Places that make us - National Trust Places · Places that make us feel calm or provide us with...

Research report

Places that make us

I. Foreword

II. Executive summary

III. Research approach

IV. fMRIfindings: i. Deepemotionalprocessing;Amygdala ii. Positiveornegativeresponse;MedialPrefrontalCortex iii. Thoughtsaboutoneselfinthisplace;ParahippocampalPlaceArea

V. Qualitativeandquantitativefindings i. Whattypeofplacesdopeopleconnectwith? ii. Howareconnectionsformed? iii. Feelingsevoked iv. Benefitsofvisitingplaces v. Passingonandsharingplaces vi. Protectingmeaningfulplaces

VI. Conclusions

VII. Appendix

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Contents

2Places that make us - Research report

Foreword

‘The need of quiet, the need of air, and I believe the sight of sky and of things growing, seem human needs, common to all.’OctaviaHillwrotethesewordssevenyearsbeforeshefoundedtheNationalTrust.Itwasabeliefthatinspiredandguidedtheorganisationthattodaycaresfor775milesofcoastline,over248,000hectaresoflandandover500historichouses,castles,ancientmonuments,gardens,parksandnaturereserves,forever,foreveryone.

Today,weoperateinaverydifferentworldtotheoneOctaviaknewbuttheenduringhumanneedfortheseplacesisasstrongasever.Placesthatmakeusfeelcalmorprovideuswithspacetothink;placeswefeeladeeppulltowardsorthathaveaphysicaleffectonuswhenwevisit;placeswherewefeel‘athome’orthatmakeusfeelcomplete;placestorestoreusorinspireus.

Thepoet,W.H.Audencoinedtheword‘Topophilia’in1948todescribethewaypeopleexperienceastrongsenseofplace;oftenbecomingmixedwiththeirsenseofidentityandanunderlyingsenseofbelonging.

Wesetouttoexploreandunderstandthisvisceralbutintangiblefeelingmoredeeply.Workingwithleadingresearchersandacademics,andusingcutting-edgefMRIbraintechnology,weexaminedhowplacesaffectpeople,howtheybecomespecialandwhywefeelapulltowardsthem.

ThefindingsofthisresearchhavereinforcedwhatOctaviainstinctivelyunderstoodabouttheimportanceofplacesinshapingourlives.Placesmakeuswhoweare,andwerelatetotheminanemotional,spiritualandphysicalway.TheNationalTrust’sworkhelpscareforthenation’sspecialplacesforever,foreveryone.

Nino Strachey, Head of Research and Specialist Advice for the National Trust

Topophilia

(from Greek topos “place” and -philia, “love of”)

People make places and places make people



RowallaneGarden,CountyDown 4


From the place of your earliest memory to a setting which invokes memories of a loved one, we all have places that are intensely meaningful to us. There are places where we feel calm or that provide us with space to think; places we feel a deep pull towards or that have a physical effect on us when we visit; places where we feel ‘at home’ or that make us feel complete.

ThisvisceralbutintangiblefeelingissomethingtheNationalTrustsetouttoexplore;tounderstand the depth of people’s connection with place.

This is the first piece of research of its kind andhasrevealedthatmeaningfulplacesgenerateasignificantresponseinareasofthebrainmostcommonlyassociatedwithpositiveemotions;demonstrating the strong emotional connection between people and places.

WorkingwithleadingacademicsattheUniversityofSurrey*andresearchexpertsatWalnutUnlimited,theNationalTrustcommissionedanin-depthstudyintotwokeyareas:

1. Neurophysiologicalandemotionalresponses(facilitatedbyFunctionalMagneticResonanceImaging,fMRI)

2. Behaviouralresponses

Prof.Opitz,UniversityofSurrey

*TheUniversityofSurrey’sdepartmentofPsychologyhasanestablishedneuroscienceresearchdepartmentandisamemberoftheCombinedUniversitiesBrainImagingCentre(CUBIC).ProfessorBertramOpitz,wholedonthisstudy,iswell-knownandrespectedinhisfieldofNeuroimaging&CognitiveNeuroscience.



Neurophysiologicalevidence

• Theresearchhasrevealedforthefirsttimethatkey areas of emotional processing in the brain are activatedbyaplacedeemedtobespecialbyanindividual,supportingthefeelingsofadeepvisceralconnection

• Identifyingareasinthebrainthatrespondedtoaplacewithpersonalmeaning,wedemonstratedthat the brain generates an automatic positive emotional response to such places

• Thisresponsetospecialplaceswasfoundtobemuchhigherintheamygdala(akeyareainthebrainknowntoprocessemotion)thanourresponsetomeaningfulobjects,suchasaweddingringorphotograph

• Therefore,wecanconcludethatsignificant places more likely contain greater emotional importance than objects,asareasinourbraininvolvedinemotionalprocessingrespondmorestronglytosignificantplaces

• Placeswithmeaningevokepowerfulemotionalreactions,indicatingthatplacescanbemorethanjustphysicalspaces.These emotional reactions have an impact on us physically and psychologically

• Theresearchhighlightedthatpersonallyrelevantplacesare able toelicitthoughtsaboutoneselfbeinginthisplace,suggestingthatwetransportourselvesmentallybacktoplacesofmeaning

Behaviouralevidence

• Wehaveseenthatplacesevokepowerfulemotionalreactionswhichhavepsychologicalbenefits,buttheseplacesalsoencouragebehavioural responses that have the potential to benefit others as well

• Wehavefoundthattheconnectionspeoplehavewithplacesdevelopsindifferentwaysandatvariouspointsintheirlives.Thereasons behind these connectionscanbecategorisedas:

• Furthermore,thereisarealsenseofbelonging and self-identityevokedbyplacesthataremeaningful.8outof10describetheirplaceasbeingpartofthem(86%)and58%agreethatthey‘feellikeIbelong’whenvisitingthisplace

• Thisfeelingcanbesharedwithothersas75%agreethattheywouldliketopassontheirloveoftheirplacetosignificantothersandthereisalsoadesiretosharetheconnectiontheyhavewiththeplacewithothers(79%)

• Theresultsindicatethatplacessupportusinfourareas;mental wellbeing, nostalgia, security and survival

• Formany,thestrengthoftheconnectionwithplacesmanifeststhrougha strong desire, and need, to protect these places for future generationswith61%sayingthattheydotrytoprotecttheplacethatismostimportanttothem

• 92%agreethattheywouldbeupsetiftheplacewaslost.Thisis strongest amongst those whose meaningful place is rural (95%) compared to urban (91%) places

- Connections to their formative years - Connection to significant others - Places for the here and now



Thisresearchhasdemonstratedthatthereisastrongphysicalandemotionalconnectionbetweenplacesandpeople–andthattheseplaceshaveapositiveeffectonourwellbeing.

