Physico-chemical properties of drinking water

7/28/2019 Physico-chemical properties of drinking water

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Nigerian Journal of Technology (NIJOTECH)Vol. 31, No. 2, July, 2012, pp. 116127.

Copyright c2012 Faculty of Engineering,

University of Nigeria. ISSN 1115-8443

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSES

OF DRINKING WATER IN IBENO LOCAL GOVERNMENTAREA OF AKWA IBOM STATE

E.C. Ukponga, B.U. Peterb

aDepartment of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.

Email: [email protected] of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.

Abstract

Physicochemical, heavy metals and bacteriological analysis of drinking water samples from ten(10) geo-referenced points in five communities of Ibeno Local Government Area were conductedto ascertain their quality. Two sampling sessions were carried out in each season; totaling four(4) different sessions for both wet and dry season. Physicochemical and heavy metal parameterswere assessed in the drinking water samples and the results were compared with World HealthOrganization (WHO) and Federal Ministry of Environment (FMENV) standards. Some physico-chemical parameters like pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, alkalinity, total dissolved solids,total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, phosphate, nickel, cadmium and copper showedpositive (+), deviation from WHO and FMENV Standards (that is not exceeded the standards),while calcium, zinc, iron, lead and manganese deviated negatively from these standards. Alsoten (10) bacterial species isolated were identified as Bacillus subtilis, micrococcus varians, Esh-erichia coli, streptococcus, faecalis, enterococus faecalis, salmonella typhi, staphylococcus aureus,

clostridium perfringens, proteus vulgaris and pseudomonas aeruginosa. The total coliform countof the water samples ranged from 0 cfu/100ml at Mkpanak to 38 cfu/100ml at Ikot Inwang. Themost frequently occurring bacteria were, E. Coli (27%) followed by C. Perfringens (20%) whileB subtilis (3%), M. varians (3%) and P. vulgaris (3%) were the least. High counts of indicatorbacteria also constitute a threat to public health. Bacteriological quality of the drinking watersamples in some areas except Mkpanak did not meet the WHO recommended standard. Againstthe background of the implications of the findings, the study recommends the establishment of goodwater works for provision of good quality drinking water, modern sanitary and sewage disposalfacilities, creation of awareness among the people enforcement by regulatory bodies and regularmonitoring of drinking water quality, its compliance with the standards and its impact on thehealth of the people of Ibeno Local Government Area.

Keywords: physicochemical, heavy metals, water quality, dissolved oxygen, and bacteriological quality

1. Introduction

Globally, water is one of the most abundant andessential commodities of man and occupies about 97per cent of the earths surface. About 70 per centof this volume of earths water is contained in theoceans, 21 per cent in polar ice and glacier, 0.3 to0.8 per cent in ground water, 0.009 per cent in inlandfresh waters such as lakes while 0.00009 percent is con-tained in rivers [1]. The earths organisms are made up

mostly of water, a tree is about 60% water by weight,and most animals (including human) are about 50-

65% water by weight. Each of us needs only a dozenor so cupfuls of water per day to survive while hugeamounts of water are needed to supply food, shelterneeds and wants. Water also plays a key role in sculpt-ing the earth surface, moderating climate and dilutingpollutant [2]. Surface waters may include reservoirs,dams, oxidation ponds, and man-made lakes accord-ing to [3]. Apart from atmospheric water in the formof hail and snow, there abounds in Nigeria all otherwater resources. Akwa Ibom State in which Ibeno

Local Government Area is situated is in the southernpart of Nigeria. The study area Ibeno Local Govern-

Nigerian Journal of Technology Vol. 31, No. 2, July 2012.


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Analysis of Drinking Water in Ibeno LGA Akwa Ibom State 117

ment Area is one of the coastal local government areasas well as an oil producing area in Akwa Ibom Statebordered by the Atlantic ocean and has various en-vironmental problems including pollution of availablewater sources. There are many types of water sources

available for domestic, recreational, fishing and indus-trial uses in Ibeno Local Government Area. These in-clude ponds, streams (shallow wells), boreholes withhand pumps and rain water, but they all are pollutedby human and industrial activities in the area.

