Physical and Physiological Profiles of Taekwondo Athletes

REVIEW ARTICLE

Physical and Physiological Profiles of Taekwondo Athletes

Craig A. Bridge • Jonatas Ferreira da Silva Santos •

Helmi Chaabene • Willy Pieter • Emerson Franchini

� Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

Abstract Taekwondo has evolved into a modern-day

Olympic combat sport. The physical and physiological

demands of modern-day taekwondo competition require

athletes to be competent in several aspects of fitness. This

review critically explores the physical and physiological

characteristics of taekwondo athletes and presents impli-

cations for training and research. International taekwondo

athletes possess low levels of body fat and a somatotype

that characterises a blend of moderate musculoskeletal

tissue and relative body linearity. While there is some

variation in the maximum oxygen uptake of taekwondo

athletes, moderate to high levels of cardio-respiratory

fitness are necessary to support the metabolic demands of

fighting and to facilitate recovery between consecutive

matches. Taekwondo athletes demonstrate high peak

anaerobic power characteristics of the lower limbs and this

attribute appears to be conducive to achieving success in

international competition. The ability to generate and sus-

tain power output using both concentric and ‘stretch-

shortening cycle’ muscle actions of the lower limbs may be

important to support the technical and tactical actions in

combat. Taekwondo competitors also display moderate to

high maximum dynamic strength characteristics of the

lower and upper extremities, and moderate endurance

properties of the trunk and hip flexor musculature. The

dynamic nature of the technical and tactical actions in the

sport demand high flexibility of the lower limbs. More

extensive research is required into the physical and phys-

iological characteristics of taekwondo athletes to extend

existing knowledge and to permit specialised conditioning

for different populations within the sport.

1 Introduction

Taekwondo has evolved into a modern-day Olympic

combat sport. The sport element of taekwondo is practiced

under various governing bodies, but the World Taekwondo

Federation (WTF) is officially responsible for implement-

ing the rules and regulations in Olympic competition as

well as in world championships [1]. In addition to Olympic

competition, WTF events are regularly organised at

regional, national and international levels according to the

athletes’ age, sex, skill level and weight category. Matches

are typically structured across three 2-min rounds with a

1-min interval separating each round [1]. The objective of a

match is to overcome an opponent by obtaining either a

C. A. Bridge (&)

Sport and Exercise Research Group, Department of Sport and

Physical Activity, Wilson Centre, Edge Hill University,

St Helens Road, Ormskirk L39 4QP, UK

e-mail: [email protected]

J. Ferreira da Silva Santos � E. Franchini

Martial Arts and Combat Sports Research Group, Sport

Department, School of Physical Education and Sport,

University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

H. Chaabene

Research Unit, Analysis and Evaluation of Factors Affecting

Sport Performance, Higher Institute of Sports and Physical

Education, Ksar Said, Tunisia

H. Chaabene

Higher Institute of Sports and Physical Education,

Manouba University, Tunis, Tunisia

W. Pieter

Department of Taekwondo, College of Physical Education,

Keimyung University, Daegu, Republic of Korea

E. Franchini

Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Montpellier,

Montpellier, France

123

Sports Med

DOI 10.1007/s40279-014-0159-9

greater quantity of points for the execution of kicking and

punching techniques to permitted scoring areas or by

achieving a technical knockout. Under the current WTF

scoring system, 1 point is awarded for a valid attack on the

trunk protector, 2 points for a valid turning kick to the

trunk protector, 3 points for a valid kick to the head, and 4

points for a valid turning kick to the head [1]. Valid

techniques are those that are delivered accurately and

powerfully to legal scoring areas of the body and accu-

rately to permitted regions of the head [1]. Taekwondo

matches, similar to those in most combat sports, are

structured according to specific weight divisions. In

national, regional and international events, senior male

(\54,\58,\63,\68,\74,\80 kg, up to and including 87

and[87 kg) and female (\46, 49,\53,\57,\62,\67 kg,

up to and including 73 and [73 kg) competitors fight in

eight distinct weight divisions. In the Olympic Games,

males (\58, \68 kg, up to and including 80 and [80 kg)

and females (\49, \57 kg, up to and including 67 and

[67 kg) compete in four weight divisions. Successful

contestants, irrespective of weight division and competition

level, may be required to compete in several matches

during a single day.

Performance in taekwondo may be determined by a

competitor’s technical, tactical, psychological, physical

and physiological characteristics [2]. Taekwondo training

is therefore structured to target these specific performance

mediators [2, 3]. From a physical conditioning perspective,

the goal of taekwondo training is to prepare competitors to

effectively manage both the physical activity and the

physiological demands of combat. This approach to con-

ditioning requires detailed knowledge of both the physio-

logical demands of competition and the physical

capabilities of the competitors [4–7]. In championship

combats, competitors perform brief periods of fighting

activity [attacks] (1–5 s) interposed with longer periods of

non-fighting activity [pause] at average ratios between 1:2

and 1:7 in different taekwondo styles [8–13]. These con-

tests elicit near maximal heart rate (HR) responses ([90 %

HRpeak) and high lactate concentrations (7.0–12.2

mmol l-1), which infer that high demands are imposed

upon both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during the

bouts [4, 8, 9, 11, 14–16].

The physical activity and physiological requirements of

taekwondo competition require athletes to be competent in

several aspects of fitness, including aerobic and anaerobic

power, muscular strength, muscular power, flexibility,

speed and agility [5, 6, 8, 17]. It is therefore important that

coaches and sports scientists collect objective information

about their players’ physical performance capabilities to

substantiate the objectives of training, establish short- and

long-term training programmes, provide objective feed-

back and to motivate athletes during training. In this

context, the information obtained from physical perfor-

mance tests can be used to identify strengths and weak-

nesses in an individual’s physical attributes, to monitor

fitness status over time and to verify the effectiveness of

specific training interventions [18, 19]. Such information

may also be useful to identify physical attributes that are

favourable for competitive success and serve as an indi-

cator of the minimum fitness standards required to compete

at specific levels [5, 8].

The objective of this review is therefore to present and

critically appraise the available data on the physical and

physiological characteristics of taekwondo athletes. It is

hoped that this information will serve as an ergonomic

framework to assist coaches and scientists to effectively

prepare competitors for the physiological demands of tae-

kwondo competition. This critical analysis may also help to

inform the direction and methodology of future investiga-

tions, thereby ensuring that the knowledge base that is created

is relevant to both scientific and practitioner communities.

2 Methods

A computer literature search of PubMed, ISI Web of

Knowledge, Google Scholar, SportDiscus� and Scopus

was performed for English-language peer-reviewed articles

from inception to March 2013 using the following key-

words: ‘taekwondo’, ‘taekwondo AND performance’,

‘taekwondo AND physical fitness’, ‘taekwondo AND

physiology’, ‘taekwondo AND body composition’, ‘tae-

kwondo AND somatotype’, ‘taekwondo AND aerobic fit-

ness’, ‘taekwondo AND anaerobic fitness’, ‘taekwondo

AND strength’, ‘taekwondo AND flexibility’, ‘taekwondo

AND speed’ and ‘taekwondo AND agility’. The electronic

search was supplemented by manual inspection of the

reference lists of the retrieved articles, where appropriate,

to locate additional articles that matched the key search

terms and major themes of the review. The themes of the

review were selected to represent the major fitness com-

ponents that are required to support the physical activity

and the physiological demands of combat in the context of

athlete preparation and performance, including body

composition, somatotype, aerobic and anaerobic power,

muscular strength, muscular power, flexibility, speed and

agility. Only those articles examining the above-mentioned

fitness characteristics, using established and accepted

methods, in the context of athlete preparation and perfor-

mance were included. Articles that demonstrated tenuity

and/or ambiguity in the fitness tests/methods used to obtain

data, and/or those that reported aspects that lacked

emphasis on, or direct application to, athlete preparation

and performance (e.g. injury prevention, rehabilitation,

heath and wellbeing focus) were omitted.

C. A. Bridge et al.

123

Table 1 Body fat percentage of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)

Athlete characteristics (n) Body mass

(kg)

Body fat (%) Method (prediction equation reference) References

Male

US international (14) 70.9 ± 12.0 7.5 ± 1.5 Skinfold measures (Lohman [99], Siri [100]) Pieter and Taaffe

[101]

US international (12) 72.5 ± 12.2� 7.5 ± 1.7� Skinfold measures (Lohman [99], Siri [100]) Taaffe and Pieter

[30]

Recreational (14) 73.1 ± 10.1 18.9 ± 5.4 Underwater weighing (Wilmore [102]) Thompson and

Vinueza [103]

Polish national (7) 66.4 ± 4.8 13.2 ± 2 NR Drabik [104]

US junior Olympic camps

Pre-pubertal 45.4 ± 1.8 13.8 ± 0.8 Skinfold measures (Slaughter et al. [105]) Bercades et al. [50]

Post-pubertal 62.2 ± 1.2 11.0 ± 0.4

Korean

International (11) 76.6 ± 9.5 7.3 ± 1.4* Skinfold measures (Ross and Marfell-Jones

[106])

Olds and Kang [25]

State (90) 70.6 ± 9.9 10.7 ± 3.9

Taiwanese international (11) 65.4 ± 6.9 13.2 ± 1.0 NR Lin et al. [48]

Czech international (11) 62.3 ± 7.4 8.2 ± 3.1 Skinfold measures (Seliger [107]) Heller et al. [8]

Puerto Rican international (13) 67.1 ± 11.8 9.6 ± 2.7 Skinfold measures (Siri [100]) Rivera et al. [29]

Jordanian athletes Skinfold measures (Lohman [108], Lohman

et al. [109])

Melhim [110]

Club-level adolescent (19) 52.4 ± 3.6 13.1 ± 4.9

Recreational

Novice (7) 81.2 ± 15.3�,� 16.0 ± 5.4�,� Skinfold measures (Jackson and Pollock [111]) Toskovic et al. [27]

Experienced (7) 68.6 ± 6.8� 12.7 ± 3.7�

Tunisian international (8) 70.8 ± 6 11.8 ± 3 Skinfold measures (Durnin and Womersley

[112])

Bouhlel et al. [17]

Malaysian recreational adolescents

(8)

56.4 ± 7.7 19.6 ± 2.6 Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al.