ThefindingsofthefMRIstudyprovethatmeaningfulplacesgenerateasignificantemotionalresponseincoreemotionprocessingareasofthebrain,whichisconsistentwiththephysicalsensationspeopleexperienceintheseplaces;suchasjoy,calmandfeelingenergised.

This research underlines the importance of caring for special places for future generations to enjoy.

Dolmelynllyn,SouthSnowdonia



GreatLangdale,Cumbria 8

II.ExecutiveSummary

To explore the concept of love of place (topophilia; the idea that people have deep visceral reactions when visiting special places), the National Trust worked with the University of Surrey and external research partner, Walnut Unlimited.


Theresearchtookthree different approachestounderstandtheemotionalconnectionbetweenpeopleandplace:

1. fMRI(functionalmagneticresonanceimaging)

2. Qualitative

3. Quantitative

Foreachphase,meaningfulplacesweredefinedasplaceslocatedoutsideofthehomei.e.notaperson’shome,thattheyhaveastrongemotionalconnectionwith.Theseincludedwoodlandareas,coastalareas,buildingsandhistoricsites.

HeddonValley,Devon


1.fMRIresearch:Theneuralcorrelatesofconnectionwithplace

Therehasbeenlittleacademicresearchintotheactualemotionaleffectthatplaceshaveonpeople.Togainadeeperunderstandingofourphysiologicalresponse,weusedfMRItotrackregionalchangestoareasofthebrainassociatedwithemotionalprocessing.1

WithfMRIwecanvisualisethewholebrain,allowingusto look intoareasknownforprocessingemotionsuchastheamygdala.Specificallyconcentratingouranalysisontheseareasallowsustounderstandtheemotionaleffectsofplace.

Weknowthatincreasedactivityinaparticular brain regionrequiresincreasedlevelsofoxygen(suppliedbyblood)tothatregion.Bytrackingregionalchangesintheoxygensupplytothebrainwe were able to investigateneurophysiologicalresponsestospecialplacesintheregionsassociatedwithemotionalprocessing.2

‘fMRIopensawindowintothebrainallowingustoexploreautomaticandhardtoverbaliseemotionalresponses.’ Prof. Opitz, University of Surrey


The fMRI study was carried out with Professor Opitz fromtheUniversityofSurreyandtheCUBICfMRIfacility.Twentypeopleparticipatedinthestudy.Theparticipantsviewedthreedifferenttypesofimagesinarandomorder:

1. Imagesoftenplacesandtenobjectsmeaningfultothem(suppliedbytheparticipantspriortoscanning)

2. Imagesoftencommonplacesandobjects(everydayplacesandobjects)

3. TenpositiveandtennegativeInternationalAffectivePictureSystemimages(IAPS)thathadbeenquantifiedfortheiremotionalcontent.3

Eachimagewaspresentedthreetimes.Thedifferenttypesofimagesselectedandusedinthisstudyallowedustocreatecontrastingconditionstouncovertheneuralunderpinningsofourneedforplace,provingconnectionstomeaningfulplaceswentbeyondthepureemotional.

Prof.Opitz,UniversityofSurrey


3.Quantitativeonlinesurvey:Measuringthelinkbetweenpeopleandplaces

Anationallyrepresentativesampleofover2,000peoplecompletedanonlinesurveytoquantifythelinkbetweenpeopleandplaces.Respondentswereaskedtodescribeasignificantplace,whereitisandwhyitisspecialtothem.Withtheirmeaningfulplaceinmind,wethenaskedthemaseriesofquestionstoexplorethebenefitsandfeelingsevoked.Oncethisemotionalvaluehadbeencaptured,wesoughttounderstandwhatitwouldmeantopeopleifthisplacenolongerexistedandhowimportantitwastoprotectthisplace.


2.Qualitativein-depthinterviews:Understandingthelanguage

Thisstageofresearchinvolvedin-depthinterviewswith11membersofthepublicwhowereamixofNationalTrustmembersandnon-memberstocollectrichaccountsoftheirconnectionswithplacesclosetotheirheart.Ultimately,wewantedtounderstandthelanguageusedwhentalkingabouttheirmeaningfulplaces.

The11membersofthepublicwerefromdifferentpartsofEngland,WalesandNorthernIreland,ofdifferentagesanddifferentlifestages.

Wemeteachmemberofthepublictwice.Thefirstvisitinvolvedaninterviewattheirhometotalkaboutplacesthatareimportanttothem.Thesecondvisitinvolvedtakingthemtooneoftheirspecialplaces.Tocapturetheexcitementandemotionsnaturally,thestorytellerswerenottoldwhichoftheirplacestheywouldbetakento.

RiverStouratFlatford,Suffolk


IV. fMRI findings: i. Deep emotional processing; Amygdala ii. Positive or negative response; Medial Prefrontal Cortex iii. Thoughts about oneself in this place; Parahippocampal Place Area

Formby,Liverpool 12

II.ExecutiveSummaryIV.fMRIfindings

Whatdoweknowabouthowthebrainprocessesplacesofimportance?

Itisclearthatpeoplehaveastrongconnectionwithplace.However,wewantedtoexploretheneurologicalunderpinningofthisrelationship.

UsingfMRIwewereabletounderstandhowpeople’sbrainsreacttoimagesofplacesthataremeaningfultothem.

ToexplorethisrelationshippeoplewereshownthreedifferenttypesofimagesinthefMRIscanner:

1. Imagesofplacesandobjectsmeaningfultothem

2. Imagesofcommon/everydayplacesandobjects

3. PositiveandnegativeIAPSimagesknowntogenerateageneralemotionalresponse

Identifyingtheemotionalresponsetospecialplacesinthebrain:

Bysearchingforareasinthebrainthatwere(significantly)moreengagedwhenseeingplaceswithapersonalsignificanceandcomparingthiswithimagesofcommon,everydayplaces,weidentifiedthreeresponseareasofthebrain:

1. Leftamygdala

2. Medialprefrontalcortex(mPFC)

3. ParahippocampalPlaceArea(PPA)fMRIresearchinprogress


1.Deepemotionalprocessing;Amygdala

Thefirstareaidentifiedinouranalysiswastheamygdala.Widelyacceptedasplayingakeyroleintheautomaticprocessingofemotion,4thisrelativelysmallbrainregionislocateddeepwithinthebrainandmeasuresjustoveracentimetre.5Itisfundamentaltoourautomatic,unconsciousprocessingofemotion.Withconnectionsacrossthewholebrainandthroughoutourbody,itistheamygdalathatmakesusfeeltheintensityofouremotionalresponse.Fromthealertbodilystateofthefamousautomaticfightorflightresponse6toupliftingfeelingofhappinessandpleasure,7theamygdalaiscentraltotheintensityofthisemotionalresponse.

