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PLANT GUM EXUDATES OF THE WORLD Sources, Distribution, Properties, and Applications Amos Nussinovitch (Ltfi) CRC Press \V J Taylor & Francis Croup Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business
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Page 1: PLANT GUM EXUDATES OF THE WORLD -  · PDF filePLANT GUM EXUDATES OF THE WORLD Sources, Distribution, ... Faidherbia albida (Delile) ... 3.5.10 Samanea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY:

PLANT GUM EXUDATESOF THE WORLDSources, Distribution,

Properties, and Applications

Amos Nussinovitch

(Ltfi) CRC Press\ V J Taylor & Francis Croup

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Croup, an informa business

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Contents

Preface xix

Acknowledgments xxiii

The Author xxv

1 Role and Sources of Exudate Gums 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Definitions 31.3 Gum Yields 81.4 Agricultural Issues 91.5 Physical Properties of Gums 12

1.5.1 Color 121.5.2 Size and shape 131.5.3 Taste and smell 141.5.4 Hardness and density 151.5.5 Polarization 161.5.6 Solubility 161.5.7 Viscosity and mouthfeel 17

1.6 Chemical Properties 191.7 Commercial Assessments of Gums 191.8 Industrial and Other Uses 19References 20

2 Physiological Aspects of Polysaccharide Formation in Plants 232.1 Introduction 232.2 Stress Factors, Ethylene and Gummosis 232.3 Borers and Gum Formation 302.4 Gum Ducts 312.5 Gummosis in Fruit Trees 322.6 Induced Inoculation and Gum Yield 34References 35

3 Major Plant Exudates of the World 393.1 Introduction 393.2 Gum Arabic and Other Acacia Gums 39

VII

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3.2.1 Acacia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 393.2.1.1 Taxon: Acacia Senegal (L.) Willd 393.2.1.2 Taxon: Acacia seyalDe\i\e 423.2.1.3 Taxon: Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. subsp.

calophylla Brenan 433.2.1.4 Taxon: Acacia bakeri Maiden 433.2.1.5 Taxon: Acacia benthamii Meisn 433.2.1.6 Taxon: Acacia binervata DC 433.2.1.7 Taxon: Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd 433.2.1.8 Taxon: Acacia dealbata Link 45

3.2.1.9 Taxon: Acacia decurrens Willd 453.2.1.10 Taxon: Acacia drepanolobium Harms ex Y. Sjostedt 463.2.1.11 Taxon: Acacia elata A. Cunn. ex Benth 463.2.1.12 Taxon: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd 463.2.1.13 Taxon: Acacia ferruginea DC 473.2.1.14 Taxon: Acacia harpophyllaF. Muell. ex Benth 473.2.1.15 Taxon: Acacia jacquemontii Benth 473.2.1.16 Taxon: Acacia karroo Hayne 473.2.1.17 Taxon: Acacia kirkii Oliv 473.2.1.18 Taxon: Acacia laeta R. Br. ex Benth 483.2.1.19 Taxon: Acacia leiophylla Benth 483.2.1.20 Taxon: Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd 483.2.1.21 Taxon: Acacia maidenii F. Muell 493.2.1.22 Taxon: Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth 493.2.1.23 Taxon: Acacia modesta Wall 493.2A.24 Taxon: Acacia oerfota (Forssk.) Schweinf. 493.2.1.25 Taxon: Acacia oswaldii F. Muell 503.2.1.26 Taxon: Acaciapendula A. Cunn. ex G. Don 503.2.1.27 Taxon: Acaciapenninervis Sieber ex DC 503.2.1.28 Taxon: Acaciapycnantha Benth 513.2.1.29 Taxon: Acacia retinodes Schltdl 513.2.1.30 Taxon: Acacia salicina Lindl 513.2.1.31 Taxon: Acacia sieberiana DC 513.2.1.32 Taxon: Acacia stuhlmanii Taub 513.2.1.33 Taxon: Acacia vernicifiua A. Cunn 523.2.1.34 Taxon: Acacia xanthophloea Benth 52

3.2.2 Faidherbia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 523.2.2.1 Taxon: Faidherbia albida (Delile) A. Chev. 52

