PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
OF INDIA
India & Its NeighboursStructure & Relief Physiography of IndiaDrainage System Indian Monsoon & Climatic Regions of IndiaSoils of India Natural Vegetation in India TO
PICS
MP1-G-IPG-19
ContentsINDIA & ITS1. NEIGHBOURS 05-16
Introduction 1. ...................................................................................... 5Sino-Indian Relations 2. ....................................................................... 5Indo-Pak Border Dispute 3. ................................................................. 8India Bangladesh Border 4. ................................................................. 9The India-Nepal Border 5. ................................................................. 10The India-Bhutan Border 6. ............................................................... 10
STRUCTURE & RELIE2. F 11-16Introduction 1. .................................................................................... 11Major Rock Systems of India 2. ......................................................... 11
PHYSIOGRAPHY3. OF INDIA 17-44Introduction 1. .................................................................................... 17The Northern Mountains 2. ............................................................... 17The Great Plains 3. ............................................................................. 27The Peninsular Upland 4. .................................................................. 32The Indian Coastal Plains 5. ............................................................................ 40The Indian Islands 6. .......................................................................... 42
DRAINAGE SYSTEM 44. 5-50Himalayan Rivers System 1. .............................................................. 45The Indus River System 2. ................................................................. 45Brahmaputra River System 3. ........................................................... 47The Ganga River System 4. ................................................................ 47Peninsular River System 5. ................................................................ 49A Comparative Analysis of Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers6. ...... 49
INDIAN MONSOON &5. CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA 51-62Introduction 1. .................................................................................... 51Traditional Theory 2. .......................................................................... 51
Dynamic Theory 3. ................................................................................................ 52Factors Affecting Indian Monsoon 4. ............................................... 52Theory of Bursting Monsoon 5. ........................................................ 57Retreating Monsoon 6. ...................................................................... 59Rainfall Pattern in India 7. ............................................................................... 60Climatic Regions of India 8. ............................................................................. 61
SOILS OF INDIA 66. 3-70Introduction 1. .................................................................................... 63Classifi cation of Indian Soils 2. ......................................................... 63Major Soil Types 3. .............................................................................. 65Problems of Indian Soils 4. ................................................................ 66
NATURAL7. VEGETATION IN INDIA 71-76Introduction 1. .................................................................................... 71Forest Resource of India2. ................................................................. 71Problems of Indian Forestry3. .......................................................... 74Remedial Measures4. ......................................................................... 75Forest Policies of India5. ................................................................... 75
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CHAPTER 1
INDIA & ITS NEIGHBOURS
Introduction India occupies a central location with respect to the developing countries of Africa and Asia. It is due to its strategic location that India has been well connected with countries of the world for centuries. Due to its central location, vast size in Indian sub-continent and second most populous country of the world, India has remained signifi cant in geopolitics of the world.India is a land of rich cultural heritage and her frontiers are mostly natural and historically determined. The marginal seas of Indian Ocean constitute its southern frontier. In the south, the nearest neighbor across the sea is Sri Lanka which is separated from India through a narrow channel Palk Strait. Further west across the seas lies the Arabian Peninsula and countries of Africa.In the North, the Himalayas act as the frontier. Flanked by the lofty ranges of these mountains, lies the independent kingdom of Nepal which is landlocked buffer state between two giant states - India and China. Nepal has close affi nity with India historically and culturally. East of Nepal lies the tiny Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan. A fairly all weather good road connects India with Bhutan.Further eastward, the crest of Himalayas act as the dividing line between the Indian and the Chinese realm. The eastern boundaries of India along Myanmar are guided by the offshoots of the Himalayas. India-Bangladesh boundary also cuts across Bengal in two parts (eastern parts going to Bangladesh and western part remained within India).Location, Extent, Size and Shape:
India lies in the north-eastern hemisphere between 8°4’N and 37°6’N latitudes and 68°7’E and 97°25’E longitudes. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country, and the 82°30’E longitude has been taken as the standard meridian to determine Indian Standard Time which is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT. In terms of geographical location, India lies in the northern part of the Indian Ocean. The Indian Peninsula penetrates into the Indian Ocean dividing it into two fl anking expanses of water, i.e. the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
India’s Frontiers India Shares 15,200 km long land frontier with Pakistan, in the west and north -west, Afghanistan in the north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the North and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east.
Sino-Indian Relations In 1954 a general agreement containing the principle of ‘Panchsheel’ was announced. Panchsheel principle:
Mutual respect for each other Territorial integrity and sovereignty
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Mutual non-aggression Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs Equality and mutual benefi t Peaceful co-existence
With the Sino-Indian treaty on Tibetan Trade & Pilgrimage of April 1954, Indian government gave up the extra territories right on Tibet.Sino Indian Border may be divided into three sectors:
Western Sector This sector has boundary between Jammu & Kashmir & Sinkiang & Tibet. In 1954 (China) repeatedly intruded deeper and deeper into the western sector. By 1962 the
India & Neighboring Countries
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Chinese had penetrated far deeper and Chinese occupation line now runs from 16 to 240 km. west of the traditional line.