[113])

Erie and Pieter [114]

Malaysian junior recreational (30) 47.8 ± 14.4 18.6 ± 4.0� Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al.

[113])


German international (31) 70.6 ± 12.2 8.7 ± 1.7 Skinfold measures and bioelectrical impedance

(Siri [115])

Fritzsche and

Raschkam [116]

Kelantan team—Malaysian (8) 68.3 ± 20.7 21.4 ± 6.3 Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al.

[113])

Noorul et al. [65]

Brazilian state (12) 71.3 ± 9.5 11.7 ± 2.1 Skinfold measures (Faulkner [117]) Sant’Ana et al.

[118]

Taiwanese university team (16) 71.1 ± 10.2 16.6 ± 5 Bioelectrical impedance (NR) Tsai et al. [22]

Spanish international (8) s 78.0 9.5 Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry and

bioelectrical impedance (NR)

Ubeda et al. [119]

Israeli national athletes (10) (junior

and cadet division)

49 ± 9.9 14.1 ± 2.8� Skinfold measures (Slaughter et al. [105]) Pilz-Burstein et al.

[120]

Italian international (11) 78.6 ± 14.0 10.9 ± 2.0 Skinfold measures (Jackson and Pollock [111]) Chiodo et al. [16]

Turkish

International (24) 71.1 ± 10.7 11.8 ± 1.9** Skinfold measures (Yuhasz [121]) Ghorbanzadeh et al.

[38]Recreational (24) 64.2 ± 7.3 10.5 ± 1.3

Females

US international (15) 59.3 ± 8.4 12.9 ± 2.5 Skinfold measures (Jackson et al. [122], Siri

[100])

Pieter and Taaffe

[101]

US international (8) 61.4 ± 8.6� 12.0 ± 1.7� Skinfold measures (Jackson et al. [122], Siri

[100])

Taaffe and Pieter

[30]

US junior olympic

Pre-pubertal 47.6 ± 3.1 20.4 ± 1.5 Skinfold measures (Slaughter et al. [105]) Bercades et al. [50]

Post-pubertal 53.2 ± 1.0 19.5 ± 0.5

Physical Characteristics of Taekwondo Athletes

123

3 Body Composition and Somatotype

3.1 Body Composition

A significant proportion of taekwondo athletes regularly

reduce their body mass to compete in selected weight

divisions [20–22]. To optimise the power-to-weight ratio

in combat, it is desirable for competitors to achieve this

body mass change via reductions in fat mass with mini-

mal disruption to musculature [23]. In accord with this

principle, elite international taekwondo competitors dem-

onstrate a propensity for low levels of body fat (Table 1).

The percentage of body fat reported for this specific

population of competitors ranges between 7–14 % and

12–19 % for males and females, respectively (Table 1).

Based on the studies presented in Table 1, the mean body

fat percentage is approximately 10 and 15 % for inter-

national male and female athletes, respectively. This

range of values, albeit low, is within the limits recom-

mended to maintain health [24]. While it is not possible

to provide recommendations about the optimal body fat

percentage required to facilitate performance, the avail-

able data suggest that low levels may be a prerequisite for

international competition.

Table 1 continued

Athlete characteristics (n) Body mass

(kg)

Body fat (%) Method (prediction equation reference) References

Taiwanese international (7) 55.6 ± 7.3 19.4 ± 4.3 NR Lin et al. [48]

Czech international (12) 69.9 ± 8.7 15.4 ± 5.1 Skinfold measures (Seliger [107]) Heller et al. [8]

Puerto Rican international (9) 58.6 ± 11.2 18.3 ± 5.6 Skinfold measures (Lohman [123]) Rivera et al. [29]

US athletes

Novice (7) 63.5 ± 3.1� 20.3 ± 3.9�,� Skinfold measures (Jackson and Pollock [111]) Toskovic et al. [27]

Experienced (7) 59.4 ± 10.2� 16.1 ± 3.8�

Croatian international (13) 60.1 ± 9.0 16.5 ± 2.7 Skinfold measures (Durnin and Rahaman

[124])

Markovic et al. [5]

Iranian international (13) 57.5 ± 13.7 17.3 ± 4.4 NR Rahmani-Nia et al.

[125]

Malaysian recreational adolescents

(8)

52.4 ± 5.8 31.1 ± 2.6 Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al.

[113])


Malaysian junior developmental

team (27)

45.5 ± 15.0 29.9 ± 5.2� Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al.

[113])


Kelantan team—Malaysian (9) 59.7 ± 10.0 32.5 ± 3.9 Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al.

[113])

Noorul et al. [65]

German international (21) 57.8 ± 5.4 15.8 ± 2.5 Skinfold measures and bioelectrical impedance

(Siri [115])

Fritzsche and

Raschkam [116]

Croatian international (7) 59.8 ± 10.5 14.8 ± 1.7 Skinfold measures (Durnin and Rahaman

[124])

Markovic et al.

[126]

Taiwanese national sport university

(10)

56.7 ± 6.0 23.7 ± 3.1 Bioelectrical impedance (NR) Tsai et al. [22]

Israeli international (10) (junior and

cadet division)

50 ± 6.8 24 ± 3.2� Skinfold measures (Slaughter et al. [105]) Pilz-Burstein et al.

[120]

Italian international (4) 59.8 ± 2.3 16.5 ± 4.9 Skinfold measures (Jackson and Pollock [111]) Chiodo et al. [16]

Turkish

International (16) 60.3 ± 8.3 11.2 ± 1.6** Skinfold measures (Yuhasz [121]) Ghorbanzadeh et al.

[38]Recreational (16) 54.4 ± 4.8 12.3 ± 1.3

Recreational adolescents (21) Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (NR) Kim et al. [19]

Pre-training 53.0 ± 6.1 31.2 ± 4.1^

Post-training 29.0 ± 4.3

Korean adolescents—different levels

(23)

58.6 ± 12.8 15.4 ± 7.4 Bioelectrical impedance (NR) Lee et al. [127]

Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): * International vs. state; ** International vs. recreational; � Sex

difference; � Novice vs. experienced; ^ Pre- vs. post-training

International athletes who compete at international level, National athletes who compete at national level, NR not reported, Recreational non-

competitive and/or club practitioners, s SD not reported, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level

C. A. Bridge et al.

123

The literature provides evidence of differences in body

composition between athletes who engage in different

levels of competition (Table 1). Olds and Kang [25], for

instance, identified a lower proportion of body fat in

international competitors (7.3 %) than their state-level

counterparts (10.7 %; d = 0.93, 95 % confidence interval

[CI] 0.13–1.76). However, this finding has not been

observed consistently in studies that have implemented

within-study comparisons of different levels of competitors

[26]. As the available data in this area are somewhat dated

[25, 26], there is need for further research into the body fat

characteristics of athletes who compete at different levels

of competition, especially since recent rule changes could

impact on such characteristics. However, more recent

evidence does provide evidence of disparity in body fat

between practitioners of varying levels of experience

(Table 1), although the effect was unclear for both males

(d = 0.73, 95 % CI -3.28–3.47) and females (d = 1.09,

95 % CI -1.80–3.91) [27]. Toskovic et al. [27], for

instance, reported significantly lower body fat in experi-

enced male (12.7 %) and female (16 %) taekwondo prac-

titioners than in their novice counterparts (males 16.1 %;

females 20.3 %) (Table 1). The variation in body compo-

sition between different levels of competition and experi-

ence may be a function of divergent training volumes [27],

nutritional practices and/or the requirements to ‘make

weight’ for competition [22, 28].

Female taekwondo athletes tend to demonstrate greater

body fat than their male counterparts [8, 16, 29, 30]. This

trend is also evident among non-competitive male and

female practitioners [27], and is consistent with the norma-

tive data reported across a range of sports [31]. The body fat

range reported for junior male (11–14.1 %) and female

(19.5–24 %) competitive taekwondo athletes tends to be

higher than that reported for their senior counterparts

(Table 1). This may reflect a reduced emphasis on/impor-

tance of ‘weight making’ practices in this younger population

and/or differences in the training volumes. However, com-

petitive junior taekwondo athletes do exhibit a lower range of

body fat than their recreational counterparts, which is prob-

ably a function of disparate training volumes [19].