3.3 Gum Tragacanth and Similar Gums 523.3.1 Astragalus FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 52

3.3.1.1 Taxon: Astragalus gummifer Labill 523.3.1.2 Taxon: Astragalus brachycalyx Fisch 553.3.1.3 Taxon: Astragalus heratensis Bunge 563.3.1.4 Taxon: Astragalus kurdicus Boiss 563.3.1.5 Taxon: Astragalus microcephalus Willd 573.3.1.6 Taxon: Astragalus verus Olivier 57

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Contents • ix

3.3.2 Sterculia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) 573.3.2.1 Taxon: Sterculia urens Roxb 573.3.2.2 Taxon: Sterculia foetida L 603.3.2.3 Taxon: Sterculia guttata Roxb 613.3.2.4 Taxon: Sterculia quadrifida R. Br 623.3.2.5 Taxon: Sterculia scaphigera Wall 623.3.2.6 Taxon: Sterculia setigera Delile 633.3.2.7 Taxon: Sterculia tragacantha Lindl 643.3.2.8 Taxon: Sterculia villosa Roxb 64

3.3.3 Brachychiton MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) 6433.3A Taxon: Brachychiton acerifolius (A. Cunn. ex G. Don)

Macarthur 643.3-4 Firmiana MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) 65

3.3.4.1 Taxon: Firmiana simplex (L.) W. Wight 653.3.5 Hildegardia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) 65

3.3.5.1 Taxon: Hildegardia barteri (Mast.) Kosterm 653.3-6 Cochlospermum BIXACEAE 65

3.3.6.1 Taxon: Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston 653.4 Important Indian or Asiatic Gums and Their Botanical Sources 66

3.4.1 Aegle RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: AURANTIOIDEAE) 66

3.4.1.1 Taxon: Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa 663.4.2 Albizia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 68

3.4.2.1 Taxon: Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth 683.4.2.2 Taxon: Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth 693.4.2.3 Taxon: Albiziaprocera (Roxb.) Benth 693.4.2.4 Taxon: Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr 713.4.2.5 Taxon: Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 72

3.4.3 Aleurites EUPHORBIACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CROTONOIDEAE) 73

3.4.3.1 Taxon: Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd 733.4.4 Anogeissus COMBRETACEAE 76

3.4.4.1 Taxon: Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.)Wall, ex Guill. & Perr 76

3.4.5 Bauhinia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 79

3.4.5.1 Taxon: Bauhiniapurpurea L 793.4.5.2 Taxon: Bauhinia roxburghiana Voigt 803.4.5.3 Taxon: Bauhinia variegata L 81

3.4.6 Buchanania ANACARDIACEAE 823.4.6.1 Taxon: Buchanania lanzan Spreng 823.4.6.2 Taxon: Buchanania latifolia Roxb 82

3.4.7 Toona MELIACEAE 83

3.4.7A Taxon: Toona ciliata M. Roem 833.4.8 Chloroxylon RUTACEAE 84

3.4.8.1 Taxon: Chloroxylon swietenia DC 843.4.9 Delonix FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 84

3.4.9.1 Taxon: Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. 843.4.10 Elaeodendron CELASTRACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CELASTROIDEAE) 86

3.4.10.1 Taxon: Elaeodendron glaucum (Rottb.) Pers 86

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3.4.11 Limonia RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: AURANTIOIDEAE) 893.4.11.1 Taxon: Limonia acidissima L 89

3-4.12 Mangifera ANACARDIACEAE 903.4.12.1 Taxon: Mangifera indica L 90

3.4.13 Azadirachta MELIACEAE 933-4.13-1 Taxon: Azadirachta indica A. Juss 93

3.4.14 Prosopis FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 953.4.14.1 Taxon: Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce 953.4.14.2 Taxon: Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC 95

3.4.15 Sesbania FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 983.4.15.1 Taxon: Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers 98

3.4.16 Spondias ANACARDIACEAE 983.4.16.1 Taxon: Spondias dulcis Sol. ex Parkinson 983.4.16.2 Taxon: Spondiaspinnata (J. Koenig ex L. f.) Kurz 100

3.4.17 Terminalia COMBRETACEAE 1013.4.17A Taxon: Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb 101

3.5 Gums of The New World 1043.5.1 Anacardium ANACARDIACEAE 104

3.5.1.1 Taxon: Anacardium humile A. St.-Hil 1043.5.1.2 Taxon: Anacardium nanumk. St.-Hil 1043.5.1.3 Taxon: Anacardium occidentakh 104