Middle Sector This boundary runs along the watershed from Ladakh to Nepal. It is 625 km long and adjoins the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarkhand. Chinese claim nearly 2000 sq. km. in this area.
Eastern Sector The boundary in the eastern sector runs from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a point near the Tulu Pass at the Tri-junction of India, Tibet & Myanmar. This line is called Mc Mohan line. ̀ In 1962 China occupied outposts in the Arunachal Pradesh area.
Contemporary boundary issues with China:
Doklam Issue Doklam, or Donglang in Chinese, is an area spread over less than a 100 sq km comprising a plateau and a valley at the tri-junction between India, Bhutan and China. It is surrounded by the Chumbi Valley of Tibet, Bhutan’s Ha Valley and Sikkim. Despite several rounds of engagement between China and Bhutan, the dispute between the two over Doklam has not been resolved. It fl ared up in 2017 when the Chinese were trying to construct a road in the area, and Indian troops, in aid of their Bhutanese counterparts, objected to it, resulting in the stand-off. Doklam is strategically located close to the Siliguri Corridor, which connects mainland India with its north-eastern region. The corridor, also called Chicken’s Neck, is a vulnerable point for India.
China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) China-Pakistan Economic Corridor is a collection of infrastructure projects that are currently under construction throughout Pakistan. CPEC is intended to rapidly modernize Pakistani infrastructure and strengthen its economy by the construction of modern transportation networks, numerous energy projects, and special economic zones. On 13 November 2016, CPEC became partly operational when Chinese cargo was transported overland to Gwadar Port for onward maritime shipment to Africa and West Asia.
India’s Opposition to CPEC CPEC passes through POK (Pakistan occupied Kashmir) which is part of India. India looks at it as violation of its sovereignty and territorial integrity.
China’s Infrastructure development projects along border China has been constantly constructing road, railway lines & airports along its border with India. Beijing-Lahsa rail link has brought China’s infl uence to Sikkim. These are strategic developments of China’s imperial and territorial aspirations.
Water disputes with China:
Chinese Water Bomb China has envisaged to construct largest hydroelectric power plant across Brahmaputra’s ‘the great bend’. This dam will be largest dam of the world surpassing Three Gorges Dam which is world’s largest dam at present. This will include construction of a series of 28 dams which will obstruct the free fl ow of Brahmaputra which is life line of North-east India. Potential use of this water as military tool to create artifi cial fl ood is being considered by the India.
China’s “String of Pearl” Or “Far Sea Defence” The String of pearls is a geopolitical theory on potential Chinese intentions in the Indian Ocean region. This term is used by United states and rest of world amid increasing Chinese infl uence in India ocean region. It refers to the network of Chinese military and commercial facilities and relationships along its sea lines of communication, which extend from the Chinese mainland to Port Sudan. The sea lines run through several major maritime choke points such as the Strait of Mandeb, the Strait of Malacca, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Lombok Strait as well as other strategic maritime centers in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, the Maldives, and Somalia. This includes construction of Gwadar Port in Pakistan, Hambantota port in Srilanka, Military base in Djibouti (Horn of Africa), development of port and other infrastructure projects in Maldives and Somalia. This initiative of
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China is also called as Far Sea Defence by China. According to it ,the military ports across IoR will patrol and protect sea lanes which are used by Chinese cargo.
India’s Counter to Chinese infl uence in Indian Ocean region India has deep relations with countries of Indian Ocean region (IoR) including Srilanka and Maldives. It has countered China’s presence in Pakistan by construction of Chabahar port in Iran. It has garnered access of Duqm port of Oman which will cater its military needs of refueling of naval vessels.
Quad Group Quad group which is formed by India, Australia, USA and Japan has envisaged to form a strategic partnership deal against China’s rise in the region. China has often been accused unilaterally trying to alter the power axis in the region (especially the Indian Ocean region).
Indo-Pak Border Dispute India’s western boundary along Pakistan is a superimposed boundary dividing the people who historically and culturally belong to same ancestry.These boundaries are direct product of the process of participation in 1947 and were led down on the communal grounds under Radcliffe Award.Rann of Kachch dispute:
Under Radcliffe Award, boundary was well defi ned & partly demarcated on ground. Pakistan however attested that the boundary in the Rann of Kachch area was not delimited. They argued that the Rann was not a marsh but a lake & therefore it should be equally divided between India & Pakistan.In 1965 its troops invaded the area and the dispute was referred to a boundary tribunal constituted by the International Court of Justice. Tribunal awarded nearly 10% area of Kachch to Pakistan. Finally demarcation work of the boundary was completed in early June, 1969.
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Sir Creek: The Sir Creek is a 96 km (60 mi) strip of water disputed between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch marshlands. Pakistan claims the line to follow the eastern shore of the estuary while India claims a center line. Before India’s independence, the provincial region was a part of the Bombay Presidency of British India. After India’s independence in 1947, Sindh became a part of Pakistan while Kutch remained a part of India.