Amoredetailedanalysisoftheactivityinthisbrainareawascarriedouttounderstandhowtheamygdalarespondedtothedifferentimagespeoplesaw.Inlinewithpreviousresearch,thepositiveandnegativeIAPSimagesusedinourstudyelicitedthelargestresponse.Thisexpectedresponsedemonstratesthattheamygdalaisrespondinginourstudysignificantlytoimagesthathaveemotionalcontent.

Wealsofoundthatspecialplaceselicitasignificantlyhigherresponseintheamygdalathancommonplaces.Thissuggeststhatthe mere image of a place that is meaningful is able to trigger an automatic, unconscious emotional response in the amygdala. Weobservedthiseffectintheleftamygdala,whichisconsistentwithexistingstudieswhichshowsthattheleftamygdalarespondspreferentiallytopositiveimagery.9

Butisthisresponseintheamygdalauniquetoplacesorisitjustaresponsetoimagerythatmeanssomethingtous?

Herewefoundtwopiecesofevidencethatsuggestthattheamygdalarespondsinaspecificwaytoplaceswithmeaning:

• Firstly, we did not find that meaningful objects elicit a larger response to common objects, i.e. the effect we saw for places was not found for objects

• Secondly, the response in the amygdala to meaningful places was significantly higher than to meaningful objects

IV.fMRIfindings

Thissuggeststhatourautomaticemotionalresponsetoplaceswithmeaninggoesbeyondgeneralpersonalrelevance.Placesthatarespecialtousgenerateastrongerautomaticemotionalresponsethatisnotseenformeaningfulobjects.Therefore,itmaybearguedthatplacescontainagreaterdegreeofemotionalchargethanobjects.


2.Evaluatingthepositiveornegativeresponse;MedialPrefrontalCortex

Thesecondbrainareaidentifiedwhenseeingimagesofpersonallyemotiveplaceswasthemedialprefrontalcortex(mPFC).Whiletheamygdalaidentifiesthatthereissomethingthatneedstoberespondedto,itisthemPFCthatevaluatesthesituation;forexamplewhetheritisapositiveornegativesituation,orwhetheritevokesfeelingsofsimilarexperiences,andsoon.

Locatedontheinsideofourfrontallobe,themFPCisanareaknowntobemoreengagedduringtheprocessingofpositivepictures,self-relevantimageryandemotionalappraisal(D’Argembeauetal.,2007;Kensinger&Schacter,2006;Wraseetal.,2003)aswellas memory10processing.Here,aswiththeamygdala,wesawasignificantlystrongerresponsetoplaceswithmeaningthancommonplaces.Consistentwithpreviousstudies,buthereshownwithplaces,thisresultsuggeststhattheplaceswithmeaningtriggertheprocessingofpositiveexperiencesassociatedwithplace.ActivityinthemFPCtomeaningfulplacessuggeststhatthepositivememoriesandfeelingsweassociatewiththatplaceareaccessedandbecomeconscious.

‘Itisclearthatthebraintreatsplacesthataremeaningfulverydifferenttocommonplaces.Meaningfulplacesgenerateastrongemotionalresponse’ Prof. Optiz. University of Surrey

IV.fMRIfindings

Activity in the mFPC to meaningful places suggests that the positive memories and feelings we associate with these places are accessed and become conscious.

Dr.Myers,WalnutUnlimited,workingwiththeUniversityofSurrey


3.Elicitingthoughtsaboutoneselfbeinginthisplace;ParahippocampalPlaceArea

ThefinalbrainareashowingastrongresponsetoplaceswithmeaningwastheParahippocampalPlaceArea(PPA).Previousstudieshavealreadyidentifiedthatthisregionrespondspreferentiallytoplace,ratherthanothertypesofimageryoremotionalcontent.11 OuranalysisfoundthatresponseinthePPAwassignificantlyhighertomeaningful,comparedtocommonplaces.Whilethisplacespecificresponseisinlinewithpreviousfindings,wesuggestthatpersonallyrelevantplaceselicitedthoughtsaboutoneselfbeinginthisplace.

Later in this report we will see that people report a wide variety of intense emotional feelings in response to a meaningful place. The fMRI results demonstrate a strong neurophysiological basis for this.

Itisclearthatkeyareasofemotionalprocessingareactivatedbyspecialplaces.Firstly,wehaveseenevidencethattheamygdalageneratesanautomaticemotionalresponsetotheseplaces.Moreover,wehaveshownthatourfeelingsaremadeconsciousthroughmPFCbyaccessingmemoriesoftheplaceandappraisingthesituationsassociatedwiththatplace.Finally,evennon-emotionalprocessingareasappeartoplayanimportantrole,elicitingthoughtsaboutoneselfbeinginthisplace.

‘OurfMRIstudyhasestablishedthatviewingimagesofmeaningfulplacescreateasignificantemotionalresponseincoreemotionprocessingareasofthebrain,andthisisalsoconsistentwiththephysicalsensationstheseplacesmakepeoplefeel.’ Prof. Optiz. University of Surrey

IV.fMRIfindings

Consistent with our earlier hypothesis, there is a deep underlying connection between people and places, something that can be triggered by a mere image of the place itself.

Furthermore,wehypothesisedthatthefeelingsevokedunderliethisdeepvisceralconnectionwithaplace,aphysicalbodilyresponsethattheystruggledtoarticulate.

Thisideaisconsistentwithourcurrentknowledgeofthebrainregionsdiscussed.Whiletheamygdalaresponseisoneoftheneuralmarkersofthisphysicalbodilyresponse,themPFCismorerelatedtotheverbaldescriptionofpeople’sfeelings,whichemergesinourqualitativefindings.


V. Qualitative and quantitative findings

SissinghurstCastleGarden,Kent 17

V.Qualitativeandquantitativefindings

i. What type of place do people connect with?

Peoplevisitthousandsofplacesoverthecourseoftheirlives,however,noteveryplacewevisitbecomesmeaningful.

So, what sits at the heart of our connection to place? What is it that gives a place significance? And what effect does this have on people?

Thetypesofplacespeoplespokeaboutwereeitherurban

42%orsemi-ruralandnaturalplaces

21%Semi-urbanandurban placesincludesportsvenues,schoolsandaperson’shometown.

Semi-ruralandrural placesincludewoodlands,statelyhomes,mountainsandbeaches.