3.5.2 Anadenanthera FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 1053.5.2.1 Taxon: Anadenanthera colubrina (Veil.) Brenan var. cebil

(Griseb.) Altschul 1053.5.2.2 Taxon: Anadenanthera colubrina (Veil.) Brenan var.

colubrina 1063.5.3 Caesalpinia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 106

3.5.3.1 Taxon: Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd 1063.5.4 Parkinsonia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 107

3.5.4.1 Taxon: Parkinsoniapraecox (Ruiz & Pav.) J. A. Hawkinssubsp. praecox 107

3.5.5 Parapiptadenia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 1083.5.5.1 Taxon: Parapiptadenia rigida (Benth.) Brenan 108

3-5-6 Puya BROMELIACEAE 1083.5.6.1 Taxon: Puya chilensis Molina 108

3.5-7 Jheobroma MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BYTTNERIOIDEAE) 1103.5.7-1 Taxon: Theobroma cacao L 110

3.5.8 Laguncularia COMBRETACEAE 110

3.5.8.1 Taxon: Laguncularia racemosa (L.) C. F. Gaertn 1103.5.9 Pithecellobium FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) I l l

3.5.9.1 Taxon: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth I l l3.5.10 Samanea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) I l l

3.5.10.1 Taxon: Samaneasaman (Jacq.) Merr I l l3-5.11 Enterolobium FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 113

3.5-11.1 Taxon: Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb 1133.5.12 Chloroleucon FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 115

3.5-12.1 Taxon: Chloroleucon mangense (Jacq.) Britton & Rose 115

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3.5.13 Leucaena FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 1153.5.13.1 Taxon: Leucaena collinsii Britton & Rose 115

3.5.14 Lysiloma FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 1163.5.14.1 Taxon: Lysiloma acapulcense (Kunth) Benth 116

3.5.15 Lnga FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 1163.5.15.1 Taxon: lnga stipularis DC 116

3.5.16 Rhizophora RHIZOPHORACEAE 1173.5.16.1 Taxon: Rhizophora mangle!, 117

3-5.17 Melicoccus SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) 1173.5.17.1 Taxon: Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq 117

3.5.18 Ceiba MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) 1183.5.18.1 Taxon: Ceiba speciosa (A. St.-Hil.) Ravenna 118

3-5.19 Thespesia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MALVOIDEAE) 1183.5.19.1 Taxon: Thespesiapopulnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa 118

3.5.20 Cylindropuntia CACTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: OPUNTIOIDEAE) 1203.5.20.1 Taxon: Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F. M. Knuth 120

3.5.21 Manilkara SAPOTACEAE 1213-5.21.1 Taxon: Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen 121

3.5.22 Larix PINACEAE 1223.5.22.1 Taxon: Larix occidentals Nutt 122

3.6 Miscellaneous Asiatic, African, and Australian Gums 1233.6.1 Actinidia ACTINIDIACEAE 123

3.6.1.1 Taxon: Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang&A. R. Ferguson 123

3.6.2 Araucaria ARAUCARIACEAE 123

3.6.2.1 Taxon: Araucaria heterophylla (Salisb.) Franco 1233.6.3 Balanites ZYGOPHYLLACEAE (SUBFAMILY: TRIBULOIDEAE) 125

3.6.3.1 Taxon: Balanites aegyptiacus (L.) Delile 1253.6.4 Brabejum PROTEACEAE 125

3.6.4.1 Taxon: Brabejum stellatifolium L 1253.6.5 Butea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 126

3.6.5.1 Taxon: Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub 1263.6.6 Cercis FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 127

3.6.6.1 Taxon: Cercis siliquastrum L 1273.6.7 Cissus VITACEAE 127

3.6.7.1 Taxon: Cissus populnea Guill. & Perr 1273.6.8 Commiphora BURSERACEAE 129

3.6.8.1 Taxon: Commiphora mollis (Oliv) Engl 1293.6.9 Diospyros EBENACEAE 130

3.6.9.1 Taxon: Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC 1303.6.10 Dicorynia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 130

