (Fig. 1A).

Both the appealing beauty of the butterfly, greatlyappreciated by lepidopterists, and the occurrence ofisolated and/or localized populations, often differingin morphological and ecological features (mostly wingpattern and larval food plant), encouraged specialiststo name more than 200 subspecies, and many more

forms (Bryk, 1935; Kostrowicki, 1969; Eisner, 1976;Capdeville, 1979–1980; Glassl, 1993; Dietz, 2000;Möhn, 2005; Weiss, 2005). However, colour andpattern variation, including polymorphism, is quitecommon in butterflies, and its taxonomic value hasbeen severely disputed, as it may, at least in part,result from phenotypic plasticity (Napolitano, Desci-mon & Vesco, 1990; Brakefield & Gates, 1996; Rivoire,1998). In fact, discordant results from wing patterndescriptors and molecular markers suggest that thefirst might be subjected to different evolutionary tra-jectories and rates, because of their particular adap-tive significance, and might not represent reliabletracers of evolutionary relationships (Cesaroni et al.,1994; Lukhtanov et al., 2005).

Although several studies have shed light on aspectsof ecology (Deschamps-Cottin, Roux & Descimon,1997; Brommer & Fred, 1999) and conservation(Descimon, 1995; Fred & Brommer, 2003; Fred,O’Hara & Brommer, 2006; Nakonieczny, Kedziorski &Michalczyk, 2007) of P. apollo, very little effort hasbeen put towards using molecular methods to makeinferences about the evolutionary history and subspe-cific taxonomy of this highly relevant butterfly.

In this study, we present an analysis of the geo-graphical patterns of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)variation in P. apollo. DNA sequence variation at themitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene wasanalysed in 201 individuals from the whole range ofthe species in order to: (1) shed light on the historicalbiogeographic processes that determined the present-day distribution of the species; (2) provide a firstgenetic basis for a revision of subspecific taxonomy;and (3) identify evolutionarily significant geographicpopulation units for conservation.

MATERIAL AND METHODSSAMPLES AND MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES

In this study we analysed 78 population samples,distributed across 17 countries, totalling 201 individu-als (Appendix; Fig. 1A). Three to nine dried specimens,conserved in private collections or directly collected bythe authors (authorization of the Italian Ministry ofEnvironment DPN/2D/2005/21020; Appendix), were

�Figure 1. Reconstructed evolutionary relationships and geographical distribution of the 71 mitochondrial DNA haplo-types sampled in Parnassius apollo. Main haplogroups are highlighted and shown in different colours. A, geographicaldistribution: pie charts show the frequency of haplogroups in each sample; circled areas are proportional to sample size;shaded areas indicate approximate range of occurrence of P. apollo. B, maximum likelihood (ML) chronogram of P. apollohaplotypes according to a local molecular clock model: ‘long’ branch with separate rate parameter is indicated by *;palaeoclimatic data from the Antarctic Ice Core (EPICA community members, 2004) scaled according to mutation rate m1(0.01 substitutions per site per Ma) and m2 (0.096 substitutions per site per Ma). C, maximum likelihood (ML) phylogenyunder GTR + G + I model of evolution; numbers above and below branches represent LR-ELW and bootstrap support above80%, respectively. D, median-joining network: circled areas are proportional to haplotype frequency; number of nucleotidesubstitutions indicated along connections, except for single substitution.

170 V. TODISCO ET AL.

© 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 101, 169–183

1.d MJ network

1.c ML phylogeny

1.b ML chronogram

1.a Geographic distribution

100

86

00.015 0.010 0.005subst./lineage/site

paleoclimate (from ice core deuterium data)

μ

μ

*

0.001

warm-humid

cold-arid

warm-humid

cold-arid

1

2

9

3

2

2

2

22

3

6

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

4

3

2

18

12

H71H71

H21

H44H37 H45

H35

H36

H9

H29H39

H38H32

H15

H46

H47

H43

H14

H18H34

H48

H40

H33H31

H42

H30H28

H41

H16H12

H17

H49

H50

H58H51

H10

H13

H11

H55H52

H1

H2

H3

H54

H53

H60

H63

H56

H57 H59

H19H5

H4

H20

H66 H65 H70 H68

H67

H64

H61

H62

H69

H23

H6H8

H7

H24

H27 H25

H26H22

H71H71

92

100

92

89

100

87

93

81

92

92

94

98

97

100

PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF PARNASSIUS APOLLO 171


analysed for each population. Samples of Parnassiusariadne (Lederer, 1853), Parnassius bremeri (Bremer,1864), Parnassius mnemosyne (Linnaeus, 1758), Par-nassius nordmanni (Ménétriés, 1850), and Parnassiusphoebus (Fabricius, 1793) (one individual each) wereincluded as out-groups.