The available data provide insight into the body fat of

taekwondo practitioners, which seems to be mediated by

numerous factors, including competition level, experience,

sex and age. The variation in body fat demonstrated by

these different taekwondo populations should be

acknowledged when developing strategies to ‘make

weight’ for competition. To the best of our knowledge,

there have been no attempts to describe the body fat per-

centage of taekwondo athletes in relation to different

weight categories. As each weight division may warrant

different body composition requirements, further research

is clearly needed in this area.

To date, skinfold measures constitute the most widely

used method to estimate the body fat percentage of tae-

kwondo practitioners (Table 1), which probably reflects the

accessibility and ease of use of the equipment in the field.

However, practitioners should be aware of the potential

limitations of using different prediction equations to esti-

mate body fat percentage via this method [32]. Indeed, a

potential area for future research may be the development

of reliable and valid prediction equations, specifically for

taekwondo athletes, similar to those devised in other sports.

This approach may improve the knowledge base that is

generated via this method and thereby the efficacy of the

‘weight making’ practices used in the field.

3.2 Somatotype

The somatotype of male taekwondo athletes is typically

characterised by a higher proportion of mesomorphy,

indicating a predominance of musculoskeletal tissue

(Table 2). This tends to be accompanied by a smaller,

albeit sometimes evenly distributed, ectomorphy compo-

nent, characterising the relative linearity, and a markedly

lower endomorphy, reflecting the relative degree of fatness

(Table 2). Male taekwondo athletes may therefore be pre-

dominantly classified as ‘ectomorphic mesomorph’ in

accordance with conventional descriptors [33]. Despite

such broad classification, Olds and Kang [25] have repor-

ted significantly smaller endomorphy, but similar meso-

morphy and ectomorphy, in international male athletes

when compared with their state and recreational level

counterparts (Table 2). This finding seems to coincide with

the lower body fat exhibited by international compared

with both state and recreational competitors (Table 1) and

may imply a greater power-to-weight ratio in this group of

athletes. In contrast to senior male competitors, a sub-

stantial number of junior male athletes display comparable

mesomorphy and ectomorphy, resulting in a more ‘meso-

morph-ectomorph’ character [34–36]—possibly a function

of maturation [37]. The somatotype of senior female ath-

letes is less concordant, but there is evidence of higher

proportions of both mesomorphy [38] and ectomorphy [30]

components in international female competitors. However,

female athletes do typically demonstrate higher endomor-

phy than their male counterparts (Table 2). In contrast with

international senior female competitors, junior and recre-

ational female athletes appear to display a more ‘central’

[33] somatotype [35, 36].

The somatotype data presented here may serve as a

framework for athlete preparation and a valuable com-

posite of talent identification. The predominant mesomor-

phic and ectomorphic character displayed by international

male and female taekwondo athletes would suggest that a

blend of moderate musculoskeletal tissue and relative body


123

linearity with low relative fatness may be desirable for this

sport. Indeed, a number of authors postulate that longer

lower extremities may be advantageous in combat sports

where kicking techniques constitute the predominant

means of attack [5, 39]. However, there is limited evidence

to suggest that the length of the upper and lower extremi-

ties may directly influence success in taekwondo [5, 39–

41]. Some research groups have identified reciprocal

ponderal index (males r = -0.45; females r = 0.68) and

height (males r = -0.48; females r = 0.60) as the most

significant anthropometric factors contributing to the match

outcome in senior national taekwondo athletes [42].

Whereas, in university taekwondo athletes, height (females

r = 0.611) and mesomorphy (males r = 0.377) were

reported as potential anthropometric performance predic-

tors, second to general taekwondo experience (males

r = 0.943; females r = 0.644) and competition-specific

experience (males r = 0.924; females r = 0.611) [42].

Taken together, these data support the notion that a com-

bination of moderate muscular skeletal tissue and relative

body linearity is desirable for taekwondo competition.

Future research is warranted into the somatotypes of spe-

cific weight divisions to extend the existing knowledge

base.

4 Anaerobic Profile

In championship matches, taekwondo competitors repeat-

edly perform brief periods of fighting [attacks] (1–5 s)

interposed with longer periods of non-fighting [pause] at

average ratios between 1:2 and 1:7 [8–13]. These brief

fighting to non-fighting ratios impose a high demand upon

anaerobic metabolic pathways, namely phosphocreatine

(PCr) degradation and moderate anaerobic glycolysis

activation [4, 8, 9, 11, 16]. As such, taekwondo competitors

Table 2 Somatotype of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)

Athlete characteristics (n) Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy References

Males

Junior athletes (9) 2.0 ± 0.4 4.0 ± 0.8 4.3 ± 0.9 Pieter and Taaffe [34]

US international (12) 1.6 ± 0.6 4.5 ± 1.0� 3.6 ± 1.3 Taaffe and Pieter [30]

Korean

International (11) 1.4 ± 0.3*,** 4.1 ± 1.0 3.2 ± 1.0 Olds and Kang [25]

State (90) 2.2 ± 1.0 4.5 ± 1.0 2.7 ± 0.8

Recreational (45) 2.5 ± 1.1 4.9 ± 1.2 2.5 ± 1.1

US junior team (9) 2.2 ± 0.7 4.0 ± 0.8 3.8 ± 0.9 Pieter [35]

US junior Olympic taekwondo athletes

Competition experience \5 y (41) 2.3 ± 0.9� 4.3 ± 1.3� 3.3 ± 1.4 Pieter [36]

Competition experience [5 y (37) 2.2 ± 0.8� 4.1 ± 1.1� 3.7 ± 1.3

British athletes club level (10) 4.2 ± 1.1� 4.7 ± 1 2.9 ± 1 Chan et al. [128]

German international (31) s 3.0 4.7 3.8 Fritzsche and Raschkam [116]

Cuban international (28) 1.8 ± 0.4 4.4 ± 1.1 3.5 ± 0.9 Leon et al. [129]

Turkish

International (24) 2.6 ± 0.7** 2.6 ± 1.5** 3.5 ± 1.0 Ghorbanzadeh et al. [38]

Recreational (24) 2.0 ± 0.5 3.6 ± 1.1 3.7 ± 0.9

Females

US international (8) 2.1 ± 0.4 3.2 ± 0.8� 4.0 ± 1.0 Taaffe and Pieter [30]

US junior Olympic taekwondo athletes Pieter [36]

Competition experience \5 y (24) 3.3 ± 0.9� 3.5 ± 1.0� 2.9 ± 1.2

Competition experience [5 y (27) 3.1 ± 0.8� 3.3 ± 1.2� 3.2 ± 1.6

US junior team (9) 2.9 ± 0.7 3.2 ± 1.0 3.4 ± 1.0 Pieter [35]

British athletes club level (10) 6.3 ± 1.5� 4.2 ± 1 2 ± 1 Chan et al. [128]

German international (21) s 4.0 4.2 3.5 Fritzsche and Raschkam [116]

Turkish Ghorbanzadeh et al. [38]

International (16) 2.4 ± 0.9** 5.1 ± 1.2** 3.6 ± 1.1

Recreational (16) 3.1 ± 0.7 3.4 ± 1.1 3.1 ± 0.9

Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): * International vs. state; ** International vs. recreational; � sex difference

International athletes who compete at international level, National athletes who compete at national level, Recreational non-competitive and/or club

practitioners, s SD not reported, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level

C. A. Bridge et al.

123

Table 3 Lower body Wingate anaerobic test performance in taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)

Athlete characteristics (n) and test details Peak power (W) Peak power

(W/kg)

Mean power

(W)

Mean power

(W/kg)

References

US international Taaffe and Pieter

[30]M (12) 30 s Wingate test [load: 0.075 kp/kg] 864.6 ± 246.2� 11.8 ± 2.0 671.2 ± 151.3� 9.2 ± 1.2�

F (8) 30 s Wingate test [load: 0.075 kp/kg] 621.4 ± 145.4 10.2 ± 2.5 481.9 ± 77.2 7.9 ± 1.2

US junior Olympic athletes Taaffe et al. [51]

M (27) 30 s Wingate test (load: 0.075 kp/kg) 675.8 ± 30.7 10.7 ± 0.3 526.9 ± 22.2 8.4 ± 0.2

F (24) 30 s Wingate test (load: 0.075 kp/kg) 435.5 ± 12.3 8.4 ± 0.3 340.0 ± 8.3 6.6 ± 0.2

US junior Olympic athletes Bercades et al.

[50]30 s Wingate test (Load: 0.075 kp/kg)

M (76)

Pre-pubertal 504.1 ± 24.7 11.1 ± 0.3 347.7 ± 16.7 7.6 ± 0.2

Post-pubertal 705.9 ± 20.7 11.3 ± 0.2 513.1 ± 14.1 8.2 ± 0.1

F (54)

Pre-pubertal 392.2 ± 24.1 8.3 ± 0.3 297.8 ± 14.4 6.3 ± 0.3

Post-pubertal 477.9 ± 14.7 9.0 ± 0.2 346.4 ± 7.5 6.6 ± 0.1

Spanish junior national athletes 30 s Wingate test

(load NR)

M (5) NR 8.3 ± 2.6 NR NR Perez-Gomez et al.