Kashmir Problem: The instrument of accession of Kashmir was signed by Maharaja Hari Singh on Oct., 26 1947. Thus, Kashmir became legally & constitutionally part of Indian Union.Pakistan’s claim to Kashmir is largely based on religious & economic consideration. Pakistan has also maintained that, plebiscite as recommended by UN, is the only solution to this problem.India has held the position that Kashmir accession had given India’s sovereignty over Kashmir. Pakistan invaded Kashmir in 1947, 65 & 1971 & 2000.
Siachen Glacier dispute: Siachen glacier attracted attention when Pakistan permitted some Japanese tourists for visiting some peaks under Indian possession.
Pakistani troops established an observation post on the Saltoro Range. To counter this move India launched Operation Meghdoot on April 1984. Since then both countries are maintaining troops in this inhospitable environment.
India Bangladesh Border This boundary was determined under Radcliffe Award. In Kooch Bihar region, the boundary award left a number of small enclaves of India & Pakistan territory on either side of the border.There are areas of overlapping claims.
Rajshahi (Bangladesh) & Murshidabad (India) - It is the disputed place where the channel of Ganga punctuates frequently thus the boundary has shifted several times.Karimpur (India) and Daulatpur (Bangladesh) - In this instance Radcliffe Award was amended and half way line in the Matabhanga River was designated to form the boundary. Bangladesh gained about 13 sq. km from this award.Sylhet (Ban) & Garo, Kasi & Jaintia Hills Distt. (Ind.) - This area is densely forested & hence demarcation is diffi cult.
Water disputes with Bangladesh
Teesta river water dispute The Teesta River is a tributary of river Brahmaputra fl owing through the Indian states of West Bengal and Sikkim through Bangladesh before emptying to the Bay of Bengal. It forms the border between Sikkim and West Bengal. It fl ows through the cities of Rangpo, Jalpaiguri and Kalimpong and joins the Jamuna (Brahmaputra) in Bangladesh. The dispute is regarding water sharing of River Teesta between India and Bangladesh. Bangladesh wants a higher share than it gets now. Currently, its share is lower than that of India’s. According to the report of Asian Foundation in 2013, its fl ood plain covers about 14% of the total cropped area of Bangladesh and provides direct livelihood opportunities to approximately 73% of its population. Teesta is the lifeline of North Bengal and almost half a dozen of districts of West Bengal are dependent on the waters of Teesta. Joint River Commission (JRC) was established by India and Bangladesh in the Indo-Bangla Treaty of Friendship. In 2011,an Interim deal was struck that was supposed to last for 15 years, gave India 42.5% and Bangladesh 37.5% of Teesta water.
Bangladesh’s demand: Bangladesh claims 50% of the water between December and May every year because during that time of year the water fl ow to the country drops drastically.
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Farakka Barrage: Farakka barrage is an issue of contention between India and Bangladesh as Bangladesh asserts that it is not getting fair amount of water share in the Ganges, due to barrage during barrage season.
The India-Nepal Border India has common border with Nepal which stretches for 1,752 km from the trijunction of Nepal, Tibet and Uttarakhand state of India in the west to Sikkim state of India in the east. Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim touch the Nepalese border with India. Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border runs in the east-west direction almost along te foothills of the Shiwalik Range. Although there had been numerous border confl icts between British India and Nepal since 1769, the present Indo-Nepal boundary is peaceful and there is no boundary dispute between the two countries.Nepal is a landlocked country which is sandwiched between two giant countries of China and India. Consequently, Nepal has pursued its foreign policy very carefully and has allowed both India and China to construct roads linking its capital city of Kathmandu with its two big neighbours. Nepal has close contacts with India by treaties of friendship and protection from external aggression.
The India-Bhutan Border Bhutan is a buffer’ state between India and China and shares 587 km long border with India. Bhutan is protected from external invasion, although it became a fully sovereign nation and became a member of the United Nations in 1971. India’s border with Bhutan is quite peaceful and there is not boundary dispute between the two countries.Bhutan’s border with China follows the crest of the Great Himalayas-the watershed for the northern part. China rejected the watershed principle and claimed nearly 775 sq km of northern Bhutan as its own territory. Bhutan has friendly relations with India which are based on the 1949 treaty. This treaty provides a sound framework to ensure ‘perpetual peace and friendship’. Under this treaty, India has got the rights to protect Bhutan’s sovereignty and defend its borders. Accordingly, India formally protested in 1959 against China’s claim over Bhutanese territory. China denounced India’s rights of protection of Bhutan, and asserted that any border dispute with Bhutan could be settled with Bhutan without Indian interference, India maintained its right to defend Bhutanese borders as per provisions of the 1949 treaty. India has been closely helping Bhutan in its defence efforts. Indian army units are permanently stationed all along the Bhutan-China border. India took a fi rm stand in favour of Bhutan when China claimed a part of Doklam in June, 2017.
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