DNA was extracted from two legs of each individual,using a GenElute Mammalian Genomic DNA Miniprepkit (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA), resuspendedin 100 mL of sterile water, and stored at -40 °C.

Novel specific primers pairs (see Table S1) weredeveloped from conserved regions and used inpolymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifications (seeTable S1 for PCR conditions) to obtain two overlap-ping fragments covering 970 bp of the COI gene.PCR products were purified by ExoSAP (AmershamBiosciences 800 Centennial Avenue, PO Box 1327Piscataway, NJ 08855-1327) exonuclease reactionand sequenced in both directions using BigDyeterminator ready-reaction kit (Applied Biosystems,Lingley House, 120 Birchwood Boulevard, Warring-ton, WA3 7QH, UK), and resolved on an ABI 3100Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems), following themanufacturer’s protocols.

DNA POLYMORPHISM AND PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSES

Sequence data were edited and aligned usingSEQUENCHER 4.1 (1999–2000; Gene Codes Corpo-ration, Ann Harbor, MI, USA). All sequences ofP. apollo were submitted to GenBank (accessionnumbers are listed in the Appendix).

Haplotype and nucleotide diversity were calculatedusing DNASP 4.10.9 (Rozas et al., 2003). Averagedistances between groups of haplotypes were calcu-lated using MEGA 4 (Tamura et al., 2007). Thesoftware package TREEFINDER (Jobb, 2008) wasused to select the best-fitting model of evolution bylikelihood ratio test (LRT) and Akaike’s informationcriterion (AIC), to determine the maximum likelihood(ML) phylogeny of mtDNA haplotypes, and to calcu-late patristic (tip-to-tip) nucleotide distances amonghaplotypes. The robustness of phylogenetic inferencewas assessed by bootstrap procedure and by theexpected likelihood weights of local rearrangements(LR-ELW) approach in TREEFINDER (Jobb, 2008)on 500 replicates. Finally, NETWORK 4.5 ( Bandelt,Forster & Röhl, 1999) was employed to calculate amedian joining (MJ) network representing the genea-logical relationships among mtDNA haplotypes.

TESTS OF DEMOGRAPHIC EQUILIBRIUM ANDMEASURES OF EVOLUTIONARY TIME

Demographic equilibrium in different sets of sequences(selected on a geographical basis and taking into

account the results of previous phylogenetic analysis)was tested by calculating Fs (Fu, 1997) and R2 (Ramos-Onsins & Rozas, 2002) statistics, which have beenshown to be the most powerful tests of populationexpansions (Ramos-Onsins & Rozas, 2002). ARLE-QUIN 3.0 (Excoffier, Laval & Schneider, 2005) andDNASP 4.0 (Rozas et al., 2003) were employed tocompute Fs and R2, respectively, and to test theirstatistical significance by simulating random samples(10 000 replicates) under the null hypothesis of selec-tive neutrality and constant population size, usingcoalescent algorithms (both modified from Hudson,1990). P values for the two statistics were obtained asthe proportion of simulated values smaller than orequal to the observed values (critical value = 0.05).

The expected mismatch distribution and parameterof sudden expansion t = 2mt were calculated usingARLEQUIN 3.0 by a generalized least-squaresapproach (Schneider & Excoffier, 1999), under bothmodels of pure demographic expansion and spatialexpansion (Ray et al., 2003; Excoffier, 2004). The prob-ability of the data according to the given model hasbeen assessed by a goodness-of-fit test implementedin ARLEQUIN 3.0. Parameter confidence limits werecalculated in ARLEQUIN 3.0 through a parametricbootstrap (1000 simulated random samples).