[52]F (3) 5.4 ± 1.1

Tunisian national Bouhlel et al. [17]

M (8) 7 s force-velocity test (incremental

breaking forces)

Pmax = 855 ± 125 Pmax = 12.1 ± 1.7 NR NR

Czech international Heller et al. [8]

M (11) 30 s Wingate test (load 6 W/kg) NR 14.7 ± 1.3 NR NR

F (12) 30 s Wingate test [load: 5 W/kg] 10.1 ± 1.2

M (19) Junior Jordanian club athletes Melhim [110]

30 s Wingate test (load 0.075 kp/kg)

Pre-training 422 ± 87.6^ 8.1 ± 1.2^ 235.6 ± 70.2^ 4.5 ± 0.6^

Post-training 541.1 ± 95.6 10.3 ± 2 380.5 ± 85.1 7.3 ± 0.9

M Taiwanese international 30 s Wingate test (load

0.1 kp/kg)

Lin et al. [48]

\54 kg (1) NR 8.3 NR 6.9

\58 kg (3) 8.3 ± 1.2 6.3 ± 0.8

\62 kg (3) 9.2 ± 0.2 7.0 ± 0.7

\67 kg (2) 8.3 ± 0.1 6.5 ± 0.4

\72 kg (1) 8.5 6.2

\78 kg (1) 6.8 6.1

Mean 8.4 ± 0.9 6.6 ± 0.6

F Taiwanese international 30 s Wingate test (load:

0.075 kp/kg)

\47 kg (3) 6.5 ± 0.3 5.5 ± 0.2

\51 kg (2) 6.6 ± 0.7 5.6 ± 2.1

\59 kg (1) 6.5 5.1

\67 kg (1) 7.2 5.4

Mean 6.6 ± 0.4 5.5 ± 0.9


123

require high anaerobic power abilities to effectively man-

age the energetic requirements of the bouts.

The 30 s Wingate test constitutes the most common

method of assessing peak anaerobic power and capacity of

taekwondo competitors (Table 3). Relative peak power has

been reported for both senior male (8.4–14.7 W/kg) and

female (6.6–10.2 W/kg) taekwondo competitors using the

Wingate test (Table 3). The upper range of peak power

values generated by both male and female taekwondo

athletes [8, 17, 30] compare favourably with those pro-

duced by athletes in other combat sports [43, 44] and a

range of explosive power-based events [45, 46]. They may

also be ranked amid the highest percentile norms for

physically active males and females aged between 18 and

28 years [47]. These findings attest to the intense anaerobic

character of this combat sport and suggest that the ability of

the lower limbs to generate high peak power may be

important in competition. Indeed, Sadowski et al. [40]

reported that successful male taekwondo athletes (medal-

lists in the Polish Senior Taekwondo Championships)

demonstrated higher peak power on the Wingate test than

their less successful counterparts (non-medallists in the

Polish Senior Taekwondo Championships). The authors

postulated that this difference could have exerted an

influence on the efficacy (speed and strength) of the kick-

ing techniques during the bouts. The ability to generate

high peak anaerobic power using the lower extremities may

therefore be desirable to achieve success in competition.

Notably, though, the lower range of values reported in the

literature suggest that some athletes exhibit relatively poor

lower limb peak power capabilities [48]. However, this was

acknowledged by the authors of the investigation, who

emphasised a need to improve this component of fitness to

effectively manage the demands of combat.

There have been few attempts to compare relative peak

power between different weight categories and/or compe-

tition levels in taekwondo. Lin et al. [48] appear to be the

only research group to document the relative peak power

characteristics across different weight divisions (Table 3).

However, the small sample sizes preclude the ability to

draw definitive conclusions about whether specific weight

divisions mediate different peak power requirements.

Further research is clearly needed in this area to specialise

anaerobic conditioning to the requirements of specific

weight divisions. Allometric scaling may also be consid-

ered when comparing groups differing in size rather than

the conventional per ratio standards.

Few investigators have reported the mean anaerobic

power generated by senior male and female taekwondo

athletes on the Wingate test. The limited available data

demonstrate a range of values for both males (6.6–9.2 W/

kg) and females (5.5–7.9 W/kg) (Table 3). The upper

Table 3 continued

Athlete characteristics (n) and test details Peak power (W) Peak power

(W/kg)

Mean power

(W)

Mean power

(W/kg)

References

M (12) junior recreational 30 s Wingate test (load

NR)

Pre-training 451.4 ± 70.7 NR 343.2 ± 91.7 NR Teng et al. [73]

Mid-training 491.2 ± 89.3 373.0 ± 101.3

Post-training 495.9 ± 74.7 373.6 ± 87.2

Athletes (M and F combined) with mouth guard

(21)

NR 9.5 ± 1.5§ NR 7.2 ± 1.0§ Cetin et al. [74]

Athletes (M and F combined) without mouth guard

(21)

9.1 ± 1.5 7.0 ± 0.9

30 s Wingate test (load 0.075 kp/kg)

M Polish national and international 30 s Wingate

test (load NR)

Sadowski et al.

[40]

Senior medallists (28) NR 9.9 ± 1.0# NR NR

Senior non-medallists (36) 9.3 ± 1.1

M Polish national and international 30 s Wingate

test (load NR)

Sadowski et al.

[41]

Junior medallists (27) NR 8.6 ± 1.4 NR NR

Junior non-medallists (36) 8.7 ± 1.2

Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): � sex difference, # medallists vs. non-medallists, ^ pre- vs. post-training, § mouth

guard vs. no mouth guard

F female, kp/kg load prescribed as kilopond per kilogram of body mass, International athletes who compete at international level, M male, National

athletes who compete at national level, NR not reported, Pmax highest power achieved during the force-velocity test, Recreational non-competitive and/or

club practitioners, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level, W/kg load prescribed as watts per kilogram of body mass

C. A. Bridge et al.

123

range of values [30] compare favourably with those pro-

duced by athletes in other intense short-duration events,

which elicit high demands on both adenosine triphosphate

(ATP)/PCr and anaerobic glycolytic metabolic pathways

[44, 45, 49]. This suggests that the ability to sustain high

power output via anaerobic metabolic pathways may be

important in taekwondo. Recent estimates of the energy

system contributions during simulated taekwondo bouts

suggest that this may be predominately via the breakdown

of ATP/PCr with smaller, albeit important, contributions

from anaerobic glycolysis [9]. The lower range of mean

power values reported in the literature indicates that some

taekwondo athletes demonstrated a poor ability to sustain

power during the Wingate test [48]. Although it remains

unclear how this may influence performance during a

match, a reduced ability to both generate and maintain

Table 4 Maximum oxygen uptake of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)

Athlete characteristics (n) Ergometer _VO2max (ml kg-1 min-1) References

Males

US international (12) Treadmill 55.8 ± 3.9 Taaffe and Pieter [30]

Brazilian NR Baldi et al. [26]

International (10) 61.0 ± 7.0

State (9) 54.7 ± 6.9

Recreational (14) Treadmill 44.0 ± 6.8 Thompson and Vinueza [103]

Italian international (11) Treadmill 63.2 ± 6.1 Chiodo et al. [16]

Polish national (7) Treadmill 60.7 ± 3.3 Drabik [104]

Czech international (11) Cycle ergometer 53.9 ± 4.4 Heller et al. [8]

Puerto Rican international (13) Treadmill 59.3 ± 4.5 Rivera et al. [29]

Tunisian international (8) Shuttle run test 56.2 ± 2.6 Bouhlel et al. [17]

Malaysian (8) Shuttle run test 49.0 ± 3.9 Erie and Pieter [114]

Recreational juniors

Korean international Shuttle run test Butios and Tasika [60]

(8) \68 kg 53.9 ± 4.1

(8) up to and including 80 kg 54.7 ± 4.1

(8) [80 kg 52.6 ± 3.9

Spanish junior national (5) Shuttle run test 48.6 ± 2.5 Perez-Gomez et al. [52]

Malaysian recreational juniors (30) Shuttle run test 41.3 ± 6.2 Erie and Pieter [114]

Brazilian international (7) Shuttle run test 51.9 ± 2.9 Perandini et al. [130]

Malaysian recreational adolescents (8) Shuttle run test 42.2 ± 7.9 Noorul et al. [65]

Serbian international (20) Treadmill 44 ± 3 Cubrilo et al. [131]

Australian international (2 M, 2 F) Shuttle run test 53.3 ± 5.7 Ball et al. [18]

Females

US international (8) Treadmill 46.9 ± 7.5 Taaffe and Pieter [30]

Czech international (12) Cycle ergometer 41.6 ± 4.2 Heller et al. [8]

Puerto Rican international (9) Treadmill 48.9 ± 8.0 Rivera et al. [29]

Croatian international (13): medallists Treadmill 49.6 ± 3.3 Markovic et al. [5]

Non-medallists 47.2 ± 2.1

Malaysian (8) recreational juniors Shuttle run test 39.5 ± 2.8 Erie and Pieter [114]

Spanish junior national (3) Shuttle run test 41.1 ± 3.2 Perez-Gomez et al. [52]

Malaysian junior developmental team (27) Shuttle run test 33.4 ± 4.4 Eire and Pieter [114]

Malaysian recreational adolescents (9) Shuttle run test 30.8 ± 5.5 Noorul et al. [65]

Croatian international (7) Treadmill 49.8 ± 2.8 Markovic et al. [126]

Brazilian international (4) Shuttle run test 41.6 ± 2.4 Perandini et al. [130]

Italian international (4) Treadmill 51.1 ± 2.3 Chiodo et al. [16]

Korean adolescents—different levels (23) Treadmill 49.2 ± 4.8 Lee et al. [127]

F female, International athletes who compete at international level, M male, National athletes who compete at national level, NR not reported,

Recreational non-competitive and/or club practitioners, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level, _VO2max maximum

oxygen uptake


123

power through the breakdown of PCr and the activation of

anaerobic glycolysis is, arguably, undesirable in combat.