OtherplacesmentionedincludedgenerallocationsintheUK(8%),forexample“Yorkshire”or“Northumberland”,andplacesfurtherafieldandoutsideoftheUK(28%),suchas“Greece”.

Cotehele,Cornwall


ii. How connections are formed

Theconnectionspeoplehavewithplacesdevelopindifferentwaysandatvariouspointsintheirlives.

The reasons behind these connections can be categorised as:

42+5837+6341+59

42% Connectionstotheformative years

37% Connectionstosignificantothers

41% Connectionswiththehereandnow

Throughouttheyearspeoplearedrawnbacktotheplacestheyhaveaconnectionwith.

Whilsteachoftheseconnectionsaredifferent,andthenumberoftimesapersonvisitsvaries,theyareequallysignificantinpeople’sconnectionswithplaces.Whatiscommonacrossalltypesofconnectionisthedesiretobeabletovisittheirplacesmoreoften.

Thisdesireindicatesthestrengthoftheconnectionpeoplehavewiththeirmeaningfulplaceandthevalueitholdsforthem.

Q8.Typeofconnectionwiththeirmeaningfulplace

(figure1a)


BaggyPoint,Devon


How often participants visit their special place each year(Averagenumberofvisitsperyear) –Splitbythetypeofconnection

Averagefrequencycurrentlyvisitperyear Averagefrequencywouldliketovisitperyear

15% 46%

11%

30%

42%

81%

Connectionstotheformativeyears

Connectionstosignificantothers

Connectionswiththehereandnow

Q9/10.Frequencycurrentlyvisitandwouldliketovisitmeaningfulplace(Averageno.peryear)

(Figure1b)



Connectionstotheformativeyears

Connectionswiththeseplacesfocusonnostalgiaandmemoriesofyearsgoneby.Thelinkwithplacesfromtheformativeyearsisverystrong,with42% of people having a connection for a places link to their formative years.

Theseplaceshaveremainedastableforceinpeople’sever-changing,andsometimesturbulentandstressful,lives.Peoplefondlyreminisceaboutatimewhentheyfeltastrongsenseofbelongingandidentityorastrongsenseofself-discovery.

‘IfirstremembercomingtoWycollervillagewhenIwas6or7.I’vegotalotofmemorieshereofplayingamongsttheruins,withmybrotherandsisters,whilemyparentswatched me. It has made me who I am today,andwheneverIvisitthosememoriescomefloodingback.’ Frances, Lancashire

Connectionstosignificantothers

Over a third of people (37%) say that their connection with a place is meaningful because of its link to a significant other. Theirconnectionsareformedthroughasharedexperiencewithfamilymembers,friendsorpartners.

Thosewithsignificantothershavefoundaplacetoenjoyandnourishtogether.Theplacehashelpedthemlearnabouteachother,theirrelationshipandthemselves.Thisplaceactsasaconstantremindertoaspecialtimewithsignificantothers.

‘MorecombeBeachmeanssomuchtomeandmyfamily,wescatteredmymum’sasheshereandItoowantmyashesscatteredherewithher.IfeelastrongspiritualconnectionwithMorecombePromenadeespeciallynowthatmumrestshere.’ Ian, Lancashire

42+5842% Connectionstotheformative years

37+6337% Connectionstosignificantothers



Connectionstothehereandnow

Placescanbecomespecialtousatanytimeanddon’talwayscentreonsignificantpeopleormomentsinourlife,with41% of people saying that their place is meaningful because of its connections with the here and now.

Theseplacesareoftenrecentdiscoverieswhichareenjoyedandappreciated.Theytendtobefrequentlyvisited(onaverage30timesayear)eitheralone,withfamilyorwithpets.Theseplaceshavelessofaback-storyforthepeoplethatvisit,however,theyarestillemotivebecauseofthebenefitstheyoffer(e.g.mythinkingplace,myrelaxingplace,mynearbyplace,myplaceforactivities,myplacetomarvelatthenaturallandscapesetc.).

Placesdescribedasbeingmeaningfulforthehereandnowaremorelikelytoberuralplaces(32%)thanothertypesofconnection,suchasaparkornaturereserve(7%)alakeorcanal(5%)orabeach(4%).Thesearegenerallylocaltotheperson’shomemakingthemmoreeasilyaccessible.TheyalsoincludedUrbanlocations(32%)thatarefrequentlyvisitedandoftenlocalsuchasasportsvenue(5%:e.gcricketstadium/footballground)orReligioussite(4%:e.g.Church/Mosque/Temple).PlacesoutsideoftheUKwerealsocitedasbeingimportantforthehereandnow(26%)suchasaholidayhomeorwherefamilylive.

The features of these places add to why it is defined as special e.g. the climate, the presence of animals and wildlife or the awe inspiring natural scenery. Above all, these places provide a sense of safety, pleasure, escapism, reflection or a place to appreciate nature.

‘SouthNorwoodCountryParkgivesmeandmyfamilysomuch.Whetherwewanttogocycling, goblackberrypicking,goforaBBQorplayagame,it’sthereforus.’ Bello, London

41+5941% Connectionswiththehereandnow

Toconnectwithaplace,itmustservesomesortofpurpose,beittohelpusconnectwiththepast,withotherpeopleorthepresent.

Howconnectionsareformedsupportstheideathatnotalltheplaceswevisitbecomemeaningful.Theconnectionwehavewithplacesinfactchangesovertime.Theplaceswearecurrentlyconnectedtointhehereandnowwilleventuallybecomeassociatedwithnostalgiaandtheformativeyears.

HanburyHall&Gardens,Worcestershire



iii. Feelings evoked

Thereisadeepunderlyingemotionalreactionthatdrivesaconnectionwithaplace.

Over three quarters of people (79%) report experiencing an internal pull that drives them to visit their meaningful place.

Thisisstrongestamongst35-54yearolds(82%).

Wecanhypothesisethatthefeelingsaplaceevokesunderpinsthisdeepvisceralconnectionandcanrangefromfeelingsofcalm,joyandcontentmenttoenergy,discoveryandasenseofidentityandbelonging.

Calm

Two thirds (64%) agree that their meaningful place makes them feel calm(32%citefeelingsofcalmasthefirstemotionthatcomestomindwhenthinkingabouttheirspecialplace).

Feelingcalmisstrongestamongstthosewhoseconnectiontotheplaceisforthe‘hereandnow,’withalmostthreequarters(72%)agreeingthattheirplacemakesthemfeelcalm.Thatiscomparedto62%ofthosethatareconnectedtoaplacebecauseofsignificantothersand53%connectedforitsconnectiontotheformativeyears.