The application of molecular clocks is historically acontroversial and even frustrating task. Recentapproaches stress the importance of modelling boththe stochasticity of the coalescent process and demo-graphic effects on the shape of gene genealogies whenestimating evolutionary dates from sequence data(e.g. Drummond & Rambaut, 2007). Moreover, agrowing body of evidence (e.g. Ho et al., 2005, 2007b;Burridge et al., 2008; Gratton et al., 2008) questionsthe validity of evolutionary time estimates based onextrapolating interspecific substitution rates (basedon calibrated phylogenies) into intraspecific and popu-lation molecular data sets. Providing a correct timeframe for several evolutionary events, spanningacross a relatively long interval (from recent eventsto several hundred Ka), and involving multiplepopulations and lineages (as it is the case in mostrange-wide phylogeographic studies), may thereforerepresent a hopeless enterprise, unless a hugenumber of independent calibrations is available, andfully-parameterized evolutionary models may betested.

Thus, we are aware that a fully dated reconstruc-tion of the P. apollo population history can hardlybe obtained from mtDNA data. Nonetheless, main-taining that some useful, though approximate, indi-cations on the timing of the most relevantevolutionary processes can be obtained from ourdata, we applied a relatively simple ML approach.Ultrametric trees were generated by applying global



and local molecular clock models to our ML haplo-type phylogeny, using PAML (Yang, 2007), and LRTwas used to determine the fit of clock and non-clockmodels.

All demographic and evolutionary parameters wereconverted in absolute times using two alternativepublished rates, providing useful higher and lowerbounds for interpreting our results: (1) a slow, ‘tradi-tional’ interspecific insects rate (m1 = 0.01 substitu-tions per site per lineage per Ma; Brower, 1994;Caccone & Sbordoni, 2001; Farrell, 2001); (2) the fast,‘time-dependent’ rate (m2 = 0.096 substitutions per siteper lineage per Ma) proposed by Gratton et al. (2008).The latter rate was estimated for European popula-tions of the congeneric P. mnemosyne through acoalescent-based analysis calibrated at 11–12 Ka, andhas recently been applied in a phylogeographic studyof Pleistocene-related phylogeography of Parnassiussmintheus Doubleday (1847) (Schoville & Roderick,2009). It may therefore represent a reasonable yard-stick for recent evolutionary events in P. apollo. Wechose not to consider the extremely slow substitutionrate obtained by Michel et al. (2008), by calibrating aphylogeny of the genus Parnassius based on diver-gence of Papilionid butterflies 100 Ma, as the authorscasted doubt on its potential utility in lower-leveldivergence within the genus.

RESULTS

A complete alignment of 869 bp was obtained. The201 individual sequences characterized a total of 71haplotypes, of which 42 were found only in one indi-vidual (Appendix; Fig. 1D). Global haplotype diversity(h) was 0.941 (± 0.010) and nucleotide diversity (p)was 0.011 (± 0.00048). Estimates of haplotype diver-sity for each sampled population are reported in theAppendix.

Haplotype H9 (Appendix) is widespread acrosssample localities, being found throughout the Alpinerange, in Central Apennines (Italy), and in the MassifCentral (France). The greatest geographical separa-tion between identical haplotypes was shown by hap-lotype H49, found from the Kirov region and Urals(Russia) across Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, up toXinjiang (China), and by haplotype H20, found inSlovakia, Finland, and Sweden.

PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSES AND NETWORK ANALYSIS

The ML analysis was used to reconstruct phylogeneticrelationships of the mtDNA haplotypes. GTR + G + I(Rodríguez et al., 1990) was selected as the preferredmodel of evolution according to both the hierarchicalLRT and AIC (a = 0.73; proportion of invari-

ants = 0.67), and the resulting tree was rooted byusing out-group sequences of P. mnemosyne, P.ariadne, P. nordmanni.

The ML tree (Fig. 1C) confirms the monophyleticstatus of the species and the close relatedness to theP. phoebus–P. bremeri complex (Omoto et al., 2004;Katoh et al., 2005), with an average patristic nucle-otide distance (P. apollo vs. P. phebus–P. bremeri) of0.034 (SD = 0.004).