Senior male taekwondo competitors demonstrate higher

relative peak and mean power on the Wingate test than

their senior female counterparts [8, 30, 48] (Table 3). This

trend is also displayed in junior athletes [50–52] and is

consistent with the data reported for other combat sports

[43, 53] and a range of athletic populations [31]. Contrary

to their senior counterparts, peak power did not discrimi-

nate between levels of success (e.g. medallists vs. non-

medallists) in junior athletes [41]. However, senior male

and female taekwondo competitors show a higher range of

peak and mean power performances on the Wingate test

than their adolescent male (peak 8.3–11.3 W/kg; mean

7.6–8.4 W/kg) and female (peak 5.4–9.0 W/kg; mean

6.3–6.6 W/kg) counterparts (Table 3). These differences

probably reflect variation in the groups’ muscle fibre

composition, motor-unit activation and anaerobic/glyco-

lytic capacities [37, 54, 55], which should be considered

when designing conditioning programmes for these popu-

lations. Scaling issues might also be considered when

comparing groups differing in size.

The available data generated via the Wingate test pro-

vide insight into the anaerobic power and capacity char-

acteristics of different taekwondo populations, which may

be useful for developing preparatory strategies within the

sport. However, coaches and scientists should be aware of

the inherent limitations associated with the existing

knowledge base, namely the lack of standardisation of

Wingate protocols and mechanical specificity demon-

strated by the test. Variation in the Wingate loads, warm-

up, start procedures, testing protocols and ergometer

models may confound the efficacy of data comparisons

between existing investigations. Researchers and sports

scientists in taekwondo may therefore wish to consider

working towards a consensus on the standardisation of

Wingate procedures to improve the application of the

results in both research and practice. As the Wingate test

lacks mechanical specificity to the actions of taekwondo,

the validity of the existing power profiles may also be

subject to scrutiny. There is clearly a need for the devel-

opment of more specialised anaerobic power and capacity

tests that better represent both the mechanical actions and

the anaerobic demands of the sport.

5 Aerobic Profile

Recent evidence suggests a high reliance on aerobic

metabolism to support the activity of taekwondo matches

and to facilitate recovery between successive bouts in

championship events [4, 8, 9, 14–16, 56]. A well developed

cardio-respiratory system is therefore required to

effectively support these metabolic demands. The cardio-

respiratory fitness of taekwondo athletes has been deter-

mined by measuring and estimating maximum oxygen

uptake ( _VO2max) (Table 4).

The _VO2max of senior male and female international

athletes ranges between 44–63 ml kg-1 min-1 and 40–

51 ml kg-1 min-1, respectively (Table 4). The wide range

of values reported for both groups is likely to reflect dif-

ferences in the structure and phase of training, and/or

modes of exercise testing. This range of _VO2max scores is

similar to that of males and females in other combat sports

that elicit marked demands on aerobic metabolism [43, 53,

57, 58], but they are lower than those exhibited by athletes

in endurance-based events [59]. The _VO2max of these

international taekwondo competitors may also be ranked

within the 60–100 and 80–100 percentiles for healthy

physically active male and female adults, respectively [31].

These data suggest that moderate to high levels of cardio-

respiratory fitness may be necessary to support the meta-

bolic demands of international taekwondo competition.

Comparison of cardio-respiratory fitness between dif-

ferent levels of competition, success, experience and

weight categories in taekwondo is restricted by the limited

diversity of existing research. Few studies have examined

the _VO2max of taekwondo athletes in relation to their level

of competition success. Markovic et al. [5] reported no

differences in _VO2max between international female med-

allists and non-medallists using an incremental treadmill

test. Sadowski et al. [40, 41], on the other hand, observed a

tendency for senior and junior male medallists to perform a

greater number of shuttles during multistage shuttle run-

ning tests than their non-medallist counterparts. Unfortu-

nately, _VO2max was not estimated from these running

scores. These findings may suggest that cardio-respiratory

fitness is conducive to achieving success in competition,

but it should be emphasised that these differences may not

entirely be causal. Cardio-respiratory fitness may not affect

performance per se, but rather exert an influence indirectly

by facilitating recovery during the bouts [40]. This is in

line with the general consensus that cardio-respiratory fit-

ness is important to support the metabolic demands of

competition, but it does not directly determine success in

combat sports [43, 53, 57].

Few studies have directly examined the _VO2max of tae-

kwondo athletes in relation to the level of competition

(Table 4). One study has reported higher _VO2max in inter-

national male taekwondo competitors when compared with

their state-level counterparts [26]. Although no confidence

intervals were reported, this finding could suggest that the

level of competition mediates different cardio-respiratory

fitness requirements, but further research is warranted,

especially since the study was conducted before taekwondo

C. A. Bridge et al.

123

became an official Olympic sport. Only a single study [60]

has attempted to compare _VO2max between different weight

categories. In contrast to other combat sports [43, 44, 61],

no significant differences were reported in _VO2max, as

estimated from multistage shuttle running, between \68

kg, up to and including 80 kg and [80 kg taekwondo

weight divisions [60]. This preliminary evidence may

suggest that different weight divisions require similar lev-

els of cardio-respiratory fitness, but large-scale investiga-

tions examining _VO2max across a wide range of taekwondo

weight divisions, using large volumes of athletes, are

necessary before definitive conclusions may be drawn.

Senior male international taekwondo competitors dem-

onstrate a higher range of _VO2max scores than their female

counterparts (Table 4). This trend is also displayed in

junior athletes (males 41–49 ml kg-1 min-1; females 31–

41 ml kg-1 min-1) and is consistent with the data reported

in other combat sports [43, 53] and a range of athletic

groups [31]. However, senior male and female taekwondo

competitors demonstrate a higher range of _VO2max values

than their adolescent male and female counterparts. These

differences probably reflect variation in both central and

peripheral physiological factors [62–64]. Scaling methods

have rarely been used in taekwondo when dealing with

groups differing in size [65].

The available data on the _VO2max of different taekwondo

populations provide insight into their cardio-respiratory

fitness, which may be useful in developing preparatory

strategies within the sport. However, coaches and scientists

should acknowledge the limitations associated with the

existing knowledge base. Some studies have obtained

direct measurements of _VO2max, whereas others have relied

on indirect estimations using multi-stage shuttle running.

The latter may underestimate the true _VO2max of taekw-

ondo competitors by 16 % [66], ultimately perplexing data

comparisons between studies and preparations for compe-

tition. For this reason, Cetin et al. [66] developed a

regression equation to improve the accuracy of _VO2max

estimations from multi-stage shuttle running, which could

be considered in instances where logistical constraints

preclude the direct measurement of _VO2max. Studies that

have directly measured _VO2max using incremental tests

have incorporated different modes of exercise (Table 4).

The _VO2max determined from incremental cycling can elicit

8–15 % lower _VO2max values compared with those

obtained from incremental treadmill running in the same

individuals [67, 68]. This phenomenon is likely a function

of peripheral physiological factors and may further con-

found data comparisons between investigations. In this

regard, the modes of exercise used to assess _VO2max lack

mechanical specificity to taekwondo. Research consistently

demonstrates that trained athletes generate higher _VO2max

on tests that are similar, mechanically, to the movements

performed in the sport when compared with generic exer-

cise modes [69–71]. The development of specialised

incremental tests that better represent the mechanical

actions and metabolic demands of taekwondo may improve

the validity of _VO2max assessment.

6 Strength

Taekwondo athletes require muscular power, strength and

strength endurance to effectively perform and sustain the

technical and tactical actions in a match—including kick-

ing, punching, blocking, holding, pushing and footwork

[10–13, 72]. The muscular strength characteristics of tae-

kwondo athletes will be reviewed relative to dynamic

power, maximal strength and strength endurance actions

using accepted and established field-based testing methods.

