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Physics 121: Electricity & Magnetism – Lecture 13E-M Oscillations and AC
CurrentDale E. GaryWenda Cao
NJIT Physics Department
December 5, 2007
Electromagnetic Oscillations
C
qU E 2
2
2
2
1LiU B C
qU E 2
2
2
2
1LiU B
December 5, 2007
Oscillating Quantities We will write oscillating quantities with a lower-case symbol, and
the corresponding amplitude of the oscillation with upper case.
Examples:
Oscillating Quantity Amplitude
Voltage v V
Current i I
Charge q Q
)cos( tQq
)(cos22
222
tC
Q
C
q
dt
tdI
dt
di )cos(
December 5, 2007
Derivation of Oscillation Frequency We have shown qualitatively that LC circuits act like an
oscillator. We can discover the frequency of oscillation by looking at the
equations governing the total energy.
Since the total energy is constant, the time derivative should be zero:
But and , so making these substitutions: This is a second-order, homogeneous differential equation,
whose solution is i.e. the charge varies according to a cosine wave with amplitude
Q and frequency . Check by taking two time derivatives of charge:
Plug into original equation:
22
2
1
2Li
C
qUUU BE
0dt
diLi
dt
dq
C
q
dt
dU
dt
dqi
2
2
dt
qd
dt
di 0
2
2
C
q
dt
qdL
)cos( tQq
)sin( tQdt
dq)cos(2
2
2
tQdt
qd
0)cos()cos(22
2
tC
QtLQ
C
q
dt
qdL 0
12 C
LLC
1
dt
dqi
2
2
dt
qd
dt
di
December 5, 2007
1. The expressions below give the charge on a capacitor in an LC circuit. Choose the one that will have the greatest maximum current?
A. q = 2 cos 4t
B. q = 2 cos(4t+/2)
C. q = 2 sin t
D. q = 4 cos 4t
E. q = 2 sin 5t
Which Current is Greatest?
December 5, 2007
2. The three circuits below have identical inductors and capacitors. Rank the circuits according to the time taken to fully discharge the capacitor during an oscillation, greatest first.
A. I, II, III.B. II, I, III.C. III, I, II.D. III, II, I.E. II, III, I.
Time to Discharge Capacitor
I. II. III.
December 5, 2007
Charge, Current & Energy Oscillations
The solution to the equation is , which gives the charge oscillation.
From this, we can determine the corresponding oscillation of current:
And energy
But recall that , so .
That is why our graph for the energy oscillation had the same amplitude for both UE and UB. Note that
)cos( tQq02
2
C
q
dt
qdL
)sin( tQdt
dqi
)(cos22
222
tC
Q
C
qU E
)(sin2
1
2
1 2222 tLQLiU B
LC
1 )(sin
22
2
tC
QU B
C
Qtt
C
QUU BE 2
)](sin)([cos2
222
2
Constant
December 5, 2007
Damped Oscillations Recall that all circuits have at least a
little bit of resistance. In this general case, we really have
an RLC circuit, where the oscillations get smaller with time. They are said to be “damped oscillations.”
Damped Oscillations
Then the power equation becomesLRte 2/
Ridt
diLi
dt
dq
C
q
dt
dU 2
Power lost due to resistive heating As before, substituting and gives the differential equation for q dt
dqi
2
2
dt
qd
dt
di
02
2
C
q
dt
dqR
dt
qdL
22 )2/( LR )cos(2/ tQeq LRt
Solution:
December 5, 2007
3. How does the resonant frequency for an ideal LC circuit (no resistance) compare with ’ for a non-ideal one where resistance cannot be ignored?
A. The resonant frequency for the non-ideal circuit is higher than for the ideal one (’ > ).
B. The resonant frequency for the non-ideal circuit is lower than for the ideal one (’ < ).
C. The resistance in the circuit does not affect the resonant frequency—they are the same (’ = ).
Resonant Frequency
December 5, 2007
Alternating Current The electric power out of a home or office power socket is in the form of
alternating current (AC), as opposed to the direct current (DC) of a battery.
Alternating current is used because it is easier to transport, and easier to “transform” from one voltage to another using a transformer.
In the U.S., the frequency of oscillation of AC is 60 Hz. In most other countries it is 50 Hz.
The figure at right shows one way to make an alternating current by rotating a coil of wire in a magnetic field. The slip rings and brushes allow the coil to rotate without twisting the connecting wires. Such a device is called a generator.
It takes power to rotate the coil, but that power can come from moving water (a water turbine), or air (windmill), or a gasoline motor (as in your car), or steam (as in a nuclear power plant).
tdm sin )sin( tIi d
December 5, 2007
RLC Circuits with AC Power When an RLC circuit is driven with an AC
power source, the “driving” frequency is the frequency of the power source, while the circuit can have a different “resonant” frequency .