Our analysis highlighted a strong phylogeographicstructure in P. apollo, concordant with the frag-mented distribution of the species: a number of dis-tinctive mtDNA lineages were identified that occupygeographically distinct areas, frequently correspond-ing to a single mountain range (Fig. 1A–C). Althoughonly a few of the nodes show strong robustness, allclades display a well-defined geographical distribu-tion (Fig. 1C), thus corroborating the phylogeographi-cal relevance of inferred haplogroups. A highlydistinctive and strongly supported lineage (I),includes all sequences from Anatolia (except theextreme north-eastern region), Greece (excludingPeloponnesus), and eastern Europe (Balkans, Car-pathians, Scandinavia, and European Russia). Withinthis clade, lower level unique lineages characterizeAnatolian (Ia), Southern Balkan Peninsula (Ig),and European Russian (Ir) samples, respectively.Sequences from Carpathian, Scandinavian, andnorthern Balkan samples (group Ie), although closelyrelated, occupy a basal position, and are not recog-nized as a monophyletic clade. Samples from centraland southern Spain are also markedly divergent, andform a robust monophyletic clade (E). All mtDNAsequences from the remaining European mountainranges (Alps, Apennines, Pyrenees, Massif Central,Sicilian, and Peloponnesian heights) are included in alarge set of closely allied lineages. Lineage A occupiesthe Alps, the French Massif Central, and stretchesacross the eastern slopes of the Apennines to theAspromonte in southern Italy. All other haplogroupsare confined to individual ranges: lineage P to thePyrenees, lineage S to Madonie (Sicily), lineage R toMount Erimanthos (Peloponnesus, Greece), lineage Nto the Central Apennines, where it coexists withlineage A (ITMAG sample). Populations from CentralAsia display another distinctive haplogroup (K)spreading up to the Urals, where it mixes with hap-logroup Ir. Caucasian, Armenian, and north-easternTurkish samples share the exclusive lineage C, and ahighly divergent haplotype (H71) occurs in a singleCaucasian sample (RUAKS). It is worth mentioningthat, although deep phylogenetic relationships amongP. apollo mtDNA haplotypes could not be satisfacto-rily resolved because of very low divergence alonginternal branches, Asian haplotypes occupy a basalposition in our ML reconstruction.



The MJ network analysis (Fig. 1D) is fully consis-tent with the ML phylogenetic analysis. Elevenmutational steps join haplogroup I to the rest of thenetwork. Nonetheless, the rooting of the networkwith P. phoebus–P. bremeri does not indicate a sisterrelationship of this divergent clade with the other P.apollo sequences. Indeed, the whole network showsa star-like structure, with all major haplogroupsconnecting to a central unresolved loop, with noevident substructuring. The analysis also highlightsthe marked star-like configuration of haplogroup A,the ancestral haplotype (H9) of which is widely dis-tributed from the Massif Central through the Alpsand the Apennines. Similarly, a central haplotype(H20) widely distributed from the Scandinavian Pen-insula to the Carpathians, is ancestral to the sub-group Ie, which includes three closely related (onemutational step) haplotypes distributed in the samearea.

The genetic differentiation among main lineages,excluding the singular haplotype H71, estimated asthe average pairwise distances (Kimura two-parameter distance) between groups of haplotypes,ranges from 0.0046 (±0.0020) to 0.0236 (±0.0048).However, excluding pairwise comparisons involvinghaplogroup I, the maximum distance lowers to 0.0152(±0.0042) between haplogroups E (Spain) and P(Pyrenees).

TESTS OF DEMOGRAPHIC EQUILIBRIUM ANDEVOLUTIONARY TIME FRAMES

According to Fs and R2 statistics, calculated for ninesequence sets with at least 15 sequences (Table 1), thenull hypothesis of constant population size could berejected for two phylogeographic units (set in bold inTable 1): haplogroup Ia (Anatolia) and haplogroup A

(including all sequences from the Alps and the MassifCentral, and most Apennine sequences). Mismatchdistribution of these groups was examined accordingto the sudden-expansion model (Table 1), and good-ness of fit tests did not show significant deviationsfrom expected distributions, so that parameter t = 2mtcould be used to estimate the time (t) elapsed frompopulation expansion: estimated values of t and their5 and 95% confidence limits are shown in Table 1.According to our two ‘benchmark’ mutation rates(m1 = 0.01 and m2 = 0.096 substitutions per site perlineage per Ma), demographic expansion of the Ana-tolian group (Ia) could be traced back to t1 = 151(64–231) Ka and t2 = 16 (7–24) Ka, respectively. Asimilar estimate was obtained for haplogroup A:t1 = 145 (29–277) Ka; t2 = 15 (3–29) Ka.