Water pollution according to Daniels [4] is said tooccur when a chemical, physical or biological sub-stance exceeds the capacity of water body to assimi-late or break down the substance that can cause harmto the aquatic ecosystem. Generally, pollution may bedefined as the release of substances or energy in thewrong amount at the wrong place or at the wrong timeby man in quantities that damage either his healthor resources. The non-availability of potable watersource in most of the town, villages, hamlets and fish-ing settlements in Ibeno Local Government Area isfound to be one of the major environmental problems.

Ibeno Local Government Area is a coastal sub-region characterized by abundant water resources.The absence of potable water supply for domestic usein some parts of Ibeno has compelled the populationto rely heavily on natural sources of water supply fordomestic uses. The quality of most of these sourcesof water supply are doubtful. Both people in mostparts of the area drink from sources and use water

without treatment or having regards to the quality ex-cept a few sources in Mkpanak where Exxonmobil sup-plies well treated drinking water. The anthropogenicand natural phenomenon seems to affect water qual-ity in the study area. These include environmentalhazards such as gas flaring, oil spillage, washing ofmaterial with detergents into water bodies, wastewa-ter and sludge from industrial processes, poor sanita-tion, storm surges, salt water extrusion and intrusion,sanitary sewer lines, use of unclean vessels to fetchwater from wells which is a common practice in thearea. One of the most deadly and wide spread pollu-

tants of water is untreated or inadequately treated hu-man waste and sewage released into waterways. Thisforms the major causes of illness and death in devel-oping countries. Millions of people die every year fromillness caused by water pollution which include diar-rhea, respiratory diseases, circulatory disorders, ty-phoid, infectious hepatitis, enteritis, polio, schistoso-miasis, amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery), cholera anda lot of others [5] and [6].

The physical reality of life is defined by water [7].Water is a unique liquid, without which life wouldbe impossible. On a global scale, water abundance isnot a problem the problem is water availability in the

right place at the right time in the right form [8]. Welive on a planet in which the aqueous environment

dominates [9] and there would be no life on earthwithout water and its unique properties.

Pure water has a neutral pH value of 7. It is thusdescribed as neutral to litmus test. The pH can be al-tered by introduction of impurities such as acids, bases

carbonates or bicarbonates. The electrical conductiv-ity of pure water is zero. The conductivity would in-crease in the presence of ionic species or impurities.

Christopherson [7] reported that precipitation thatreaches the earths surface follows two basic pathways;it either flows overland or soaks into the soil. Waterthat flows over the ground is often called run-off. Theterm surface water refers to water flowing in streamsand rivers as well as water stored in natural or artifi-cial lakes. Popek [10], defined surface water as waterthat flows or rests on land and is open to the atmo-sphere, lake, ponds, lagoons, rivers, streams, ditches,and man-made impoundments are bodies of surfacewater.

Groundwater is accessed for use through wells,springs, or dug out ponds. Formations from whichground water is derived in the zone of saturationhave considerably different characteristics than thesoil near the surface (10). Solowowe [11] and Tumwine[12] referred to ground water as phreatic. In addition,Desilva [13], reported that part of the precipitationthat falls on the land may infiltrate the surface, per-colate downward through the soil under the force ofgravity, and become what is known as ground water.

1.1. Microbiological status of water supplyPure water is completely free from micro-organisms

such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and so on. One of themost important attributes of good quality water isthat it should be free from disease-causing organismssuch as pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa, or par-asitic worms [14]. The presence or absence of livingorganisms In water can be one of the most useful indi-cators of its quality. In streams, rivers and lakes, thediversity of fish and insects species provides a mea-sure of the biological balance or health of the aquaticenvironment. A wide variety of different species of

organisms usually indicates that the stream or lakeis unpolluted. The disappearance of certain speciesand over abundance of other groups of organisms isgenerally one of the effects of pollution [14].

A very important biological indicator of water qual-ity and pollution used in environmental technologyis the group of bacteria called coliforms. Conse-quently, water that has been recently contaminatedwith sewage will always contain coliforms [15] and [16].A particular species of coliforms found in domesticsewage is called Eschericha Coli (E. Coli). Coliformbacteria are organisms that hardly survive in waterlonger than most pathogens. They are also relatively

easy to detect. In general, it can be stated that if asample of water is found not to contain coliforms, then



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118 E.C. UKPONG & B.U. PETER

there has not been recent sewage pollution and thepresence of pathogens is therefore extremely unlikely.On the other hand, if coliforms are detected, there isa possibility of recent sewage pollution. However, ad-ditional tests would be required to confirm that the

coliforms are from sewage and not from other sources[17 and 18].