3-6.10.1 Taxon: Dicoryniaparaensis Benth 1303.6.11 Entandrophragma MELIACEAE 130

3.6.11.1 Taxon: Entandrophragma angolense (Welw.) C. DC 1303.6.12 Fagarta RUTACEAE 131

3.6.12.1 Taxon: Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern.&Timler 131

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3.6.13 Ferula APIACEAE 1313.6.13.1 Taxon: Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel 131

3.6.14 Grevillea PROTEACEAE 1323.6.14.1 Taxon: Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R. Br 132

3.6.15 Lophira OCHNACEAE 1333.6.15.1 Taxon: Lophira alata Banks ex C. F. Gaertn 133

3-6.16 Madhuca SAPOTACEAE 134

3.6.16.1 Taxon: Madhuca longifolia (L.) J. F. Macbr 1343.6.17 Millettia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 134

3.6.17.1 Taxon: Millettiapinnata (L.) Panigrahi 1343.6.18 Mystroxylon CELASTRACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CELASTROIDEAE) 135

3.6.18.1 Taxon: Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes 1353.6.19 Parkia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 136

3.6.19.1 Taxon: Parkia bicolor A. Chev. 1363.6.20 Pereskia CACTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: PERESKIOIDEAE) 136

3.6.20.1 Taxon: Pereskia guamacho F.A.C. Weber 1363-6.21 Phormium HEMEROCALLIDACEAE 136

3.6.21.1 Taxon: Phormium tenax]. R. Forst. & G. Forst 1363.6.22 Piptadeniastrum FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 137

3.6.22.1 Taxon: Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook, f.) Brenan 1373.6.23 Pittosporum PITTOSPORACEAE 137

3.6.23.1 Taxon: Pittosporumphillyreoides DC 1373.6.24 Polyscias ARALIACEAE (SUBFAMILY: ARALIOIDEAE) 137

3.6.24.1 Taxon: Polyscias sambucifolia (Sieber ex DC.) Harms 1373.6.24.2 Taxon: Prunus avium (L.) L 138

3.6.25 Prunus ROSACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SPIRAEOIDEAE) 1403.6.25-1 Taxon: Prunus armeniaca L 1403.6.25.2 Taxon: Prunus domestica L. subsp. domestica 1413.6.25.3 Taxon: Prunuspersica (L.) Batsch var. persica 1433.6.25.4 Taxon: Prunus spinosa L 143

3.6.26 Pterocarpus FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 1443.6.26.1 Taxon: Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb 144

3.6.27 Sapindus SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) 1453.6.27.1 Taxon: Sapindus trifoliatus L 145

3.6.28 Stangeria ZAMIACEAE 1453.6.28.1 Taxon: Stangeria eriopus (Kunze) Baill 145

3.6.29 Symphonia CLUSIACEAE 1463.6.29.1 Taxon: Symphonia globuliferah. f. 146

3.6.30 Talisia SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) 1473.6.30.1 Taxon: Talisia oliviformis (Kunth) Radlk 1473.6.30.2 Taxon: Watsonia versfeldii). W. Mathews & L. Bolus 147

3.6.31 Welwitschia WELWITSCHIACEAE 1483.6.31.1 Taxon: Welwitschia mirabilis Hook. f. 148

3.6.32 Ziziphus RHAMNACEAE 1483.6.32.1 Taxon: Ziziphus jujuba Mill 148

References 149

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Contents • xiii

Minor Plant Exudates of the World 1634.1 Introduction 1634.2 Adansonia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) 163

4.2.1 Taxon: Adansonia digitata L 1634.3 Adenanthera FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 168

4.3.1 Taxon: Adenantherapavonina L 1684.4 Afzelia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 170

4.4.1 Taxon: Afzelia africana Sm. ex Pers 1704.5 Albizia FABACEAE 1724.6 Anogeissus COMBRETACEAE 173

4.6.1 Taxon: Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr 1734.7 Atalaya SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) 174

4.7.1 Taxon: Atalaya hemiglauca (F. Muell.) F. Muell. ex Benth 1744.8 Balsamocitrus RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: AURANTIOIDEAE) 174

4.8.1 Taxon: Balsamocitrus dawei Stapf 1744.9 Bauhinia FABACEAE 175

4.9.1 Taxon: Bauhinia carronii F. Muell 1754.9.2 Taxon: Bauhinia thonningii Schumach. & Thonn 1754.9.3 Taxon: Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy ex Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc 176