The software package PAML (Yang, 2007) was usedto calculate ultrametric trees by applying molecularclock models to our ML phylogeny. The LRT rejecteda global clock model against a model with an inde-pendent rate (no clock) for each branch (LR = 57.9,d.f. = 71, P < 0.01), even when out-groups (all but P.phoebus) were removed from the analysis (LR = 57.9,d.f. = 74, P < 0.001). We hypothesized that deviationfrom a molecular clock could derive from a divergentsubstitution rate along the anomalous ‘long’ branchconnecting haplogroup I to the rest of the tree(Fig. 1C). Indeed, LRT showed that a local-clockmodel, where this branch was given a separaterate parameter, was significantly better than aglobal-clock model (LR = 6.2, d.f. = 1, P < 0.001),although the no-clock model was still preferred overthe local-clock model (LR = 51.7, d.f. = 70, P < 0.01).These results indicate that, although faster evolutionin a single ‘anomalous’ branch cannot account for allthe observed rate variation, nonetheless it is a sig-nificant source of inequality. Therefore, we chose topresent results from the local-clock model (Fig. 1B),

Table 1. Tests of demographic equilibrium and mismatch analysis in phylogeographic groups with at least 15 sequences

Groups N (haplotypes) N (sequences) Fs P R2 P t t (5%) t (95%)

I 25 52 -12.96 0.00 0.06 0.08 – –Ie 4 18 -1.54 0.13 0.10 0.06 – – –Ia 9 15 -3.83 0.00 0.093 0.01 2.63 1.11 4.02Ig 9 16 -1.32 0.26 0.13 0.41 – – –C 9 25 -3.58 0.01 0.09 0.17 – – –A 20 77 -14.31 0.00 0.033 0.00 2.52 0.50 4.81Apennines

(all sequences)11 63 -1.73 0.24 0.09 0.37 – – –

Apeninnes(group A only)

9 46 -2.53 0.08 0.06 0.09 – – –

N 3 18 -1.74 0.02 0.15 0.36 – – –

Groups for which the null hypothesis of constant population size was rejected are shown in bold.



which sets the deepest divergence among all haplo-types at 0.11 substitutions per site, implying amaximum age for the origin of current mtDNA diver-sity in P. apollo later than 1.5 Ma (m1), and a ‘fast’estimate of about 100 Ka (m2). Moreover, except forthe highly divergent haplotype H71, most lineagescoalesce within a short evolutionary time frame, withabout 0.005–0.006 substitutions per site.

DISCUSSIONA RECONSTRUCTION OF P. APOLLO

POPULATION HISTORY

Our phylogenetic analysis (Fig. 1C, D) highlighted astrong phylogeographic structure of P. apollo popula-tions, with a number of distinctive mtDNA lineagespopulating geographically distinct areas. However,global genetic divergence among mtDNA lineages inP. apollo is rather shallow, compared with Eurasiantemperate butterflies surveyed with the same marker(Gratton, 2006; Wahlberg & Saccheri, 2007), and norobust phylogenetic structure was recovered amongthe geographically recognizable haplogroups. Indeed,a similar degree of global divergence has beenreported by Albre , Gers & Legal (2008) in the wholealpine Erebia tyndarus (Esper, 1781) species complex,which displays a European distribution that is highlycongruent with P. apollo.

The basal position of the Central Asia populationsin the ML reconstruction, although not statisticallyrobust, seems to support the hypothesis that P. apollohad its origin in Central Asia, from where the speciesspread across Europe. In fact, Central Asia is believedto be the radiation geographic centre of the genusParnassius (Omoto et al., 2004; Nazari , Zakharov &Sperling, 2007).

The LRT rejected the general validity of a clock-like evolution of COI sequences in P. apollo. Non-clock-like evolution in P. apollo mtDNA may berelated to the survival of the species as a set ofseveral demographically independent lineages formost of its past existence, each experiencing differ-ent demographic and selective dynamics. However, ifsome hypothesis on the timing of evolutionary eventsis to be drawn, a local-clock model is to be preferred.In fact, setting a separate rate for the ‘anomalous’long branch connecting haplogroup I with the rest ofthe tree provided a significantly better evolutionarymodel than a global clock, thus suggesting that thismtDNA lineage may have evolved at a faster rate.However, all of the 11 substitutions unique to hap-logroup I are synonymous, so that direct positiveselection can be ruled out as causing its apparentfaster rate.