‘ItfeelslovelyandtranquilatBushyPark,thesoundofbirdsandstreamsrelaxmeandeasemeintoachilledstateofmindwhereIcanforgetaboutthedailygrind.’ Nina, London



Joyandcontentment

Three in five (63%) agreeing that they experience feelings of joy and contentment when visiting their place.Almostathirdofpeople(29%)citeafeelingof‘joy’asthefirstwordthatcomestomindwhenthinkingabouthowtheirplacemakesthemfeel.

Thefeelingofjoyisnotonlyexpressedinwords,butalsoinbodylanguageandexpressionssuchassmilingoranimprovedmood.Itisasenseofreliefandreleasefromeverydaylife.Thisfeelingofjoyisfurtherheightenedthroughtheappreciationoftheplace,itsbeautyandtheactivitiesthatareavailable.Placesthattriggerthejoyemotioncontributetothembecomingspecialtous.

‘ThefeelingsIgetwhenatBoxHillIdon’tgetanywhereelse.Itmakesmewanttorelivesomanymomentsandjustmakesmefeelreallyhappyandexcitedinside.’ Hannah, Surrey

Energy

Visitingthesespotsgivespeopleanewleaseoflifeandhelpsre-energisethem,with28% of people mentioning that their place makes them feel energisede.g.exhilarated,youthful,invigorated,excited.Thisisstrongestamongstyoungerpeople-overhalfof18-34yearoldsagreethattheirplacemakesthemfeelexcited,comparedto40%of55+yearolds.Itmaybethatwhiletheconnectionapersonhaswithaplaceissimilaracrosslifestages(forexampleinhowtheconnectionisformed),itmanifestsitselfdifferentlyacrossagegroups.

Whatpeopledoattheiremotiveplacediffersbyageprofile.Youngerpeoplearelookingformoreofanactiveexperiencecomparedtotheoldergeneration,whoaregenerallymorereflective.Wehaveseenolderadults(55+yearolds)aresignificantlymorelikelytofeelnostalgic(68%vs.57%)andreflective(61%vs55%)comparedto18-34yearolds.

‘BlowingoffsteambymarchinguptheMendipHill,seeingtheincredibleviewandfeelingthewindinmyhairjustmakesmefeelalive.’ Kathryn, West Country

AfonTarellRiver,BreconBeaconsNationalPark,Wales



Discovery

Meaningful places offer an opportunity for personal discovery, as well as the discovery of beauty and nature.Explorationoftheplaceandthepotentialforadventureisanencouragingprospect,with14% mentioning feelings of discovery.

Discoveryalsofuelstheappreciationforplaceandmaintainsexcitementforrepeatvisits,aspeopleareinterestedtoseesomethingnewordifferent.Althoughthephysicalstructuremaynotappeartochange,theplacemaychangethroughouttheseasonsandoverthecourseoftheyear,whichgivespeopleareasontoreturn.

‘CastleRoadistheplacethathelpeddefineme,andmademediscovermyfullpotential.’ Corinne, Lancashire

Identityandbelonging

Thereisarealsenseofbelongingandattachmentwithplacesthataremeaningfultopeople.Eightoutoftendescribetheirplaceasbeingpartofthem(86%)and58%agreethatthey‘feellikeIbelong’whenvisitingthisplace.Thisunderpinsthisphysicalpullthatpeoplefeel,as15%mentionasenseofbelongingwhenthinkingabouthowtheirplacemakesthemfeel.

Youngerpeoplearemorelikelytofeeltheirspecialplaceisapartoftheiridentity,with67%agreeingthat‘thisplacehasshapedwhoIam’.

Percentage agree that the statement describes what their meaningful place means to them:

86+1476+2458+42+58+42+

86% Ifeellikethisplace is a part of me

76% VisitingthisplacesaysalotaboutwhoIam

58% Iwouldn’tbewhoIamtodaywithoutthisplace

58% Thisplacehasshapedwho I am

Q14.Whatdoestheplacemeantoyou?–Identityandbelongingstatements

(figure1)



iv. Benefits of visiting places

Thefeelingsofcalmandjoythatpeopleexperienceattheirspecialplacesupportstheirmentalwellbeingandabilitytoachievetheirgoals.

Whenpeoplespokeofplacesthathadanemotionalmeaningtothem,theyspokeabouthowitplayedapart in re-evaluating their stresses and worries, providing solitude and an opportunity for ‘me-time’.Spendingtimeataquietandrelaxingplacefacilitatesself-reflection,rejuvenationandmeditation.Uponleavingtheirmeaningfulplace,peoplereturntotheirday-to-dayfeelingrefreshedandre-energised.

Many people feel that their special place helps to ground them.Itprovidesasenseofidentity,whileremindingthemofhowfartheyhavecome.Thisisoftenaidedbyahigherviewoverlookingavalleyandputtinganyproblemsorworriesintoawidercontext.Thisisgenerallyfoundtobethecaseinmoreruralandoutdoorspacesbecausecollectively,thefreshairandheightempowersthemandremindsthemthattheyaresimplyonepersoninabigworld.

‘WheneverIcometoCheddarGorge,allmyworriesfromdailyworkandlifeareputintocontextandI’mremindedthatthere’smuchmoreoutthereintheworld,I’mjustonesmallperson.’ Adam, West Country

Sofarithasbeenshownthatplaceswithmeaningevokepowerfulemotionalreactions,indicatingthataplacecanoffermorethanjustaphysicalspace,buthasalong-lastingeffectthatimpactsusphysicallyandpsychologically.

Theseresultsindicatethatthefunctionsofspecialplacesareshowntosupportusinthreeareas;mental wellbeing, nostalgia and security & survival.

Positivementalwellbeing:perspective,rejuvenation,escape,headspace.



Thereisclearevidencethatvisitingmeaningfulplacespromotesgreatermentalwellbeing.

Naturalplacesespeciallypromotegreaterwellbeing(figure2a-page28)asdoplacesforthehereandnow(figure3-page30).

ThesefindingsechowhatOctavia Hill, the founder of the National Trust,intuitivelyknewwhenshesetouthermissiontoprovideplacesforallpeople:

‘We all need space; unless we have it we cannot reach that sense of quiet in which whispers of better things come to us gently… places to sit in, places to play in, places to stroll in, and places to spend a day in.’

OctaviaHill



Which of the following do you experience when visiting your meaningful place? -Splitbythetypesof meaningfulplace

Overall

Rural/Semi-Rural

Urban/Semi-Urban

53%57%*

49%Itismyescapefromeverydaylife

41%48%*

38%

Ihavetimetobemyself

34%40%*

32%

Itgivesmeperspective

39%41%*

33%

Iamrejuvenated

35%43%*

31%Itrefocusesmymind

33%47%*

27%

Itgivesmeheadspace

Q16.Benefitsofvisitingmeaningfulplaces-MentalWellbeing(%)

*Significantlydifferentscorebetweennaturalandbuilt-upplaces

(figure2a)



Whilsturbanplacesareclearlyimportantformentalwellbeing,thesebenefitsofmeaningfulplacesaregreaterforruralplaces(seefigure2a-page28).