4.10 Julbernardia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 1764.10.1 Taxon: Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin 176

4.11 Bombax MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) 1774.11.1 Taxon: Bombax ceiba L 1774.11.2 Taxon: Bombax insigne^/zW 180

4.12 Borassus ARECACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CORYPHOIDEAE) 180

4.12.1 Taxon: Borassus flabellifer L 1804.13 Bosistoa RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: TODDALIOIDEAE) 181

4.13.1 Taxon: Bosistoapentacocca (F. Muell.) Bail 1814.14 Brachystegia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 181

4.14.1 Taxon: Brachystegia spiciformis Benth 1814.15 Burkea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 183

4.15-1 Taxon: Burkea africana Hook 1834.16 Capparis CAPPARACEAE 184

4.16.1 Taxon: Capparis nobilis (Endl.) F. Muell. ex Benth 1844.17 Careya LECYTHIDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: PLANCHONIOIDEAE) 185

4.17A Taxon: Careya arborea Roxb 1854.18 Cassia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 186

4.18.1 Taxon: Cassia fistula L 1864.18.2 Taxon: Cassia sieberiana DC 187

4.19 Cedrela MELIACEAE 1894.19.1 Taxon: Cedrela odorataL 189

4.20 Ceiba MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) 190

4.20.1 Taxon: Ceibapentandra (L.) Gaertn 1904.21 Ceratopetalum CUNONIACEAE 190

4.21.1 Taxon: Ceratopetalum apetalum D. Don 1904.21.2 Taxon: Ceratopetalum gummiferum Sm 191

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4.22 Chukrasia MELIACEAE 1914.22.1 Taxon: Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss 191

4.23 Citrus RUTACEAE 1934.24 Cocos ARECACEAE (SUBFAMILY: ARECOIDEAE) 195

4.24.1 Taxon: Cocos nucifera L 1954.25 Cola STERCULIACEAE 197

4.25.1 Taxon: Cola cordifolia (Cav.) R. Br 1974.26 Combretum COMBRETACEAE 198

4.27 Cordia BORAGINACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CORDIOIDEAE) 200

4.27.1 Taxon: Cordia myxa L 2004.28 Cordyla FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 201

4.28.1 Taxon: Cordyla africana Lour 2014.29 Corypha ARECACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CORYPHOIDEAE) 202

4.29.1 Taxon: Corypha utan Lam 2024.30 Crataeva CAPPARACEAE 202

4.30.1 Taxon: Crataeva adansonii DC 2024.31 Cussonia ARALIACEAE 204

4.31 A Taxon: Cussonia arborea Hochst. ex A. Rich 2044.32 Cycas CYCADACEAE 204

4.32.1 Taxon: Cycas lane-poolei C. A. Gardner 204

4.32.2 Taxon: Cycas circinalis L 2044.33 Dichrostachys FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 207

4.33A Taxon: Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn 2074.34 Echinocarpus ELAEOCARPACEAE 208

4.34A Taxon: Echinocarpus australis Benth.(now synonym of sloanea australis F. Muell., see section 4.6.2.2) 208

4.35 Elaeocarpus ELAEOCARPACEAE 208

4.35-1 Taxon: Elaeocarpusgrandis F. Muell 2084.35.2 Taxon: Elaeocarpus obovatus G. Don 2084.35.3 Taxon: Elaeocarpus reticulatus Sm 208

4.36 Encephalartos ZAMIACEAE 2084.36.1 Taxon: Encephalartos hildebrandtii A. Braun & C. D. Bouche 208

4.37 Entada FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 2094.37A Taxon: Entada africana Guill. & Perr 209

4.38 Erythrophleum FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 2094.38.1 Taxon: Erythrophleum africanum (Welw. ex Benth.) Harms 209

4.39 Flindersia RUTACEAE 2104.39.1 Taxon: Flindersia maculosa (Lindl.) F. Muell 2104.39.2 Taxon: Flindersia australis R. Br 211

