People are usually motivated to pursue certain goals.

The goals in teaching improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning.

A program will be effective that its goals are sound and clearly described.

Aim Objectives

Describes

In order to appreciate how value systems shape decision about what school should teach and the outcomes they seek to achieve, we will begin our discussion of goals by considering five curriculum ideologies (borrowing Eisner’s term) that shape the nature of the language curriculum and the practices of language teaching in different ways.

1. Academic rationalism

2. Social and economic efficiency

3. Learner-centeredness

4. Social reconstructionism

5. Cultural pluralism

Curriculum stresses the intrinsic value of the subject

matter and its role in developing the learner’s

intellect, humanistic values, and rationality.

Academic rationalism is sometimes used to justify

certain foreign language in school curriculum where

they are taught as social studies.

It emphasizes the practical needs of learners

and society and the role of an educational

program in producing learners who are

economically productive.

This term group together educational philosophies that stress:1.the individual need of learners, 2.the role of individual experience, 3.and the need to develop awareness, self-reflection, critical thinking, learner strategies, and other qualities and skills that are believed to be important for learners to develop.

Marsh (1986, 201) points out that the issue of child centered or learner centered curricula reappears every decade or so and can refer to any of the following :Individualized teachingLearning through practical operation or doingLaissez faire no organized curricula at all but based n the momentary interest of children.

It stresses the roles of schools and learners can

should play in addressing social injustices and

inequality.

This philosophy argues that school should

prepare students to participate in several

different cultures, not just the dominant one

which means none culture group is superior to

others.

The term goal and aim are used interchangeable

to refer to a description of the general purposes of a

curriculum and objective to refer to more specific and

concrete description of purposes.

.

It refers to a statement of a general change which

a program seeks to bring about in learners.

It is the ideology of the curriculum and show

how the curriculum will seek to realize it

The example of aims:Students will learn how to write effective business letters for use in the hotel and tourism industries.Students will learn how to listen effectively in conversational interactions how to develop better listening startegies.And so on. . . (Richards, 2001: 102)

It is a statement which have more specific purposes.

It refers to a statement of specific changes, a program seeks to bring about and results from an analysis of the aim.

Describe what the aims seek to achieve in terms of smaller units of learning.

Provide a basis for the organization of teaching activities.

Describe learning in term of observable behavior and performance.

The example aim and objectives:

Aim

Students will learn how to understand lectures given in English

Objectives

•Students will be able to follow an argument, theme, or thesis of a lecturer•Students will learn how to recognize the following aspects of a lecture:

cause-and-effect relationshipcomparisons and contrastspremises used in persuasive argumentssupporting details used in persuasive arguments

1. Objectives turn teaching into a technology. (meaningful and worthwhile may be lost)

2. Objectives trivialize teaching and are product-oriented. (every purpose in teaching can be described as an objective)

3. Objectives are unsuited to many aspects of language use. (e.g: critical thinking)

An alternative to the use of objectives in program planning is to describe learning outcomes in terms of competencies, an approach associated with Competence-based Language Teaching (CBLT)

They refer to observable behaviors that are necessary for the successful completion of real-world activities.

These activities may be related to the field of work and social survival in a new environment.

1. Definition of the competencies: no valid procedures are available for competency specifications.

2. Hidden values underlying competency specifications.

3. A refugee resettlement training program in Philippines: it encourages refugees to consider themselves fortunate to find minimum-wage employment.

Because such outcomes go beyond the content of a linguistically

oriented syllabus, they are sometimes referred to as nonl anguage

outcomes. Those that describe learning experiences rather than

learning outcomes are also known as process objectives

Eight broad categories of nonlanguage outcomes in teaching: Social,

psychological, and emotional support in the new living

environment, Confidence, and so on. (Richards. 2001: 133-4)