A total coliform test is particularly applicable to theanalysis of drinking water to determine its sanitaryquality. Drinking water must be free from colforms ofany kind. On the other hand, a fecal coliform test ismore appropriate for monitoring pollution of naturalsurface water or groundwater, since a total coliformcount would be inconclusive in this case.

1.2. Description of the study area

Ibeno Local government area has a coastal area of

over 1,200 square kilometers. It is situated on theeastern flanks of Niger Delta which in turn is partof the gulf of Guinea. It is located at the south endof Akwa Ibom State with latitude 4321 and 4341North of Equator and longitude 7541 and 8021 eastof Greenwich Meridian. The communities on the westbank of the Qua Iboe River do not have access tothe hinterland except by boat through the river andcreeks.

Qua Iboe River estuary which lies within the studyarea coordinates of has Douglas Creek emptying intoit. This creek is about 900m long and 8m deep. It

is the point where petroleum exploration and pro-duction (E & P) waste from the Exxon Mobil QuaIboe Terminal (QIT) tank farm are transferred to thelower Qua Iboe River Estuary and adjourning creeksthrough two 24 diameter pipes. The Exxon Mobiloily sludge dumpsite is located adjacent to this creekand the flare stack where gas is flared continuously isalso situated a few meters from this creek [19], [20].Some communities in Ibeno Local government areasare located at the bank of Qua Iboe River while oth-ers are located on the Atlantic Littoral. Communi-ties such as Mkpanak, Upenekang, Iwuoachang, arelocated on the east bank of the Qua Iboe River, Oko-

rutip and Ikot Inwang are on the west bank of theQua Iboe River while Iwuopom-Opolom, Itak Abasi,Aketa, Okoroitak are located on the Atlantic coastline[21].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of samples

The study area is coastal and riverine in nature. Forthe purpose of this study, five communities were ran-domly selected and sampled, using a table of randomnumbers. Out of these five communities, two were ac-cessed through boat while three were accessed throughthe hinterland (onshore). Two sample locations were

taken from each of the five communities making upa total of ten water sampling points. The samplinglocations designated WS1, WS2, WS3 WS10 fellwithin Mkpanak, Upenekang (LGA Headquarters),Iwuoachang, Ikot Inwang and Okorutip. Water sam-

ples were taken from drinking water sources locatedin all the five communities.

For this study, two sampling seasons were employed(wet and dry seasons), taking cognizance of seasonalchanges which may occur in certain parameters. Sam-ple collection was done at two different times in eachseason. The wet season sampling was carried out inJuly, 2008 and August, 2008 while dry season samplewas carried out in December 2008 and January 2009,the results are shown in the Tables (1 and 2).

During the field work activities, a hand-held Ger-man GPS Model 12 XL; S/N 84567093 was used to

take the coordinates at each sampling points andrecorded in a field notebook. After every samplingsession, laboratory analysis took place within the con-fines of the respective holding time of the sam-ples collected. Samples collected were analyzed forphysiochemical and bacteriological parameters (Table1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7).

2.2. Data requirement and sources

The research relied heavily on both primary andsecondary sources of data sets. The primary data wereobtained from observations, careful laboratory analy-

sis of physicochemical and bacteriological parametersof water samples collected. The secondary sources in-cluded information obtained from published and un-published documents as well as internet and library.

2.3. Sample collection and treatment

Sampling containers were pre-sterilizes with hot wa-ter. At each location, samples for physicochemicalparameters were collected in a sterilized two (2) litresplastics container which was covered and labeled WS1(water sample 1) to WS10 representative of differentsampling locations. Prior to sample collection, the

container was thoroughly rinsed with the water to besampled. The portable meters were calibrated andstandardized according to the manufacturers instruc-tions to ensure proper instrument functioning andresponse. Samples for bacteriological analysis wereaseptically collected in a separate similar samplingcontainer.