The limited available data on the isokinetic strength char-

acteristics of taekwondo athletes [19, 73–75] were omitted

from the review on the basis that this analysis technique

tends to be reserved for research, rehabilitation and injury

prevention purposes as opposed to being implicated in the

regular monitoring of fitness status and/or strength devel-

opment in the context of athletic preparation for perfor-

mance. Furthermore, this technique has been criticised on

the basis that isokinetic movement, albeit accurate, seldom

occurs in actual human performance tasks and the isolation

of muscle groups during testing reduce the validity of

measurements to functional performance, as the multi-joint

movements that occur in many sports are not recreated

[76, 77].

6.1 Power

Power may be defined simply as the rate of force produc-

tion in a single movement or repetition [78, 79]. The

muscular power of taekwondo athletes has been deter-

mined through the use of squat/static jump tests (SJ) and

counter-movement jump tests performed with (CMJA) or

without (CMJ) arm swings (Table 5). The mean SJ per-

formances reported for national and international compet-

itors in the literature ranged between 35.8–45.4 cm for

males and 23.7–29.8 cm for females [5, 7, 8], whereas the

CMJ performances ranged between 39.3–43.9 cm and

26.4–32.8 cm for national and international male and

female athletes, respectively [5, 7, 16]. These SJ and CMJ

performances are lower than those generated by national

and international athletes in other combat sports [43, 44,

53] and a range of sports that rely heavily on explosive

actions of the lower limbs in competition [31]. Contrary to


123

Table 5 Vertical jump performances of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)

Athlete characteristics (n) Test method Height (cm) References

Males

Czech international (11) Force platform SJ = 45.4 ± 4.5 Heller et al. [8]

Recreational Jump and reach Toskovic et al. [27]

Novice (7) SJ = 43.7 ± 5.0�,�

Experienced (7) SJ = 51.1 ± 8.6�

Malaysian junior developmental team (30) Jump and reach CMJ = 35.6 ± 4.1� Erie and Pieter [114]

Recreational adolescents (8) Jump and reach CMJ = 52.1 ± 11.1� Noorul et al. [65]

Club athletes Jump and reach Suzana and Pieter [90]

Junior (10) CMJ = 51.3 ± 2.8

Senior (10) CMJ = 55.5 ± 7.0

Italian international (11) Optical acquisition system Chiodo et al. [16]

Pre-match CMJ = 40.8 ± 4.9�

Post-match CMJ = 43.9 ± 5.2�,^

Junior national (10) Optical acquisition system Chiodo et al. [56]

Pre-match CMJ = 25 ± 6�

Post-match CMJ = 28 ± 6�,^

Australian international (2 M, 2 F) Optical acquisition system Ball et al. [18]

Pre-training CMJ = 35 ± 0.5

Post-training CMJ = 43 ± 0.7

Italian national Optical acquisition system Casolino et al. [7]

Selected (NR) SJ = 40.7 ± 6.8

Not selected (NR) SJ = 35.8 ± 3.7

Total (NR) SJ = 38.4 ± 6.0�

Selected (NR) CMJ = 42.4 ± 7.1

Not selected (NR) CMJ = 39.3 ± 2.7

Total (NR) CMJ = 41.0 ± 5.6�

Females

Czech international (12) Force platform SJ = 29.8 ± 4.0 Heller et al. [8]

Recreational Jump and reach Toskovic et al. [27]

Novice (7) SJ = 32.1 ± 3.4�

Experienced (7) SJ = 31.3 ± 3.1�

Croatian international Electronic jump mat Markovic et al. [5]

Medallists (6) SJ = 29.8 ± 2.9

Non-medallists (7) SJ = 27.7 ± 2.4

Medallists (6) CMJ = 32.8 ± 3.9#

Non-medallists (7) CMJ = 28.7 ± 1.9

Medallists (6) CMJA = 36.4 ± 3.5#

Non-medallists (7) CMJA = 33.2 ± 2.3

Malaysian junior developmental team (27) Jump and reach CMJ = 35.6 ± 6.1� Erie and Pieter [114]

Recreational adolescents (9) Jump and reach CMJ = 34.0 ± 5.2� Noorul et al. [65]

Athletes (M and F) with mouthguard (21) Cord-based jump meter SJ = 43.5 ± 6.2

CMJ = 47.1 ± 6.3

Cetin et al. [74]

Athletes (M and F) without mouthguard (21) SJ = 43.2 ± 5.9

CMJ = 47.2 ± 6.4

Italian International (4) Optical acquisition system Chiodo et al. [16]

Pre-match CMJ = 28.2 ± 2.5�

Post-match CMJ = 30.8 ± 2.3�,^

C. A. Bridge et al.

123

the character of combat, these data suggest that national

and international taekwondo competitors demonstrate rel-

atively poor lower limb muscular power [80]. However, the

available data should be interpreted with caution as it

represents a small sample of competitors from a limited

number of studies. Markovic et al. [5] observed higher

CMJ and CMJA, but similar SJ, performances in interna-

tional female medallists compared with non-medallists, but

the effects of these differences were unclear (CMJ:

d = 1.46, 95 % CI -1.66–2.87; CMJA d = 1.12, 95 % CI

-1.68–2.83)—possibly a result of the small sample used in

the study. These findings may tentatively suggest that the

ability to generate power using ‘stretch-shortening cycle’

actions of the lower limbs may be important for taekwondo

performance, more so than the expression of muscular

power purely through concentric muscle actions [5].

Differences in lower limb muscular power have also

been observed between taekwondo practitioners’ level of

experience (Table 5). Toskovic et al. [27], for instance,

reported higher SJ in experienced recreational male tae-

kwondo practitioners than their novice counterparts (51.1

vs. 43.7 cm). This finding is probably a function of the

different training regimes undertaken by these groups and

may represent the muscular adaptations arising from

repeated exposure to the actions performed within the

sport. Interestingly, though, differences in muscular power

were not observed between experienced and novice female

practitioners [27].

This response is difficult to explain, but it might reflect

disparity in the adaptive properties of the muscles and/or

training stimulus between these groups [81]. Senior and

junior male taekwondo athletes demonstrate higher abso-

lute muscular power, as represented by higher SJ and CMJ

performances, than their respective female counterparts [8,

16, 27, 56] (Table 5). This is consistent with the literature

on athletes in other combat sports [43, 44] and a range of

athletic groups [31]. There is also evidence for higher CMJ

performances in senior athletes compared with their junior

counterparts [16, 56] (Table 5). These differences may

reflect variation in the muscle fibre composition and motor-

unit activation between these populations [37, 55, 56].

However, there is marked variability in senior and junior

CMJ performances between studies, which may represent

differences in the contractile properties of the muscle, but

also varied testing procedures.

The available data on the SJ and CMJ provide limited

insight into the muscular power characteristics of taekw-

ondo athletes. Further research is required into the mus-

cular power characteristics of international taekwondo

competitors to assist preparations for international com-

petition. Additional research into the muscular power

characteristics of taekwondo athletes in relation to sex, age

and weight categories is also needed to assist preparatory

strategies for different populations within the sport. These

investigations might want to consider reporting height/

power in absolute terms and scaled relative to lean body

mass or height [82]. Variation in the procedures and

equipment used to assess SJ and CMJ in the literature

(Table 5) often confounds the effective comparison of data

between investigations [83, 84]. Researchers in taekwondo

might want to consider working toward a consensus on the

standardisation of SJ and CMJ procedures and equipment,

or advocate the use of methods and equipment that dem-

onstrate good concurrent and convergent validity [85] to

enhance the application of the results in research and

practice. Researchers may also wish to consider developing

more specialised tests to determine the muscular power

characteristics of taekwondo athletes.

Table 5 continued

Athlete characteristics (n) Test method Height (cm) References

Junior national athletes (7) Optical acquisition system Chiodo et al. [56]

Pre-match CMJ = 22 ± 2�

Post-match CMJ = 22 ± 2�

Italian national Optical acquisition system Casolino et al. [7]

Selected (NR) SJ = 27.9 ± 4.4

Not selected (NR) SJ = 23.7 ± 2.1

Total (NR) SJ = 25.5 ± 3.7�

Selected (NR) CMJ = 28.8 ± 3.7

Not selected (NR) CMJ = 26.4 ± 1.8

Total (NR) CMJ = 27.4 ± 2.8�

Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): � sex difference; � novice vs. experienced; ^ pre- vs. post-match;# medallist vs. non-medallists

CMJ counter-movement jump, CMJA counter-movement jump with arm swing, F female, International athletes who compete at international

level, M male, National athletes who compete at national level, NR not reported, Recreational non-competitive and/or club practitioners, SD

standard deviation, SJ squat jump, State athletes who compete at regional level


123

6.2 Maximal Dynamic Strength

Maximum muscular strength may be defined as the ability

to voluntarily produce maximal force or torque under

specific conditions defined by muscle action, movement

velocity and posture [86]. A limited number of studies have

assessed the maximum dynamic strength of taekwondo

athletes using one repetition maximum (1RM) tests of both

upper and lower body musculature (Table 6).

Markovic et al. [5] investigated the maximum upper and

lower body strength of international female taekwondo

athletes using 1RM bench press and bilateral back squat

tests (Table 6). However, the interpretation of these results

is challenging because of the limited available comparative

data in combat sports and other athletic groups [31].