Thisislikelydrivenbyhowtheplacemakesthemfeelwithsignificantlymorepeoplestatingthatruralplacesmakethemfeelcalm,relaxedandpeacefulcomparedtothosewithurbanmeaningfulplaces(figure2b) of which significantlymoresayurbanplacesmakethemfeelexcited.

89+1190+1090+1051+4988+12

78+2282+1879+2164+3687+13

89%*

90%*

90%*

51%

88%

78%

82%

79%

64%*

87%

Calm

Relaxed

Peaceful

Excited

Happy

Rural/Semi-Ruralmeaningfulplace

Urban/Semi-Urbanmeaningfulplace

%experience(score8/9/10outof10)feelingof[X]whenattheirmeaningfulplace.

Note.*indicatesasignificantlyhigherscore

(figure2b)



Which of the following do you experience when visiting your meaningful place? -Splitbytypeofconnection withtheplace

Overall

Hereandnow

Significantothers

Formative years

53%63%*

40%42%

Itismyescapefromeverydaylife

41%55%*

29%32%

Ihavetimetobemyself

39%50%*

26%32%

Iamrejuvenated

35%46%*

27%26%

Itrefocusesmymind

34%43%*

32%24%


33%43%*

25%25%

Itgivesmeheadspace

Q16.Mentalwellbeingbenefitsofvisitingmeaningfulplaces(%)

*Significantlydifferentscorebetweenwaysconnectionisformed

(figure3)



Overhalfsaidthattheirmeaningfulplaceistheirescapefromeverydaylifeandthiswashighestamongstthosewitharuralmeaningfulplace(57%)andthosewithaconnectiontothehereandnow(63%).

Beingoutdoorsinthefreshair,andawayfromthestressesofdailylifeallowspeopletoescapefromtheeveryday,andjustenjoythesurroundingstheyarein. Formany,itisawelcomedbreakfromchores,workpressures,otherworriesandallowsforreflectionanddistraction.

‘Youwouldn’tgetthisfromlookingatme…butI’mabitofaloner.IenjoymyowncompanyandtobeinaplacewhereIcanjustgetawayandbewithmyself–yethappyandcontent–isthebest.’ Corinne, Lancashire

‘ThemomentIentertheparkthestressesfromeverydaylifejustleavemeandIhavespacetothink.Iforgetaboutthechoresandmyworkandjustenjoythespace.WhenIhaven’tvisitedallweekandI’mgrumpymywifejokesthatIneedtogototheparkandrelax’ Bello, London

Ickworth,Suffolk



Percentage agree with description of mental wellbeing experienced when visiting their meaningful place: -Splitbythetypeofplace

Overall

Rural/Semi-Rural

Urban/Semi-Urban

53%57%

49%Itismyescapefromeverydaylife

41%48%

38%

Ihavetimetobemyself

34%40%

32%


39%41%

33%Iamrejuvenated

35%43%

31%

Itrefocusesmymind

33%47%

27%

Itgivesmeheadspace

Q16.Mentalwellbeingbenefitsofvisitingmeaningfulplaces(%)

*Significantlydifferentscorebetweentypeofmeaningfulplace

(figure4)



Nostalgiaandanopportunitytoreminisce

Meaningfulplacesserveasaphysicalrepresentationofimportantevents,preservingtheiressenceandactingasashortcuttounlockingthememories,emotionsandsensesassociatedwithpastexperiences.

Onekeymotivatorforvisitingameaningfulplaceistobetransportedto‘thegoodtimes’–atimelesscomplex.

Anopportunitytofondlyreflectonthepast.Thebestwaytoreminisceisthroughvisitingandrelivingthefamiliarsights,soundsandsmells.Thisisconsistentwithresearchwhichshowsthatnostalgiaisimportantforprovidingastablesenseofselfandallowingpeopletocomparetheirpresentandpastself,whichhasarestorativeimpactonaspectsofpsychologicalwellbeingsuchasself-esteem.12Assuchwecanhypothesisethatplaceswhichfacilitatenostalgiacanalsohelpachievethis.

Lookingatthetypesofconnectionthatpeoplehavewithplaces(figure5)weseethatfeelingsofnostalgiaaremuchstrongerforpeoplewhoseconnectionwithaplaceisformedfromitsconnectiontotheformativeyears,theirearlylifeandplacesthataremeaningfulforconnectionswithsignificantothers.

Aswemightexpect,nostalgiaisshowntobestrongeramongstolderpeople.60%of55+yearoldsagreethattheirplaceremindsthemofasignificanttimeintheirlife,comparedto54%of35-54yrolds,46%of18-34yroldswhichislikelytobearesultofageandamountofexperiences.Unsurprisingly,placesthatareimportantforthehereandnowevokeweakerfeelingsofnostalgia.

‘IhavebeencomingtoBlaiseCastlesinceIwasachildandit’sneverchangedinalltheyearsI’vebeenvisiting.Ilovethat,becauseitmeansit’sthesameinmymemoriesasitisinreallife,andIcanrecreatethememorieseasilywhenIvisit.It’smysafeplaceandI’dbeverysadifitweretochange’ Jan, West Country

BlaiseHamlet,Bristol




Which of the following do you experience when visiting your meaningful place? -Splitbytypeofconnection withtheplace

Overall

Hereandnow

Significantothers

Formative years

59%40%*

65%69%

Aplacetoreminisce

55%38%*

67%61%

Itremindsmeofameaningfultimeinmylife

45%29%

60%*42%

Itconnectsmetopeoplethatareimportanttome

Q16.Nostalgia/Memoriesbenefitsofvisitingmeaningfulplaces(%)

*Significantlydifferentscorebetweenwaysconnectionisformed

(figure5)

Comfort:safetyandsurvival

Whenaskedabouthowtheirplacesmakethemfeel,60%agreethattheyfeel‘inasafeplace’whenvisiting,while42%saytheirplacemakesthemfeelreassured,soothed,familiar,comfortedandcosy.Theyspokeofbothphysicalandmentalsafety.

Mentalsafetyprovidesasenseofemotionalsecurity,refugeandcomfort.Thisstemsfromthefondnessandfamiliarityofthemeaningfulplace.

Physicalsafetyisanimportantelementofmanyoftheseplaces,particularlyforparentsorgrandparentswhowanttoallowtheir(grand)childrentorunfree,without worry.