Let’s look at three different circuits driven by an AC EMF. The device connected to the EMF is called the “load.”
What we are interested in is how the voltage oscillations across the load relate to the current oscillations.
We will find that the “phase” relationships change, depending on the type of load (resistive, capacitive, or inductive).
d
2)2/(/1 LRLC
December 5, 2007
A Resistive Load Phasor Diagram: shows the
instantaneous phase of either voltage or current.
For a resistor, the current follows the voltage, so the voltage and current are in phase ().
If
Then
tR
VtIi d
RdRR sinsin
tVv dRR sin
December 5, 2007
4. The plot below shows the current and voltage oscillations in a purely resistive circuit. Below that are four curves. Which color curve best represents the power dissipated in the resistor?
A. The green curve (straight line).B. The blue curve.C. The black curve.D. The red curve.E. None are correct.
Power in a Resistive Circuit
PR
t
December 5, 2007
For a capacitive load, the voltage across the capacitor is proportional to the charge
But the current is the time derivative of the charge
In analogy to the resistance, which is the proportionality constant between current and voltage, we define the “capacitive reactance” as
So that .
The phase relationship is that º, and current leads voltage.
A Capacitive Load
tX
Vi d
C
CC cos
CX
dC
1
tC
Q
C
qv dC sin
tCVdt
dqi dCdC cos
December 5, 2007
An Inductive Load For an inductive load, the voltage across the
inductor is proportional to the time derivative of the current
But the current is the time derivative of the charge
Again in analogy to the resistance, which is the proportionality constant between current and voltage, we define the “inductive reactance” as
So that .
The phase relationship is that º, and current lags voltage.
tX
Vi d
L
LL cos
LX dL
dt
diLv L
L
tL
Vdtt
L
Vi d
d
Ld
LL
cos sin
December 5, 2007
5. We just learned that capacitive reactance is and inductive reactance is . What are the units of reactance?
A. Seconds per coulomb.B. Henry-seconds.C. Ohms.D. Volts per Amp.E. The two reactances have different units.
Units of Reactance
LX dL C
Xd
C 1
December 5, 2007
Summary Table
Circuit Element
Symbol Resistance or Reactance
Phase of Current
Phase Constant
Amplitude Relation
Resistor R R In phase with vR
0º (0 rad) VR=IRR
Capacitor C XC=1/dC Leads vR by 90º
90º (/2) VC=ICXC
Inductor L XL=dL Lags vR by 90º
90º (/2) VL=ILXL
December 5, 2007
Summary Energy in inductor:
LC circuits: total electric + magnetic energy is conserved LC circuit:
LRC circuit:
Resistive, capacitive, inductive
2
2
1LiU B Energy in magnetic field
22
2
1
2Li
C
qUUU BE
)cos( tQqLC
1
Charge equation Current equationOscillation frequency
)sin( tQi
Charge equation Oscillation frequency
22 )2/( LR )cos(2/ tQeq LRt
tR
VtIi d
RdRR sinsin t
X
Vi d
C
CC cos t
X
Vi d
L
LL cos
CX
dC
1
LX dL RX R Reactances:
December 5, 2007
6. How did you like using the clickers in this class?
A. Great!B. It had its moments.C. I could take it or leave it.D. I would rather leave it.E. It was the worst!
Thoughts on Clickers
December 5, 2007
7. Which answer describes the most important way that the clicker aided you in learning the material?
A. It helped me to think about the material presented just before each question.
B. It broke up the lecture and kept me awake.C. It tested my understanding.D. It provided immediate feedback.E. It showed me what others were thinking.
Thoughts on Clickers
December 5, 2007
8. Which answer describes the second most important way that the clicker aided you in learning the material?
A. It helped me to think about the material presented just before each question.
B. It broke up the lecture and kept me awake.C. It tested my understanding.D. It provided immediate feedback.E. It showed me what others were thinking.
Thoughts on Clickers
December 5, 2007
9. How would you react to clickers being used in other classes at NJIT?
A. I think it would be excellent.B. I think it is a good idea.C. I wouldn’t mind.D. I would rather not.E. I definitely hope not.
Thoughts on Clickers
December 5, 2007
10. What problems did you have with your clicker?
A. I had no problems with my clicker.B. It was too big or bulky, a pain to carry around.C. I had trouble remembering to bring it to class.D. My clicker had mechanical problems.E. I lost or misplaced it (for all or part of the
semester).
Thoughts on Clickers
December 5, 2007
11. If you had the choice between using a clicker versus having a lecture quiz where you had to fill in a scantron, which would you prefer?
A. I would prefer the clicker.B. I would prefer the scantron quiz.
Thoughts on Clickers
December 5, 2007
12. Please click any button on your clicker as you turn your clicker in. This will register your name as having turned in your clicker.
Have a Nice Day