4.40 Garuga BURSERACEAE 211

4.40.1 Taxon: Garugapinnata Roxb 2114.41 Geijera RUTACEAE 212

4.41.1 Taxon: Geijera paniculata (F. Muell.) Druce 2124.42 Geodorum ORCHIDACEAE 212

4.42.1 Taxon: Geodorum nutans (C. Presl) Ames 2124.43 Hakea PROTEACEAE 213

4.43-1 Taxon: Hakea gibbosa (Sm.) Cav. 213

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Contents • xv

4.44 Khaya MELIACEAE 214

4.44.1 Taxon: Khaya grandifoliola C. DC 2144.44.2 Taxon: Khaya madagascariensis Jum. & H. Perrier 2144.44.3 Taxon: Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss 214

4.45 Lagerstroemia LYTHRACEAE 217

4.45.1 Taxon: Lagerstroemiaparviflora Roxb 2174.46 Lannea ANACARDIACEAE 219

4.46.1 Taxon: Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr 2194.47 Macrozamia ZAMIACEAE 221

4.47A Taxon: Macrozamia spiralis (Salisb.) Miq 2214.48 Melia MELIACEAE 221

4.48.1 Taxon: Melia azedarach L 2214.49 Melicope RUTACEAE 224

4.49.1 Taxon: Bouchardatia neurococca (F. Muell.) 2244.50 Moringa MORINGACEAE 225

4.50.1 Taxon: Moringa oleifera Lam 2254.51 Owenia MELIACEAE 228

4.51.1 Taxon: Owenia venosa F. Muell 2284.52 Panax (Tieghemopanax) ARALIACEAE 228

4.52.1 Taxon: Polyscias elegans (C. Moore & F. Muell.) Harms 2284.52.2 Taxon: Neopanax colensoi (Hook, f.) Allan 228

4.53 Saltern PENAEACEAE 228

4.53.1 Taxon: Saltera sarcocolla (L.) Bullock 2284.54 Pentaceras RUTACEAE 229

4.54.1 Taxon: Pentaceras australis (F. Muell.) Benth 2294.55 Prunus ROSACEAE 229

4.55.1 Taxon: Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb 2294.56 Pseudocedrela MELIACEAE 230

4.56.1 Taxon: Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms 2304.57 Saccopetalum ANNONACEAE 231

4.57.1 Taxon: Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) J. Sinclaiv 2314.58 Sarcostemma ASCLEPIADACEAE 231

4.58.1 Taxon: Sarcostemma brevistigma Wight & Arn 2314.59 Schefflera ARALIACEAE 231

4.59.1 Taxon: Schefflera volkensii Harms 2314.60 Sclerocarya ANACARDIACEAE 232

4.60.1 Taxon: Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst 2324.61 Semecarpus ANACARDIACEAE 233

4.61.1 Taxon: Semecarpus anacardium L. f. 2334.62 Sloanea ELAEOCARPACEAE 234

4.62.1 Taxon: Sloanea woollsii F. Muell 2344.62.2 Taxon: Sloanea australis F. Muell 234

4.63 Soymida MELIACEAE 2354.63.1 Taxon: Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss 235

4.64 Tamarindus FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 2364.64.1 Taxon: Tamarindus indica L 236

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4.65 Heritiera MALVACEAE 2384.65.1 Taxon: Heritiera trifoliolata (F. Muell.) Kosterm 238

4.66 Terminalia COMBRETACEAE 2384.67 Thevetia APOCYNACEAE 245

4.67.1 Taxon: Thevetiaperuviana (Pers.) K. Schum 2454.68 Virgilia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 246

4.68.1 Taxon: Virgilia oroboides (P. J. Bergius) T. M. Salter 246References 247

Food Applications of Plant Exudates 2575.1 Introduction 2575.2 Food Uses of Gum Exudates 258

5.2.1 Confectionery 2585.2.2 Salad dressings and sauces 2615.2.3 Frozen products 262

5.2.3.1 Frozen dough 2635.2.3.2 Frozen sugar solutions 2635.2.3.3 Frozen dairy products, ice pops and sherbets 264

5.2.4 Spray-drying 2645.2.4.1 Spray-drying of juices 2645.2.4.2 Miscellaneous spray-dried products 2665.2.4.3 Encapsulation via spray-drying 267