‘IknowClandonParkHousesowell,andIfeellikeitknowsmetoo.WheneverIgobackthereIfeelprotected,it’slookingoutformeandwe’vegotamutualrespectforeachother’ Elliott, London

Researchhasshownthatclosenesstosafeplacesalsoallowsforanindividualtofeelmoreconfidentinexploringpotentiallyunknownplaces,aidingdiscovery.13


v. Passing on and sharing places

Wehaveseenthatplacesevokepowerfulemotionalreactionsandthesehaveimportantpsychologicalbenefitstoindividualswhoholdtheseattachmentstospecialplaces,buttheseplacesalsoencouragebehaviouralresponsesthathavethepotentialtobenefitothersaswell.

For example, the strength of the connection with places, for many, manifests through a strong desire and need to share and pass on the experiences for future generations.

Thereisastrongdesireforpeopletopassonthepleasureandvalueoftheirplacetofuturegenerations,inthehopethattheywillhavethesameconnectionasthem.75% agree that they would like to pass on their love of their place to significant others.

Thereisalsoa desire to share the connection they have with the place with others (79%).Theplacehashadsuchanimpactontheirlivesthattheywantotherstoexperienceittooasitis somewhere they are proud of.

Cotehele,Cornwall



vi. Protecting meaningful places

Theurgetoprotectsomethingheld dearisahumaninstinct.Protectingmeaningfulplacesisatangibleway forpeopletoensurethatitisavailabletofuturegenerations. 61% say that they do try to protect the place that is most important to them.

Waysinwhichpeopledothisincludeanythingfrom theirownactions(pickinguplitter),throughtosupportingorganisedconservation(donatingmoneytothecausewholooksaftertheplace).Noteveryonedemonstratesanactiveinvolvementinconservingtheirspecialplaces,however,themajoritywouldbeupsetifitnolongerexisted.

92% agree that they would be upset if their meaningful place was lost. Thisisstrongeramongstthosewhosemeaningfulplaceisrural(95%)comparedtourban(91%)places.

Itwasshownthatthosewhomentionfeelingasense ofbelongingwhentheyvisittheirplaceofsignificancewerealsomorelikelytoagree(strongly/slightly)thatthey‘trytoprotecttheirmostmeaningfulplace’ (seefigure6-page36).Ifplacesweren’tsodeeplyrootedintheirsenseofpersonalidentityand belongingtheywouldn’tfeelthissameneed.

Percentage agree that the statement describes what their meaningful place means to them:

70+3062+38

70%* Belonging

62% Energised

63+3751+4957+4359+41

63% Calm

51% Nostalgia

57% Safety

59% Joy

Q18.%Agreementwiththestatement‘Itrytoprotectmymostmeaningfulplace’Splitbythosementioningthattheirmeaningfulplacemakesthemfeel[X]atQ11/12.

*Significantlydifferentscorebetweentheemotionmeaningfulplacemakesthemfeel.

(figure5)



VI. Conclusions

DunwickHeath,Suffolk 37

IX.Conclusions

This research set out to gain an in-depth understanding of the deep connection people have with places. We have demonstrated that there is a strong physical and emotional connection between places and people – and that these places have a positive effect on our wellbeing.

Whileitisclearthatpeoplesaythattheyfeelastrongemotionalconnectionwithplaces,thefindingsofourfMRIresearchshowthatmeaningfulplacesgenerateasignificantemotionalresponseincoreemotionprocessingareasofthebrain.

The main conclusions of this research can be summarised as follows:

1. Whataretheneuralunderpinningsofourconnectionwithplace?

The fMRI research has shown clear evidence that key areas of emotional processing are highly responsive to meaningful places.

‘Itisclearthatthebraintreatsplacesthataremeaningfulverydifferentlytocommon/everydayplaces.Placesofsignificanceplacesgenerateastrongemotionalresponse’ Prof. Opitz, University of Surrey

Ouranalysissuggeststhatthewayinwhichthesebrainareasrespondtomeaningfulplacesgoesbeyondmerepersonalrelevance,supportingthenotionfoundelsewherethatplacesarespecialtous.

Furthermore,ourresultsdemonstrateasignificantlyhigherresponsetomeaningfulcomparedtocommonplaces.Toourknowledgethisisthefirsttimethatsuchfindingshavebeendemonstratedwithplaces.


IX.Conclusions

2. Whatplacesdopeoplefeelaconnectionwith?

Thebreadthofmeaningfulplacesrangefromruralspotssuchasahillwithastunningview,tourbanplaces,forexampleapromenadeofaseasidetown.Theycanbespecificlocationsaswellasbroadregionsandevencountries.Therangeofplaceswehaveseeninthisresearchreflectsthedeeppersonalconnectionpeoplefeelwithalltypesofplaces.

3. Whydoconnectionsform?

Threestrongreasonsemergedfromtheresearch.Firstly,‘connectionsfromtheformativeyears’(citedmostfrequently),secondly,‘throughrelationtosignificantothers’,andthirdly,‘fromthehereandnow’.Thisshowsthatthepast,presentandfutureallplayapartinthedeep-rootedconnectionthatpeopleexperience,andtheseallstructurewhoweareaspeople,shapingusandouridentities.

Giant’sCauseway,CountyAntrim


IX.Conclusions

4. Whatfeelingsareevoked?

Formany,thestrongestfeelingswereofcalm,joyandcontentment,energyandasenseofbelonging.Thisindicatesthattheconceptoftopophiliaisverymuchalive,movingpeopleinmanydifferentforms.Thisfeelingishardtoarticulateformost,asitismoreofapositiveenergy.

5. Benefitsofvisiting

Whilevisitingmeaningfulplacesbringsawholehostofbenefits,thesecanbebroadlygroupedintothreekeyareas–mentalwellbeing,nostalgiaandsecurity&survival.Naturalplacesinparticularpromotegreaterwellbeing,aswellasplacesfromthehereandnow.Thecontinuedpresenceofthesemeaningfulplacesallowspeopletoreapthebenefitsthroughouttheirlives.

PowisCastle&Garden,Wales


IX.Conclusions

WhyisTheNationalTrust’sworksoimportant?

Theneedfor“placestositin,placestoplayin,placestostrollin,andplacestospendadayin”isstillasrelevanttodayasitwaswhenOctaviaHillfirstwrotethesewordsafewyearsbeforeshefoundedtheNationalTrustin1895.

HermissiontoprovideplacesforallpeopleissomethingthatstillguidestheworkoftheNationalTrusttoday;withdedicatedteamsofvolunteers,staff,partnersandmemberscollectivelyworkingtolookafterplacesacrosstheUKforfuturegenerations.