Applying the time-dependent rate (m2) to the local-clock model (Fig. 1B), calculated in PAML, indicates

that P. apollo may have reached its present rangelimits not earlier than 60 Ka, during the Würmglaciation. The alternative ‘phylogenetic’ rate (m1)would, instead, indicate a middle-Pleistocene origin,about 500–600 Ka. In the absence of an externalcalibration point, it is not possible to pick a singletime frame. However, we argue that the early ‘phy-logenetic’ date is less likely. In fact, the ultrametrictree, as well as the star-like network topology, sug-gests the almost simultaneous origin of all main lin-eages, consistent with a fast expansion from a singlecentre of origin. A middle-Pleistocene expansionwould be expected to generate a much more struc-tured phylogeographic pattern, caused by severalepisodes of range expansion and contraction (notless than five complete glacial–interglacial cycleshave occurred in the last 600 000 years). A late-Pleistocene origin is, on the other hand, perfectlyconsistent with the relatively simplified phylogeo-graphic pattern of P. apollo.

Our favoured hypothesis is that P. apollo experi-enced a rapid westward expansion between 100 and70 Ka (Fig. 2), corresponding with the initial spreadof open habitats in Europe after the Riss–Würminterglacial (Velichko et al., 2002; Müller, Pross &Bibus, 2003; Varga, 2010). However, as the actualevolutionary rate remains largely uncertain, wecannot rule out that this species met its primaryexpansion during the Riss glacial. Later, full glacialconditions would have prevented further contactthrough central and northern Europe, and diversifi-cation took place around southern ranges (seeSchmitt, 2009). A second wave of range expansion insouthern Europe (Fig. 2) is suggested by almost con-temporary coalescence of sublineages within group Iand haplogroups A, P, R, N, and S (mountains incentral Mediterranean areas). Under our hypothesis,this wave may have matched a re-expansion of cold–arid landscapes in southern Europe at the onset ofthe last glacial peak (c. 30 Ka). Genetic traces ofdemographic expansion in haplogroups Ia (Anatolia)and A (Alps and Massif Central, and most Apenninesequences) point to the last glacial maximum (LGM;about 18 Ka), when scaled by m2, and can be consis-tently interpreted as a consequence of enhanced dis-persal in southern peninsulas during a cold phase. Infact, further support for a recent time frame forP. apollo comes from Gratton, Todisco & Sbordoni(2006), who analysed part of the present data fromthe Italian Peninsula in a comparative study of P.apollo and P. mnemosyne. The authors showed that,by scaling parameters of three different models by them2 rate, genetic signals were congruent with ecologicalrequirements of the two butterflies. Indeed, althoughP. mnemosyne showed range and demographic expan-sions congruent with the rise of the forest pollen



record (after 15 Ka), P. apollo parameters pointed tothe earlier steppic phase (LGM).

As a general point, we argue that the adoptionof time-dependent fast molecular rates could offera convincing interpretation of other distributionpatterns in temperate butterflies (see Schoville &Roderick, 2009). In this perspective, the shallowmolecular divergence found in the E. tyndarus complex(Albre et al., 2008), which shares the same montanesteppic habitat as P. apollo, could be redirected toexpansion events that occurred in the last glacial.

Certainly, the last northward expansion of P. apollooccurred later than 10–11 Ka (Fig. 2), when the Scan-dinavian region became available with the retreat ofthe ice cap. Consistently, Scandinavian samples sharemost haplotypes with populations from the Car-pathian and Balkan regions, from which this latecolonization originated.

Samples from central Urals harbour two differentlineages: K, also present in Central Asia, and Ir,related to eastern European haplogroups. This maybe the only suggestion of secondary contact of largely

Primary expansion (early Würm, ca. 100-70 ka BP)

Primary diversification areas (full glacial, ca. 65 ka BP)

Secondary expansions (ca. 50-30 ka BP)

Secondary diversification areas (LGM, ca. 25-18 ka BP)Local southerly expansions/gene flow (late LGM, 18-15 ka BP)

Recent northwards expansions (Holocene,

allopatric lineages in P. apollo (Fig. 2). On the otherhand, sharing of haplotypes between the Urals andCentral Asia clearly shows that genetic contactexisted across presently unoccupied areas in south-west Siberia and Kazakhstan until quite recently (seeVarga, 2010).