The water was sampled by first of all rinsing the two(2) litres plastic container with water of the locationto be sampled and with an aid of a bailer. Water sam-ple was drawn out of the open wells and hand-dug wellwhich serve as sources of drinking water. For bacte-riological samples, the water drawn out with the aidof a bailer was aseptically transferred into the sam-ple container. For water from hand-pumps, boreholes



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and tap, this was allowed to rush for about 5 min-utes then the sample was collected with observationof all the precautions of the water sample collectiontechniques for both physicochemical and bacteriolog-ical analysis. It is important to note that most drink-

ing water sources in the study area are undergroundwater except water supplies at Mkpanak donated byExxon Mobil to the community. The people of thestudy area do not have drinkable surface water Theground water temperature values were taken in-situusing mercury-in-glass broth thermometer. Water pHwas taken in-situ using portable pH meter, SUNTEXModel TS-2. The procedure of sample collection wasrepeated at all sampling points with different samplecontainers used.

In the field, samples collected were all transferredinto an ice cube cooler and transported to the labora-

tory for analysis of bacteriological and physicochem-ical parameters. In the laboratory, the samples werepreserved by refrigeration and were analyzed withinthe confines of their respective holding time.

2.4. Method of data analysis

The underlisted parameters were investigated usingthe drinking water samples collected.

1. Physical Parameters: temperature, turbidity, pHlevel and electrical conductivity (Table 1 and 2).

2. Chemical Parameters: Calcium (Ca), tetraox-osulphate (vi) (PO43) dissolved oxygen (DO)Chloride (CL-), total suspended solids (TSS),alkalinity, nitrate (NO3-), total dissolve solids(TDS), total hardness (Tables 3-4).

3. Heavy Metals: Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb),Nickel (Ni), Cadmium (Cd), Manganese (Mn),Copper (Cu), (Tables 3-4).

4. Bacteriological Parameters: Total coliform count.

Standard experimental methods were used to deter-

mine the above named parameters (Tables 5-13)

3. Results and Discussion

Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 show the summary result ofall the physicochemical and heavy metals parametersinvestigated in drinking water samples in Ibeno Lo-cal Government Area during wet and dry seasons re-spectively. Table 3 and 4 show the means of physico-chemical and heavy metals parameters investigated indrinking water samples and comparison of this studyaverage with World Health Organization (22, 23) andFederal Ministry of Environment (FMENV) standardsrespectively.

3.1. Physicochemical and heavy metal analysis

The results of the physicochemical and heavy metalanalysis of the drinking water sources sampled withsummary description of individual parameters for

both wet and dry seasons during the fieldwork areas presented in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. pH theresults indicate that there were slight difference in pHvalues of dry and wet seasons. A maximum pH of 6.80and a minimum of 6.35 were obtained during the dryseason with mean of 6.53 while for wet season, a max-imum of 6.70 and minimum of 5.60 with mean of 6.32were obtained. The pH values of other locations ex-cept for WS1, WS2, WS5, WS6, WS9 and WS10 (wetseason) and WS1, WS2, WS4, WS5 (dry season) re-spectively (Table 1 and 2) were below WHO (6.5 8.5)and FMENV (6.5) limits. pH is one of the most im-

portant measurements commonly carried out in nat-ural water and waste waters to ascertain the qualityof the water. pH is the negative logarithm of hydro-gen ion (H) concentration. It determines the acidityand basicity of a medium. Hydrogen ion concentra-tion is critical to aquatic ecosystem because it affectsthe growth, reproduction and abundance of species.Also, it affects virtually all enzymes, hormones andother chemical components of the body which con-trol metabolism, growth and development. A high pHvalue ( 8.5) gives necessary condition for which freeammonia (NH3) is oxidized to ammonium (NH

+4 ) ion

and this is toxic to aquatic biota [24]. The mean pH

value for wet season was below the WHO and FMENVstandards of 6.5 8.5 and 6.5 respectively

3.1.1. Temperature

Temperature of water is the degree of coldness orhotness of the water. It is a very important param-eter which determines the level of dissolved oxygenand bacterial activity in water. Temperature of a par-ticular water system usually affects the solubility ofsubstances in it; certain substances dissolve signifi-cantly in water at high temperature, others do so at

low temperature. On the other hand, at low tempera-ture, the rate of sedimentation and filtration decreasethereby adversely affecting the water treatment pro-cess. The temperature together with pH measurementserve as stabilization indicators for groundwater wells[10]. The maximum and minimum temperature ob-tained during the wet season (25.9C and 25.0C);respectively with a mean of 25.6C were within theWHO and FMENV standards. For the dry season,26.8C and 25.9C were recorded as maximum andminimum temperatures respectively with a mean of26.4C and this study average of 26.0C (Tables 3).These values were within the WHO and FMENV lim-its of 27 28C and 35C respectively in all watersample locations.