Nevertheless, tentative comparisons with the general

female population aged between 20 and 29 years indicate

that the relative 1RM bench press of international female

taekwondo athletes is well above the 100th percentile rank

[31], whereas the back squat 1RM may be rated as ‘fair’ to

‘average’ [31]. These preliminary results suggest that

international female taekwondo athletes possess well

developed upper body muscular strength, but less well

developed lower body muscular strength. Markovic et al.

[5] also noted a trend for greater absolute 1RM bench press

(d = 0.74, 95 % CI -8.54–6.81) and back squat (d = 1.04

95 % CI -13.04–12.30) performances in international

female medallists compared with non-medallists, but the

differences were unclear (Table 6). However, for relative

bench press (d = 1.00, 95 % CI 0.92–1.07) and back squat

(d = 1.00, 95 % CI 0.84–1.15) performances, the differ-

ences between these groups were (statistically) more

notable (Table 6). These data tentatively suggest that while

the ability to generate maximum strength may be important

in taekwondo, it might not determine success in interna-

tional competition.

Higher absolute 1RM bench and leg press performances,

and higher relative 1RM bench press performances, have

been reported in recreational male taekwondo practitioners

compared with their female counterparts [27] (Table 6).

This finding is in agreement with the data reported in other

combat sports [43] and a range of athletic populations [31],

and may reflect differences in muscle fibre composition

and motor-unit activation between these groups [55, 81].

Further research is needed into taekwondo athletes’ maxi-

mum strength characteristics in relation to age, sex, com-

petition levels and weight categories to enhance existing

knowledge and to permit effective preparatory strategies

for different populations within the sport.

6.3 Muscular Endurance

Muscular endurance may be defined as the ability to vol-

untarily produce force or torque repeatedly against sub-

maximal external resistances, or to sustain a required level

of submaximal force in a specific posture for as long as

Table 6 Maximal dynamic strength of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)

Athlete characteristics (n) Strength test Absolute 1RM score (kg) Relative 1RM score (kg/body mass) References

Males

Recreational Toskovic et al. [27]

Experienced (7) Bench press 84.3 ± 23.9� 1.23 ± 0.3�

Novice (7) (machine based) 86.1 ± 26.8� 1.06 ± 0.3�

Experienced (7) Leg press 217.1 ± 42.3� 3.2 ± 0.6

Novice (7) (machine based) 196.4 ± 33� 2.4 ± 0.6

Females


Experienced (7) Bench press 37.1 ± 13.3� 0.62 ± 0.1�

Novice (7) (machine based) 36.1 ± 7.9� 0.57 ± 0.1�

Experienced (7) Leg press 151.4 ± 30.2� 2.6 ± 0.5

Novice (7) (machine based) 147.9 ± 25� 2.3 ± 0.4

Croatian international Markovic et al. [5]

Medallists (6) Bench press 55.7 ± 11.6 0.9 ± 0.1

Non-medallists (7) (free weights) 48.5 ± 8.2 0.8 ± 0.1

Medallists (6) Back squat 89.1 ± 17.6 1.4 ± 0.2

Non-medallists (7) (free weights) 72.1 ± 15.2 1.2 ± 0.2

Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): � Sex difference

International athletes who compete at international level, Recreational non-competitive and/or club practitioners, SD standard deviation, 1RM 1

repetition maximum

C. A. Bridge et al.

123

possible [87]. The most common field tests used to assess

the dynamic muscular endurance of taekwondo athletes

include sit-up and push-up tests. A limited number of

studies have examined the trunk and hip flexor muscular

endurance of taekwondo athletes using 30- and 60-s timed

sit-up tests (Table 7). The 60-s sit-up test scores reported

for national- and international-level taekwondo athletes in

the literature range between 48–52 repetitions and 52––59

repetitions for males and females, respectively [5, 26].

These scores may be ranked within the 50–60th and

60–70th percentiles for male and female adults aged

18–25 years [31], and imply that these athletes demonstrate

moderate trunk and hip flexor muscular endurance.

Few studies have examined the trunk and hip flexor

muscular endurance of taekwondo athletes in relation to

competition success and experience. Markovic et al. [5]

reported higher 60-s sit-up test performances in interna-

tional female medallists compared with non-medallists, but

this difference was not statistically significant. In contrast,

Sadowski et al. [40, 41] claimed significantly higher 30-s

sit-up test scores in a large group of international male

(senior and junior) medallists compared with non-

medallists (Table 7). These preliminary findings may

emphasise the importance of trunk and hip flexor muscular

endurance in international taekwondo competition. No

significant differences in 60-s sit-up test performances have

been reported between athletes who were active at various

levels of competition [26] or between recreational practi-

tioners with different training experience [27] (Table 7).

These findings could reflect similar muscular endurance

requirements within these competitive and recreational

settings.

There have been few attempts to examine the sit-up test

performances in relation to age and sex. A slightly higher

range of 30-s sit-up test performances has been reported in

international senior male athletes [40] compared with

juniors [41] (Table 7). Recreational male taekwondo

practitioners also demonstrate higher 60-s sit-up test scores

than their recreational female counterparts [27]. This var-

iation in sit-up test performances between age groups and

sex are in agreement with the data reported across a range

of athletic groups [31].

Only a single study has examined the endurance prop-

erties of the upper-extremity and trunk musculature of

Table 7 Muscular endurance of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)

Athlete characteristics (n) Exercise: test details Result (number of repetitions) References

Males

Brazilian Sit-ups: 60 s test Baldi et al. [26]

International (10) 47.7 ± 4.7

State (9) 51.8 ± 6.1

Recreational Sit-ups 60 s test 53.7 ± 3.2 Thompson and Vinueza [103]


Novice (7) Sit-ups: 60 s test 48.1 ± 5.5�

Experienced (7) Sit-ups: 60 s test 53.4 ± 6.9�

Polish senior national and international Sadowski et al. [40]

Medallists (28) Sit-ups: 30 s test 34.5 ± 4.1#

Non-medallists (36) Sit-ups: 30 s test 30.0 ± 2.9

Polish junior national and international Sadowski et al. [41]

Medallists (27) Sit-ups: 30 s test 31.5 ± 5.1#


Females


Medallists (6) Sit-ups: 60 s test 58.7 ± 7


Medallists (6) Push-ups: 60 s test 25.8 ± 8.5

Non-medallists (7) Push-ups: 60 s test 23.1 ± 7.7


Novice (7) Sit-ups: 60 s test 40.9 ± 7.7�

Experienced (7) Sit-ups: 60 s test 45.0 ± 6.8�

Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): � Sex difference; # medallist vs. non-medallists

International athletes who compete at international level, National athletes who compete at national level, Recreational non-competitive and/or

club practitioners, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level


123

taekwondo athletes (Table 7). Markovic et al. [5] examined

the upper-extremity and trunk muscular endurance of

international female taekwondo athletes using a 60-s push-

up test. However, the interpretation of these findings is

challenging because of the limited available data on the

standard push-up test scores of combat sport athletes and

females in general [31]. No differences in 60-s push-up test

scores have been reported between international female

taekwondo medallists and non-medallists (Table 7). This

preliminary finding might suggest that while the endurance

properties of the upper extremities may be important to

support several technical and tactical actions in combat, it

does not determine success in international competition.

The available sit-up and push-up test data provide lim-

ited insight into the muscular endurance characteristics of

taekwondo athletes. Further studies are required into the

muscle endurance characteristics of taekwondo athletes in

relation to age, sex, competition level and weight catego-

ries to permit effective conditioning for different popula-

tions within the sport. Coaches and scientists should

consider examining the endurance properties of a range of

muscle groups and actions that are functionally relevant to

the technical and tactical actions performed in combat.

Indeed, the available data are limited to relatively simple

field-based assessments of the trunk and upper-extremity

muscles. A variety of alternative field tests are available for

the assessment of the endurance properties of different

muscle groups. Most of the available testing methods

involve performing repetitions to failure, with loads set at a

percentage of the individual’s body mass, at a percentage

of 1RM or as an absolute load [87].

7 Speed and Agility

Speed may be defined as the shortest time required for an

object to move along a fixed distance and incorporates two

important phases, acceleration (the rate of change in speed

up to the point at which maximum speed is reached) and

maintenance (the speed that is maintained for the remain-

der of the distance of interest) [88]. In contrast, agility may

be defined as a rapid whole-body movement with a change

of velocity or direction in response to a given stimulus (e.g.

incorporates both deceleration and acceleration phases)

[89]. A limited number of studies have examined the speed

characteristics of taekwondo athletes using conventional

field-based testing methods, including 20-m sprint [5, 74],

30-m sprint [40] and 6-s sprint tests [90]. The limited

available data demonstrate that successful male (30-m

sprint—medallists: 4.62 ± 0.41 s vs. non-medallists:

4.81 ± 0.51 s) [40] and female (20-m sprint—medallists:

3.6 ± 0.2 s vs. non-medallists: 3.81 ± 0.1 s) [5] compet-

itors perform faster sprint times than their less successful

counterparts. Even fewer studies have examined the agility

characteristics of taekwondo athletes using field-based

testing methods, including side step tests [5] and 50-m

(10 9 5 m) shuttle run sprint tests [19]. Markovic et al. [5]

reported faster side step test performances in successful

female athletes (medallists: 7.8 ± 0.3 s vs. non-medallists:

8.21 ± 0.2 s) when compared with their less successful

counterparts. These findings highlight the importance of

both speed and agility in taekwondo and could suggest that

these aspects of fitness may be a prerequisite for success in

international competition. However, further research is

warranted to substantiate this idea.