The striking divergence of haplotype H71, found in asingle individual from the Caucasian region, high-lights this area as the most genetically diverse, and apossible centre of origin for present mtDNA diversity.However, the Caucasus is strongly over-representedin our sample compared with other candidate areas(Central Asia), and further sampling is needed tocorroborate this suggestion. Similar remarks apply topopulations from the Balkans (East Carpathians andBulgarian Stara Planina), which could shed light onthe connection between eastern Europe colonizationwaves.

SUBSPECIFIC TAXONOMY ANDCONSERVATION REMARKS

More than 200 subspecies of P. apollo have beendescribed, based on fragmented distribution and afew morphological characters, and several of themhave been recognized as scarcely relevant (Weiss,2005). Our mtDNA analyses allowed the recognitionof a total of twelve P. apollo distinctive lineages(Fig. 1A) that are confined to different geographicalareas and characterized by pools of strictly relatedhaplotypes. Subspecific taxonomy is commonly takeninto account in the definition of conservation targetsin European butterflies (Witkowsky et al., 1994). Sub-species serve as a useful benchmark for conservation,especially to the extent that they are the product ofsignificant evolutionary processes, as reflected byphylogeographic patterns.

Our data highlighted several instances ofpopulations ascribed to different subspecies (Glassl,1993; Dietz, 2000; Möhn, 2005; Weiss, 2005) thatshare similar or identical mtDNA sequences, indicat-ing very recent evolutionary divergence. The mostevident example occurs in the western Carpathians,where all of the ten samples from five localities(three subspecies sensu Weiss, 2005) share an iden-tical haplotype, consistent with the likely postglacialorigin of the Carpathian populations (< 10 Ka).Similarly, Weiss (2005) suggested the occurrence ofeleven subspecies within the Alps, retained frommore than eighty subspecies previously described(Glassl, 1993; Dietz, 2000; Möhn, 2005), whereasmtDNA analyses show that a single haplotype (H9)and its descendants are widespread across the wholeregion, and in the neighbouring ranges of the MassifCentral and Apennines. Mismatch analysis indicateda recent geographic expansion throughout the whole

area, which can be reasonably dated close, or slightlyafter, the LGM (about 18 Ka). Our results arecorroborated by an early investigation of allozymepolymorphism (Racheli, Cianchi & Bullini, 1983),which revealed a very low level of genetic differen-tiation between a few populations from the Alps andApennines.

Similar examples of detectable morphological differ-entiation contrasting with mtDNA homogeneity arecommonly reported in butterflies (e.g. Sperling & Har-rison, 1994; Kato & Yagi, 2004; Vandewoestijne et al.,2004). As a very few loci may influence characters ofthe wing pattern in butterflies (Beldade & Brakefield,2002; Gross, 2006), some morphological differentiationcan evolve rapidly as a consequence of genetic drift insmall, isolated populations, so that divergence cannotbe revealed by mtDNA markers. Differences in food-plant preferences (Nakonieczny & Kedziorski, 2005)may also evolve quickly, as variation of host plant inbutterflies is usually under strong selection, and atthe same time reflects the evolutionary potential ofthe species and the availability of possible hostplants (Singer, Ng & Moore, 1991; Singer, Thomas &Parmesan, 1993; Radtkey & Singer, 1995).

Our analyses revealed a major, abrupt phylogeo-graphic divide across eastern Turkey (Appendix;Fig. 1A). Sequences from Anatolian populations,which show a clinal morphological differentiationfrom east to west, and ascribed to several subspecies(included in Parnassius apollo graslini Oberthür,1891 by Weiss, 2005), form the unique haplogroup Ia,related to eastern European lineage Ie, whereas moreeastern samples (including subspecies Parnassiusapollo tkatshukovi Sheljuzhko, 1935 and Parnassiusapollo tirabzonus Sheljuzhko, 1924) bear the Cauca-sian lineage C. Four described subspecies distributedacross Anatolia have been recently gathered inthe single subspecies P. a. graslini (Weiss, 2005).However, in spite of his reviewing efforts, Weiss wasunable to discriminate between the two main cladesthat reflect at least two major subspecies.