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Table 1: Percentage Bogue Compound Composition of Main Compounds in Various BinderMaterials.

POFA

10%

RHA

30%

BPA

10%

AHA

20%

GHA

10%

BGSA

10%

WA

20%

Control

C3S 1.57 -125.04 52.39 -25.70 -20.20 23.31 -35.69 50.7

C2S 31.0 193.81 14.88 90.14 84.22 45.54 92.69 22.5

C3A 8.093 11.14 11.4 10.91 19.74 10.02 22.86 8.6

C4AF 10.114 6.19 7.24 7.54 8.15 7.5 7.5 9.4

* POFA=Palm Oil Fuel Ash, RHA=Rice Husk Ash, AHA=Acha Husk Ash,

BGSA=Bambara Groundnut Shell Ash, GHA=Groundnut Husk Ash, BPA=Bone

Powder Ash and WA=Wood Ash.

Table 2: Chemical Analysis of Cement Replacement Materials.

Elemental % Composition

oxides AHA BGSA BPA GHA RHA WA C

Fe2O3 2.40 2.16 1.33 4.35 0.95 2.35 2.5

SiO2 40.46 33.36 3.16 54.03 67.30 3.80 20.70Al2O3 5.50 1.75 6.39 39.81 4.90 28 5.75

CaO 0.84 10.91 28.68 1.70 1.36 10.53 64.0

SO3 0 6.40 0 0.09 2.80 0 2.75

3.1.2. Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity can be used as an approxi-mate measure of the total concentration of inorganicsubstances in water. It is a measure of the ability ofa water sample to convey an electrical current and itis related to the concentration of ionized substances

in water. From the study the mean values for electri-cal conductivity were 291.2 s/cm for wet season and274.9 s/cm for dry season. Values of conductivityin all the ten (10) sample locations were within theWHO 1993 standard of 1000 micro siren per centime-ter (s/cm). The FMENVT standard has no limitfor this parameter.

3.1.3. Alkalinity

The required doses of various chemicals depend on

the alkalinity level of the water. Very high level of al-kalinity unlike acidity indicates the presence of indus-trial or chemical pollution (Nathanson, 2000). Waterwith moderate amounts of alkalinity can be consumedwithout adverse health effect but excessive concentra-tions would cause objectionable taste because alkalinesolutions are bitter. The minimum and maximum val-ues of alkalinity for wet season were 0.5mg/l and 14.0mg/l; and 0.6 mg/l and 15.0 mg/l for dry season (Ta-ble 1 and 2). There is a slight difference in meanvalues of (6.78 mg/l) for wet season and (7.64 mg/l)for dry season and this study average 7.21 mg/l: allthese values as well as values of all the sample loca-tions are below WHO standard of 100-200 mg/l. TheFMENV has no limit for this parameter, (Table 3).

3.1.4. Solid Content

The solids investigated in this study show a to-tal dissolved solids (TDS) and total suspended solids(TSS). Separation of dissolved and suspended solids inwater was accomplished by means of filtration. Highlevel of solids in water increases water density affect

osmoregulation of fresh water organisms and reducesthe solubility of gases such as oxygen (Radiojevic andBashkin, 1998). The maximum and minimum valuesof 142.8 mg/l and 120.0 mg/l for wet season were ob-tained for TDS with a mean of 131.0 mg/l. Whilemaximum and minimum values 143.7 mg/l and 120.7mg/l were obtained for the dry season with a mean of145.4 mg/l. This study average of 138.2 mg/l is belowthe WHO standard of 1000 mg/l. The values in all thewater samples locations were also lower than WHOlimits. There is no TDS standard by FMENv. Themaximum, minimum and mean of values 197.4 mg/l,

71.6mg/l and 151.4 mg/l respectively for wet seasonwere obtained for total suspended solids (TSS) (Table1). For dry season, the maximum and minimum val-ues were 198.1 mg/l and 81.4 mg/l respectively witha mean of 146.0mg/l (Table 3). This study average of148.7mg/l is lower than those of WHO (250mg/l) andFMENV (600mg/l) standards (Table 4). The valuesin all the ten (10) water sample locations for both wetand dry seasons were lower than WHO and FMENvstandards.

