The Temple of Zeus at Olympia; after the reconstruction of Curtius & Adler with metopes added.

PLATE I

THE element of confusion whichaccompanies an inexperienced at-tempt to introduce color in a façade

arises in most cases from ignorance of thephysical properties of color, and their relationto and reaction upon, the architectonic val-ues established in design. The major difficul-ties presenting themselves in practice may bearranged in two main groups. The first con-cerns the selection of those architecturalitems to which the application of color mayadvantageously be made. The secondincludes the formulation of a color tech-nique; this, besides dealing with the planningof colors upon ornamental form, and withthe conformation of contour and relief forthe reception of color, involves an answer tothe question whether architectural poly-chromy should include tone gradation or beconfined to uniform tones.

The intention which actuates the use ofcolor in the various arts, to realize æstheticobjectives, functions in two general direc-tions. In the pictorial arts, color stimulates

imaginative processes; in the applied arts, theendowment of substance or surface with aspecies of scenic-value or sense-appeal is thefactor determining the methods of applica-tion and the quality of color. For the painterit is the most pliable means with which thecomplexities of effect may be reconstituted,in such guise that his temperament records,on contemplation of his finished work, areaction equivalent to that experienced dur-ing the initial phases of inspiration. Thefunction of color in architecture is of a lessinvolved character; it contributes an extrane-ous form of beauty to that which is purelyarchitectural; the gratification of the æstheticsense is visual rather than intellectual, the useof color being free from the intent to stimu-late reflex processes.

Color in its architectural relation must nat-urally be classified as a decorative resource.Each decorative resource has the capacity torealize a distinctive type of effect unattainableby the legitimate use of any other decorativemeans. Our initial steps in research are thus

The Conditions which Control the Introduction of Color

1. WEST PEDIMENT OF THE TEMPLE OF APHALIA, ON THE ISLAND OF AEGINA.FURTWANGLER’S RECONSTRUCTION

1

2. TEMPLE OF APOLLO: WOOD AND POLYCHROME TERRACOTTA. RECONSTRUCTION BY KAWERAU.

3. TERRA COTTA METOPE IN POLYCHROME FROMTEMPLE OF APPOLLO.

2

prescribed. It is first necessary to identifythose forms of effect which are expressive ofthe decorative function of polychromy inarchitectural effect; this can only be effectedthrough an acquaintance with the action and

reaction of color upon architectural valuesand properties. It is, then, necessary to for-mulate a technique which will serve as themechanism for effect.

The prime capability of color in architec-

ture Is, that it is the most potent of all vehi-cles for emphasis. Color possesses an inherentproperty recognized in its scientific aspect asits radiant energy. This form of energy iscapable of a control which enables it to attainresults of an esthetic character; the phenom-ena which characterize it produce direct opti-cal results in their decorative operation; butthese results react indirectly upon certainvital properties in architectural design unless

subjected to rigid regulation. It is necessary,therefore, to discover the nature and locationof those reactions upon elements of architec-tural design which must not suffer deprecia-tion through the presence of color, in orderthat the results proceeding from the use ofcolor may be uniformly advantageous.

A major objective is sought, in all architec-tural design, to which each contributory ele-ment of effect is instinctively subordinated; it

3

4. THE “OLD” TEMPLE AT AEGINA. FURTWANGLER’S RECONSTRUCTION.

THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

4

5. NORTHWEST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON.FENGER’S RECONSTRUCTION. POLYCHROME TREAT-MENT OF THE FIGURES TO BE DISREGERDED.

5

6. PORTICO OF THE PARTHENON.F E N G E R ’ S RECONSTRUCTION.

consists in the creation of an aspect of har-monious adjustment between the compo-nent structural forces, in order that a sense ofstatical force may predominate; by staticalforce is meant that impression of equilibriumresulting from a perfect coördination of thevaried forces sensed in an architectural com-position. If strong emphasis, in the guise ofcolor, is added to a façade in which the effectof these varied forces conveys an impressionof satisfactory adjustment, it is obviouslyimperative that color location and its decora-tive development must have a clearly recog-nized relation to values previously estab-lished. Since emphasis constitutes a focus ofeffect, the inclusion of a predominant ele-ment such as polychromy, capable of impart-ing the maximum degree of accentuation toany member, must not occur as an unrelatedand superadded artistic activity.

The visual impression resulting from thepresence of color upon any architecturalmember is antithetical to its appearance ofstructural strength; this latter quality isdiminished relatively to the degree of colorelaboration. However, it does not follow thatthe presence of color in a façade is conse-quently antagonistic to this vital element inarchitectural design. On the contrary, colormay accentuate the extremes of certainæsthetic qualities present in a work of art. Itmay contribute by contrast to the sense ofstatical force in the main conception, by aug-menting the impression of lightness in mem-bers that are secondary or supported, therebyintensifying the structural integrity of thosearchitectural items which are essentially sus-taining.

The decorative capacities of color in archi-tecture may be grouped under three mainactivities:

1. Its inherent chromatic energy, whichintroduces a quality of decorative emphasisin any item upon which it figures.

2. Its decorative contribution to architec-tural effect, by the introduction of a decora-tive interest distinct from the purely architec-tonic.