Our results indicate that an intensive samplingeffort within restricted areas could reveal cores ofdifferentiated haplotypes, not taxonomically distinct,such as the haplogroup N in the central Apennines,which is currently in (at least partial) sympatry withthe widespread haplogroup A. The distribution ofthese haplogroups has been interpreted (Grattonet al., 2006) as a result of a recent (late glacial)dispersal from the Alps that overlapped, perhaps onlypartially, with pre-existing populations.

Finally, our data also evidenced the distinctivenessand evolutionary value of the highly divergentmitochondrial lineage E in Iberian populations,previously recognized as two well-differentiated sub-species (Parnassius apollo nevadensis Oberthür,



1891 and Parnassius apollo hispanicus Oberthür,1883, sensu Weiss, 2005). However, as there are gapsin the sampling, especially in the Iberian peninsula,different haplotypes could be expected to occur, par-ticularly in the Cordillera Cantabrica in north-western Spain.

Examples of small, isolated populations, themtDNA divergence of which highlights their signifi-cance for biodiversity, are presented by Parnassiusapollo siciliae Oberthür, 1899, from the Madoniemountains (Sicily), and Parnassius apollo atrides(van der Poorten & Dils, 1986), from Peloponnesus(Greece), that was pronounced extinct, until someindividuals were newly found in 1983 (Casale &Cecchin, 1990; Bollino et al., 1996). This last onebears a unique mtDNA haplotype closely related toItalian lineages A, N and S (Fig. 1C, D), and probablyrepresents a relict of a colonization process indepen-dent from those originating the northern Greek popu-lations. A large fraction of the mitochondrial geneticvariation of P. apollo is therefore concentrated in thesouthernmost populations in the highest mountainsof Spain, Sicily, and southern Greece.

Although this study provides useful hints to sim-plify the controversial subspecific classification ofP. apollo, a taxonomical review of this species isbeyond the scope of this paper, as it would require athorough nomenclatorial revision, as well as someadditional geographic sampling. However, the twelvemajor haplogroups identified in this study (Appendix)seem to offer a starting point that will be useful toboth taxonomists and conservation biologists.

Our results are largely consistent with the hypoth-esis that P. apollo populations expanded their south-ern ranges within, or close to, glacial episodes, andfragmented into alpine patches during interglacialperiods, when forested habitats expanded. Southern-most and geographically isolated populations aretherefore the most threatened, as small populationsare particularly vulnerable to genetic erosion andnegative demographic trends, and because in south-ern regions the impact of climate change might bemore pronounced.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was supported by the ‘Osservatorio dellaBiodiversità della Regione Lazio’ and funds from theUniversity of Rome ‘Tor Vergata’ to V.S. The authorsare grateful to all who contributed by providing but-terfly samples, and particularly to Giovanni Sala(Salò, Italy), Marianne S. Fred (University of Hels-inki, Finland), and Guido Volpe (Napoli, Italy). Wethank Gabriele Gentile and Emiliano Trucchi for theirhelpful comments on this manuscript.

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SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article:

Table S1. Sequence primers, thermal cycle and polymerase chain reaction conditions.

Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting materialssupplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the correspondingauthor for the article.



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9474

59-6

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ne,

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H31

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U94

7499

P.a.

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32–

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9475

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33–

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9475

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nu

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us

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aly:

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OR

H42

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U94

7539

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P.a.

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GU

9475

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P.a.

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H46

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U94

7572

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9475

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90.

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9475

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9474

98P.

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9475

40-7

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1900

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GU

9475

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ITT

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H37

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1G

U94

7563

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9475

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9475

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aly:

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1100

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ITM

AI

H40

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5G

U94

7529

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U94

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U94

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9476

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9474

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9474

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GU

9474

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GR

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GU

9474

84-5

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9474

73-5

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67–

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9476

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U94

7630

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540.

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9476

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U94

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H54

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U94

7590

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GU

9475

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9475

83-9

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9475

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9475

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490.

000

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9475

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H51

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U94

7582

P.a.

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GU

9475

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41



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Phylogeography of Parnassius apollo: hints on taxonomy and ......pattern variation, including...

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