Thefindingsofthisresearchshowthatplacesaremorethanaspacetovisitandenjoyfortheiraestheticbeauty;infact,theyhavelong-lastingeffectsthathaveanimpactonusphysicallyandpsychologically,andevenencouragebehaviouralresponsesthathavethepotentialtobenefitothers.

Formany,thestrengthoftheconnectionwithplacesmanifeststhroughastrongdesire,andneed,toprotecttheseplacesforfuturegenerationstoenjoy.

ThispioneeringresearchdemonstrateswhytheworkundertakenbythepeopleattheNationalTrustisimportant;foreveryonetocontinuetoenjoyandfeelasenseofdiscovery,peaceandbelonging.

Itisnowevenmoreclearthatplacesaremademeaningfulbythepeoplewhovisitthemandthesepersonalconnectionshelpmakeuswhoweare.

FentonHouse&Garden,London


VII. Appendix

FountainsAbbey&StudleyRoyalWaterGarden,NorthYorkshire 42

XI.Appendix

AbouttheNationalTrust

TheNationalTrustisaconservationcharityfoundedin1895bythreepeoplewhosawtheimportanceofournation’sheritageandopenspaces,andwantedtopreservethemforeveryonetoenjoy.Morethan120yearslater,thesevaluesarestillattheheartofeverythingthecharitydoes.

EntirelyindependentofGovernment,theNationalTrustlooksaftermorethanover600,000acresofcountryside,775milesofcoastlineandhundredsofspecialplacesacrossEngland,WalesandNorthernIreland.

Over22millionpeoplevisiteveryyear,andtogetherwith5millionmembersandover62,000volunteers,theyhelptosupportthecharityinitsworktocareforspecialplacesforever,foreveryone.Formoreinformationandideasforgreatseasonaldaysoutgoto:www.nationaltrust.org.uk

AbouttheUniversityofSurrey

TheUniversityofSurrey’sdepartmentofPsychologyhasanestablishedneuroscienceresearchdepartmentandisamemberoftheCombinedUniversitiesBrainImagingCentre(CUBIC).ProfessorBertramOpitz,wholedonthisstudy,iswell-knownandrespectedinhisfieldofNeuroimaging&CognitiveNeuroscience.

AboutWalnutUnlimited

WalnutUnlimitedisapioneerofapplyingconsumerneurosciencetomarketresearch.TheWalnutteamareexperiencedatdesigningandanalysingstudiesusingthemostrelevantapproachesfrompsychologyandneuroscience.Fromapplyingpsychologicaltechniquestounderstandhowpeoplethink,feelandbehave,tobiometricandbrainimagingmeasurementincludingencephalography(EEG)andfunctionalmagneticresonanceimagining(fMRI),theteamthentranslatetheseintobreakthroughinsightsintohowpeoplebehaveandfeel.

Abouttheresearch:samplesizes

Forcontext,theresearchprocesswasinitiatedwiththequalitativestagefirst,whichwasthenfollowedbythequantitativestage.TheresultsfromboththequalitativeandquantitativephasesthenhelpedtoinformthemethodandformatofthefinalfMRIstage.

Qualitative – 11 participants Theaimofthequalitativephasewastogatheraninitialstrongin-depthunderstandingofpeople’semotionsandconnectiontoplacebeforemovingaheadwiththequantitativeandfMRIphases.

Quantitative – 2,000 participants Thisphaseoftheresearchwasextendtoasizeablenumberofparticipantstoensurethedeliveryofstatisticalsignificance.

fMRI – 20 participants ThebasesizeforthefMRIwascertainlysufficienttoallowustoexploretheresearchobjective.Theresultsweresubjecttosignificancetestingusingstatisticalmethodsthatensuretheresultsgatheredarenotduetochancebutagenuineeffect.Ifthesamplesizehadbeentoosmallthentheresultsobservedwouldhavesimplybeen‘noise’andnotprovensignificant.


XI.Appendix

References

1 LeDoux,J.E.(2000)EmotionCircuitsintheBrain.AnnualReviewof Neuroscience,23,155-184.

2LeDoux,J.E.(2000)EmotionCircuitsintheBrain.AnnualReviewof Neuroscience,23,155-184.

3Lang,P.J.,Bradley,M.M.,&Cuthbert,B.N.(2008).Internationalaffective picturesystem(IAPS):Affectiveratingsofpicturesandinstructionmanual. TechnicalReportA-8.,Gainesville,FL.:UniversityofFlorida.

4CostafredaS.G.,Brammer,M.J.,David,A.S.,&Fu,C.H.(2008).Predictors ofamygdalaactivationduringtheprocessingofemotionalstimuli:a meta-analysisof385PETandfMRIstudies.BrainResRev,58,57–70.

5Brabec,J.,Rulseh,A.,Hoyt,B.,Vizek,M.,Horinek,D.,Hort,J.,Petrovicky, P.(2010).Volumetryofthehumanamygdala-Ananatomicalstudy. PsychiatryResearch:Neuroimaging182,67–72.

6LeDoux,J.(2000b).Emotioncircuitsinthebrain.AnnualReviewof Neuroscience,23(1),155-184.

7Lanteaume,L.,Khalfa,S.,Régis,J.,Marquis,P.,Chauvel,P.,&Bartolomei, F.(2006).Emotioninductionafterdirectintracerebralstimulationsofhuman amygdala.Cerebralcortex,17(6),1307-1313.

8Liberzon,I.,Phan,K.L.,Decker,L.R.,&Taylor,S.F.(2003).Extended amygdalaandemotionalsalience:aPETactivationstudyofpositiveand negativeaffect.Neuropsychopharmacology,28(4),726.

9Hamann,S.B.,Ely,T.D.,Hoffman,J.M.,&Kilts,C.D.(2002).Ecstasyand agony:activationofthehumanamygdalainpositiveandnegativeemotion. PsychologicalScience,13(2),135-141.

10Euston,D.R.,Gruber,A.J.,&McNaughton,B.L.(2012).TheRoleofMedial PrefrontalCortexinMemoryandDecisionMaking.Neuron,76(6),1057–1070.

11Epstein,R.,&KanwisherN.(1998).Acorticalrepresentationofthelocal visualenvironment.Nature,392,598–601.

12Sedikides,C.,Wildschut.,T.,Routledge,C.,&Arndt,J.(2015).Nostalgia counteractsself-discontinuityandrestoresselfcontinuity.Europeanjournal ofSocialPsychology,45,52-61.

13Fried,M.(2000).Continuitiesanddiscontinuitiesofplace.Journalof EnvironmentalPsychology,20,193–205.


PentireFarm,PentireHeadland,Cornwall

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