3.1.5. Turbidity

The maximum, minimum and mean values of28.63mg/l, 2.80mg/l and 18.8 mg/l were obtained forthe wet season (Table 1). The maximum and min-



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imum values of 22.8 mg/l and 1.3mg/l respectivelywith a mean of 13.68mg/L were obtained for the dryseason (Table 2). This study average of 16.2 mg/l re-veals that this value is lower than the normal range of25o (11) WHO standard. FMENv has no stipulated

limit for turbidity. It is to be noted that the values inwater sample locations at Upenekang (WS4) and IkotInwang (WS7 and WS8) were higher in wet seasonthan 25 (o11) WHO standard (Table 1).

3.1.6. Dissolved Oxygen

The maximum and minimum values for dissolvedoxygen was 2.24mg/l and 0.65mg/l respectively with amean of 1.15mg/l for wet season. For dry season, themaximum and minimum was 2.20mg/l and 0.9mg/lwith a mean of 1.07mg/l were obtained. This studyaverage is 1.11 mg/l (Table 4). This value is within

the limit set by WHO (15mg/l). There is no limit setby FMENv.

3.1.7. Total Hardness

The maximum and minimum values of 109.5 mg/land 3.3mg/l with mean of 50.6mg/l in wet season (Ta-ble 4) were recorded while maximum and minimumvalues 80.2 mg/l and 2.7 mg/l with a mean of 43.5mg/l were recorded for dry season. The study aver-age value of 47.1 mg/l is lower than WHO (100mg/l)standard. There is no limit set by FMENv. It is tobe noted that for water sample locations at Ikot In-wang (WS7, and WS8), the value obtained during wet

season were higher than WHO standard see (Table 3).

3.1.8. Nitrate

Nutrients in water are the primary productivityindex and give a true indication of species abun-dance and activity of aquatic life. For the wet sea-son, the maximum value of 11.87mg/l, minimumof 1.58mg/l and mean of 6.65mg/l were recordedfor nitrate. During the dry season, the maximumvalue of 12.5mg/l, minimum of 1.23mg/l and meanof 5.5mg/l were recorded for nitrate. These valuesare within the WHO values 10-50 mg/l. The phos-

phate values obtained from this study during wetseason are 3.65mg/l (maximum), 0.065mg/l (min-imum) and 2.23mg/l (mean). Dry season valueare 3.65mg/l (maximum), 0.03mg/l (minimum) and2.07 mg/l (mean). It is to be noted that maxi-mum value (3.65mg/L) of phosphate recorded for wetand dry season are slightly higher than WHO stan-dard (3.50mg/L) but below the FMENv standard of5.00mg/l. Also, it is to be pointed out that these highvalues were recorded for water sample locations at IkotInwang (WS7 and WS8). A level of nitrate above thethreshold of 45 mg/L is a potential health risk to preg-nant women and infants. A high level of nitrate causesmethaemoglobinemia. High levels of phosphate in wa-ter favours the growth of blue green algae which could



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release toxic cyanotoxins are detrimental to health.The average levels of nitrate (6.08mg/l) and phos-phate (2.23mg/l) in this study were lower than WHOstandards of 10.0 50.0mg/l and 3.5mg/l respectivelyand FMENv gives no standard for nitrate but phos-

phate level is within the range of (5.00mg/l).

3.1.9. Chloride

The maximum and minimum levels of chlorides inthe water sample investigated were 215.9mg/l and155.0mg/l respectively with a mean of 181.4mg/l forthe wet season respectively (Table 1). Also, the max-imum and minimum levels 202.0mg/l and 97.5mg/lrespectively with mean of 168.9mg/l were recorded indry season (Table 2). This study average of 175.2mg/l(Table 3) is lower than the WHO limit of 250mg/lstandard. FMENv has not set limit for this parame-

ter.