3. Its influence upon structural attributes,

by accentuating qualities of delicacy and ele-gance in architectural members in whichthose elements are characteristic.

The Use of Color in Historic TypesThe historic types of architecture devel-

oped between archaic eras and modern timesmay be roughly classed as those whereinracial instincts achieved a spontaneousexpression and those, dating from the six-teenth century in Europe, which are in themajority of cases classic derivatives. In manyof the former, color figures prominently onfaçades, as an important factor in their cre-ators’ content of beauty: in the latter, it isalmost entirely absent. In races and ageswhere an uninfluenced form of expressionwas possible, the sensuous appeal of colorwas a valuable medium for imparting to theminds of the masses those impressions andinfluences which constituted so important afunction in the social message conveyedthrough architectural design. During thelater period, with the revival of the classictype of design, another set of esthetic idealscontrolled imaginative effort. In theRenaissance of Italy, the basic interest discov-ered in the classic models was that of organ-ized proportions, which did not exist in theByzantine, Romanesque or Gothic. We mustalso remember that, with the inception ofthis style, there was a revision of values in themedia of effect, and that masses and detailwere subject to a changed angle of considera-tion; as in painting, so also in architecture,the qualities of light and shade striven forwere radically different from those sought bystylistic predecessors. Leonardo da Vinciintroduced the most revolutionary intima-tion in pictorial effect by demonstrating thatthe composition of groups and the focus ofinterest in details could be effected by chiaro-oscuro. It can readily be appreciated why,when decorative interest was focussed by del-icate transitions and accents of light andshade, so forcibly contrasting a factor as colorwas omitted, as being a component item of aquality of effect achieved through the medi-um of another group of æsthetic ideals; in

6

THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

addition to this, there were no longer anytraces of color on any of the examples toserve as guides and references to its originalpresence; the fact that color was thus used,could be gathered only from the value state-ments of a few classic authors—data in allprobability ignored by the pioneers of themovement. This argument applies also to thelater derivations of the eighteenth and nine-teenth centuries, which accepted the Italianinterpretation of the classics, in equal igno-rance of the decorative entity of the originaltypes.

Research among ancient systems of poly-chromy, in order to discover principles uponwhich to found practice and to develop tech-nique, must be directed by a simple consid-eration that spares its much fruitless toil. Ascolor action and reaction must be adjusted ina direct relation to architectonic values, thesolution to our difficulties can only exist inthat stylistic type which most nearly embod-ies our own esthetic standards and ideals.This basis of selection eliminates all thosepolychromic types which exert only a cultur-al interest, such as the Assyrian, Egyptian,Hindu, Mongolian and other oriental andexotic architectural expressions. By thisprocess of elimination we find our hopes cen-tered upon Greek polychromy as practicedduring the sixth, fifth and fourth centuriesB.C., during which period Greek architec-ture achieved its most spontaneous and virileexpression. The untiring enthusiasm,patience and energy of modern Greek archæ-ologists have accumulated sufficient authen-ticated data bearing upon our field ofresearch to test any theories in the light of aseries of examples.

The most forcible impression receivedfrom an initial grouping of Greek architec-tural polychrome data, is the appearance ofstandardization conveyed by a uniformity ofmethod governing the location of color onfaçades, during these three great centuries.The next impression, resulting from anexhaustive examination of color planningupon ornamental detail, lies in their rigidadherence to certain decorative conventions:Greek conservatism is so consistently appar-

ent for three centuries despite radical changesin architectural types, that fixed procedure bya race so artistically versatile can only beexplained by the surmise that they embodiedcertain basic æsthetic or physical essentials,which could be neither dispensed with norreplaced in practice.

An analysis of the Greek system of colorlocation and composition on the façadereveals the existence of architectural princi-ples and methods evolved through an intu-itive knowledge of the action of radiant ener-gy in color when a group of pigments areassembled decoratively, and the direct rela-tion of this energy to specific architectonicproperties; it is an art based upon an under-standing essentially scientific. In their poly-chromy the Greeks give us yet anotherinstance of their matchless intuition, dis-played wherever natural phenomena directthe creation of artistic effects. Under theguidance of this rare form of intuition, thecomponent elements of artistic impulseundergo an automatic process of mutualadjustment, of an order far superior to anyprocurable by other means. The uniformityin these methods of artistic procedure wasnot the result of any control arbitrarilyenforced, as is reputed to have been the casewith creative effort in Greek sculpture; itrather appears as a moral control arising froma conviction that the methods established inpractice were so basically sound, that devia-tion from them must inevitably lead to error.

In this first and introductory part of ourtreatise on polychromy, it has been necessaryto make several statements which call forexplanation and discussion; these will bedeveloped as each section of our subject isexamined in fuller detail. It will be foundthat the Greek polychrome method affords asolution of the major difficulties which besetpractice today: it teaches us the principlesgoverning color location, color adjustment inornamentation, and the manipulation oflight as the means of developing color inter-est in the uniformly applied tone—the onlyform in which color may be used in architec-ture, as shall be demonstrated in a futureissue.

7

THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.