The field-based tests used to assess speed and agility in

the literature may be criticised on the basis that they lack

mechanical specificity to many of the technical and tactical

actions performed in the sport. To this end, several research

groups have attempted to incorporate speed assessments

that are more specific to the technical actions performed in

taekwondo [91–93]. Using an electronic dual-beam timing

system, Pieter and Pieter [91] reported faster kicking

speeds in male compared with female athletes (e.g. turning

kick 15.5 ± 2.3 vs. 13.79 ± 1.6 m s-1, respectively), and

they observed that kick speed was dependent upon the type

of kicking technique (e.g. turning kick 15.5 ± 2.3 vs. side

kick 6.87 ± 0.4 m s-1 in male athletes). In contrast, Ja-

kubiak and Saunders [93] used a digital timer and mounted

floor and kick pad sensors to determine the effectiveness of

elastic conditioning on the development of turning kick

speed. The authors reported a 7 % increase in turning kick

speed as a consequence of the 4-week training intervention.

Falco et al. [92] developed a specialised device, comprising

a force platform and pressure sensors integrated into the

body amour of a manikin, to measure the turning kick

speed of competitive and non-competitive taekwondo ath-

letes. Faster turning kick speeds were reported for the

competitive athletes (0.254 ± 0.057 s) than for their non-

competitive counterparts (0.317 ± 0.100 s) [92]. While

these studies [91–93] have endeavoured to enhance the

specificity of speed assessment in taekwondo, a lack of

conformity in both the testing methods and the equipment

limit the efficacy of data comparisons between studies and

their usefulness as a framework for athlete preparation.

Furthermore, the reliability and validity of such measure-

ments and/or devices have seldom been reported.

Researchers and sports scientists may therefore wish to

consider developing valid, reliable and practical tests to

assess the speed and agility of taekwondo athletes.

8 Flexibility

Flexibility may be defined as the range of motion (ROM) at

a single joint or a series of joints [94]. Taekwondo is a

C. A. Bridge et al.

123

dynamic activity in which the movements require a large

ROM, especially in the lower limbs [95]. The most widely

used test to assess the flexibility of taekwondo athletes is

the sit-and-reach test (Table 8).

The sit-and-reach test scores reported for senior inter-

national taekwondo athletes ranged between 36–36.9 cm

for males and 35.2–56.6 cm for females. These scores lie

within the 80th and 70–100th percentile ranks for males

and females aged 20–29 years [31]. These high flexibility

scores may be a consequence of the adaptations caused by

specific taekwondo training and the functional require-

ments of the technical actions in the sport [19]. While

flexibility may be important in this context, it does not

appear to discriminate between athletes’ level of compet-

itive success [5]. Female athletes demonstrate a higher

range of sit-and-reach scores than males (Table 8), but

within-study comparisons provide little evidence to suggest

greater flexibility in females [8, 27, 29]. No differences in

sit-and-reach test scores were identified between junior and

senior club athletes [90].

However, junior taekwondo practitioners demonstrate a

tendency to elicit lower sit-and-reach test scores than most

seniors (Table 8). These differences should be acknowl-

edged when developing preparatory strategies for different

populations within the sport.

The available data on the flexibility of taekwondo ath-

letes are mostly limited to sit-and-reach test measurements,

which provide a reasonably valid assessment of hamstring

flexibility, but a less valid indication of low-back flexion

ROM [96]. Several research groups have attempted to

assess the ROM in other joints using less conventional

methods, such as front [40] and side [27, 40, 97] leg split

tests. The limited available data demonstrate that experi-

enced male taekwondo athletes display superior side leg

split test performances when compared with novice tae-

kwondo athletes (152.3 ± 27.2� vs. 115.3 ± 8.3�, respec-

tively) [27], and successful male taekwondo competitors

produce superior front leg split test scores when compared

with their less successful counterparts (medallists:

90.4 ± 8.8 cm vs. non-medallists: 82.0 ± 7.6 cm) [40].

Although this is an important step towards enhancing the

specificity of ROM assessment in taekwondo, more

extensive research is required into the validity and reli-

ability of such measurements before being implemented

more widely to assess and monitor the flexibility of athletes

in the field. Given the nature of the technical actions per-

formed in taekwondo, there is clearly scope for more direct

and comprehensive assessments of the flexibility of tae-

kwondo athletes. Indeed, the use of clinical goniometry

may permit more direct assessment of the ROM across an

array of joints that are functionally important to the tech-

nical actions in taekwondo [94].

9 Conclusions and Future Research

The last few decades have witnessed considerable interest

in the scientific study of taekwondo, and numerous

research groups have described the physical and physio-

logical profiles of the athletes [5, 7–9, 14, 16, 27, 35, 40,

97]. International taekwondo athletes possess low levels of

body fat and a somatotype that characterises a blend of

moderate musculoskeletal tissue and relative body linear-

ity. While the VO2max of taekwondo athletes is somewhat

variable, the available data suggest that moderate to high

levels of cardio-respiratory fitness are necessary to support

the metabolic demands of fighting and to facilitate recovery

between consecutive matches. Taekwondo athletes dem-

onstrate high peak anaerobic power characteristics of the

lower limbs and this attribute appears to be conducive to

Table 8 Flexibility of taekwondo athletes as measured by the sit-

and-reach test (data are presented as mean ± SD)

Athlete characteristics (n) Sit-and-reach

(cm)

References

Males

Recreational (14) 53.2 ± 6.6 Thompson and

Vinueza [103]


Novice (7) 31.7 ± 9.7

Experienced (7) 39.1 ± 4.3

Czech international (11) 36.9 ± 4.5 Heller et al. [8]

Puerto Rican

international (13)

36.0 ± 9.1 Rivera et al. [29]

Malaysian club athletes Suzana and Pieter [90]

Senior (10) 16.83 ± 6.54

Junior (10) 17.20 ± 3.19

Females


Novice (7) 37 ± 7.2

Experienced (7) 35.9 ± 6.2

Czech international (12) 37.9 ± 3.4 Heller et al. [8]

Puerto Rican

international (9)

35.2 ± 6.0 Rivera et al. [29]


Medallists (6) 54.8 ± 4.5

Non-medallists (7) 56.6 ± 5.2

Junior recreational (21) Kim et al. [19]

Pre-training 16.2 ± 7.0^

Post-training 18.2 ± 6.4

Statistically significant difference presented within the study

(p \ 0.05): ^ Pre- vs. post-training

International athletes who compete at international level, Recrea-

tional non-competitive and/or club practitioners, SD standard

deviation


123

achieving success in international competition. The ability

to generate and sustain power output using both concentric

and ‘stretch-shortening cycle’ muscle actions of the lower

limbs may be important to support the technical and tac-

tical actions in combat. Taekwondo competitors also dis-

play moderate to high maximum dynamic strength

characteristics of the lower and upper extremities, and

moderate endurance properties of the upper extremity,

trunk and hip flexor musculature. The high degree of

flexibility displayed in the lower limbs of taekwondo ath-

letes is functionally important to support the technical

actions in the sport.

It is hoped that the physical and physiological charac-

teristics of the taekwondo athletes presented in this review

will serve as an ergonomic framework to prepare com-

petitors for the physiological demands of taekwondo

competition. However, there is a scarcity of research

available on the physical characteristics of taekwondo

athletes in relation to age, sex, competition levels and

weight categories. These shortcomings may limit the

development of specialised conditioning programmes for

different populations within the sport. More extensive

research is warranted in these areas to permit population-

specific training recommendations. Information on the

maximal dynamic strength, muscular endurance and flexi-

bility characteristics of taekwondo athletes is particularly

deficient and requires concerted research attention.

Research should consider evaluating a more extensive

range of fitness components that are pertinent to the sport.

Speed and agility, for instance, are essential for many of

the technical and tactical actions performed in taekwondo,

but these attributes have received limited research atten-

tion. Researchers should also consider addressing the lim-

itations associated with the existing knowledge base,

namely the lack of specificity of the testing protocols, and

standardisation of test procedures and use of equipment.

The development of specialised fitness tests that better

reflect the mechanical actions, activity patterns and meta-

bolic demands of the sport would improve the validity of

the data and hence their application in both research and

practice. There is a need for greater conformity in the use

of testing procedures and equipment by researchers,

including diligent description of the testing methods and

the stage of the season that testing was undertaken to

improve the efficacy of data comparisons between studies.

Finally, researchers should include appropriate sample

sizes and statistical techniques [98] to address specific

research questions, and to ensure that effects are mean-

ingful and that inferences are accurate.

Acknowledgments No sources of funding were used to assist in the

preparation of this review. The authors declare that they have no

conflicts of interest.

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Physical and Physiological Profiles of Taekwondo Athletes

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