5.2.5 Drum-drying 2675.2.6 Wine 2685.2.7 Adhesives 2695.2.8 Bakery products 2695.2.9 Flavor fixatives and emulsifiers 2695.2.10 Beverages 2705.2.11 Meat products 2705.2.12 Miscellaneous 2705.2.13 Microencapsulation 271

5.2.13.1 Oleoresins 2715.2.13.2 Linoleic acid microencapsulation 2745.2.13.3 Procyanidins 275

5.2.14 Coacervation 2765.2.15 Deep-fat frying 2765.2.16 Emulsions 2775.2.17 Foam 279

5.3 Gum Exudates in Animal Food 2805.3.1 Introduction 2805.3.2 Insects 2805.3.3 Mammals and primates 281

5.4 Health-Related Aspects 2845.4.1 Safety 2845.4.2 Nutrition 285

References 286

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6 Gum Exudates in Water-Based Adhesives 2936.1 Introduction 2936.2 Gums as Adhesives 2946.3 Industrial Uses of Exudate Glues 294

6.3.1 General 2946.3.2 Paper 2946.3.3 Wood and furniture 294

6.4 Biological Applications: A General Approach 2966.4.1 Ostomy devices 2966.4.2 Denture fixatives 2976.4.3 Bioelectrodes 2986.4.4 Exudate patches for transdermal drug delivery 298

6.5 Hydrocolloid Adhesion Tests 2996.6 Exudates as Wet Glues 3026.7 Adhesion Mechanisms of Hydrogels 306References 308

7 Medical, Cosmetic and Biotechnological Uses of Gum Exudates 3117.1 Introduction 3117.2 Pharmacological Applications 311

7.2.1 Demulcent and emollient qualities 3117.2.2 Suspending and emulsifying agents 3127.2.3 Laxatives 3147.2.4 Antiseptic preparations and ophthalmic infections 3147.2.5 Tablets and pills 3347.2.6 Hydrophobic drug delivery 3147.2.7 Lycopene 3157.2.8 Gelatin- And chitosan-gum arabic coacervates 3157.2.9 Various medical uses 317

7.2.9.1 Intravenous injections 3177.2.9.2 Activity against leishmania and fungi 317

7.3 Folk Medicine 3187.4 Cosmetics and Other Products 320

7.4.1 General 3207.4.2 Different cosmetic preparations 3217.4.3 Perfume 3217.4.4 Powdered abrasive cleaners 322

7.5 Biotechnological Applications 3227.5.1 Recombinant plant gum 3227.5.2 Intracellular delivery 323

References 323

8 Analysis and Identification of Gum Exudates 3278.1 Introduction 3278.2 Industrial Gums 327

8.2.1 Water solubility 3278.2.2 Alcohol precipitability 329

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8.2.3 Microscopic identification 3298.2.4 Identification of gums in specific foods 3328.2.5 Antibodies for the identification of gum arabic

and other polysaccharides 3338.3 Group Analysis and Identification Schemes 334

8.3.1 Characteristic reactions of gums 3348.3.2 Cetavlon group identification scheme 337

8.4 Additional Analytical Methods 3388.4.1 IR spectroscopy 3388.4.2 Chromatographic techniques to identify plant gums 3398.4.3 Fourier transform-Raman spectroscopy of gum exudates 3408.4.4 Capillary electrophoresis 3418.4.5 Other methods 342

References 342

9 Miscellaneous Uses of Plant Exudates 3479.1 Introduction 3479.2 Paints, Pigments and Painting 3479.3 Inks 3519.4 Lithography 3549.5 Textiles 3559.6 Corrosion Inhibition 3579.7 Immersion Plating 3589.8 Drilling Fluids 3599.9 Oil-Weil Cement 3609.10 Binders and Special Coatings 361

9.10.1 Glaze binders 3619.10.2 Binders for insecticides 3619.10.3 Non-glare coatings for windshields 361

9.11 Paper and E-Paper 3619.12 Explosives 3629.13 Ceramics 3649.14 Miscellaneous 365

9.14.1 Varnishes 3659.14.2 Car polishes 3669.14.3 Cross-linked polystyrene 3669.14.4 Photoelectric determinations 3669.14.5 Polarographic determinations 3679.14.6 Abdominal ultrasound imaging and soil analyses 3679.14.7 Vinyl resin emulsions 368

References 368

Organism Name Index 371

General Index 383


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