3.1.10. Calcium

The calcium level of the water sample investigatedin the study area recorded maximum, minimum andmeans values of 12.9mg/l, 2.5mg/l and 7.9 mg/l re-spectively for wet season (Table 1); and 12.7mg/l,2.5mg/l and 7.8mg/l respectively for dry season (Ta-ble 2). This study average of 7.9mg/l was slightlyhigher than 7.5 mg/l WHO water quality standard.FMENv has no limit for this parameter. It is tobe noted that, these values were slightly higher than

WHO standard for water sample from Ikot Inwang(WS7 and WS8), and Okorutip (WS9 and WS10) forboth wet and dry seasons. The seasonal variation ofwater quality between dry and wet seasons is veryclear as shown in Table 1,2 and 11 respectively. Ac-cording to the method described by APHA AWWA-WPCF [15]. The reason for the variation of waterquality being that surface run-off during rainy (wet)season carries so many particles that cause water pol-lution compared to the dry season where water parti-cles settle thereby remaining purer.

The health effect of the consumers of this waterquality is not safe for the analysis of water from IbenoLocal Government Area. Therefore, alternative sup-ply for the people in the area should be provided byExxonmobil Qua Iboe Terminal (QIT) or by the Gov-ernment of Akwa Ibom State.

3.1.11. Heavy Metals

It can be seen from Tables 3 and 4 that all thedrinking water samples in the study area containedall the heavy metals investigated at varying concen-trations. They were zinc, iron, lead, nickel, cadmium,manganese and copper. Some of these metals are re-quired in minute quantities by plants, animals andman but are toxic in relatively high concentrations.In humans, some of these metals are essential to life

in that they are compounds of enzymes, protein, vita-mins and other substances, which maintain or regulatevital functions. However, others, such as lead and cad-mium serve no known necessary function in any liv-ing organism. Even in comparatively small quantities

they can cause severe damage to fauna, flora and man.This study average revealed that zinc (5.13mg/l), iron(2.37 mg/l) and manganese (0.17mg/l) did not meetthe minimum standards of 5.0 mg/l, 1.0mg/l and0.10mg/l respectively recommended by WHO (Table4). Meanwhile, zinc (5.13 mg/l), Iron (2.3mg/l andlead (3.68mg/l) were also higher than FMENv lim-its of (1.00mg/l), (2.00mg/l) and ( 1.00mg/l) respec-tively. The nickel level (0.27mg/l), cadmium (0.003mg/l) and copper (0.67 mg/L) were within the WHO(1993) standard of 5.0mg/l, 0.005mg/l and 1.0mg/l re-spectively (Table 4.). The FMENv do not have limit

for nickel, manganese and copper (Table 4). It is per-tinent to note that the levels of zinc, iron, lead, man-ganese and copper investigated at water samples fromIkot Inwang (WS7 and WS8) and Okorutip (WS9 andWS10) were higher than WHO recommended (Tables1 and 2).

3.2. Bacteriological/microbiological analysis

The results of total coliform count with mean val-ues for both wet and dry seasons and coliform den-sity (Tables 11 and 12) revealed that total coliformcount ranged from 0 to 38 cfu/100ml (for both sea-sons). The highest count (38 cfu/100ml) was recorded

at Ikot Inwang while the least (0 cfu/100ml) wasrecorded at Mkpanak with coliform density range of0 cfu/100ml at Mkpanak and 38 cfu/100ml at IkotInwang (Table 3). Tables 5 10 shows the bacterialisolates and their percentage occurrence from drink-ing water sampled in Ibeno Local Government Areafor both seasons. The bacterial isolates for both sea-sons encountered were Bacilus subtilis, micrococcusvarians, Escherichia coli, streptococcus faecalis, En-terococcus faecalis, salmonella typhi, staphy lococcusaureus, clostridium perfringens, proteus vulgaris andpseudomonas aeruginosa. The most frequently occur-

ring organism was E. coli (27%) followed by C. Per-fringens (20%) while the least were Bacillus Subtilis(3%), M. Varians (3%), P. Valgaris (3%) (Table 7).

4. Conclusion and Recommendations

From the physic-chemical and bacteriological anal-yses of drinking water in Ibeno Local GovernmentArea of Akwa Ibom State, it can be concluded thatIbeno has no good source of drinking water qualityand concerned authorities such as Exxon Mobil QuaIboe Terminal (QIT) and State Government of AkwaIbom State should provide alternatives for the supplyof good quality water in the area, in order to save livesof men and animals living within the area.



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Physico-chemical properties of drinking water

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