Chapter 1: Living with Tectonic Hazards
Part 1: Hazards of the world
Copy when you see the star
What is a Natural Hazard
• Earthquakes•Volcano eruption• Tsunami
Earthquake• Is it possible for Singapore to experience an
earthquake?• When tremors occur near fault lines, energy is
moved along the crust in waves.• Such energy when sufficiently strong will travel
long distances.• Over distance, the energy will reduce.• If there is a massive earthquake in Indonesia,
we will feel it in Singapore.
What the Japanese are trained to do.
• Take a look at the next video. • Pay attention to the specific action that the
Japanese people do in the event of an earthquake in the following locations.– Home– When driving– At the shops
• You will have to answer the worksheet after watching the video so pay attention.
Let’s now attempt the exercise
• You have 10 minutes to answer the questions on the handout.• Good luck!
What is the structure of the Earth?
•Core•Mantle•Crust Read up on Pg 7
in your textbook
Tectonic Plate
• The crust of the earth.• Two general types–Continental plate• Less Dense, heavier
–Oceanic plate• Denser, lighter
Continental Drift
• Theory that crustal plates are constantly moving
• Convectional currents move in the mantle due to the variations of temperature.
• Warmer magma near the core rises, pushing the crust above to the sides before sinking down upon losing the temperature.
Continental Drift Diagram
Evidence of Continental Drift Theory
• The changing shape of earth’s land mass over earth’s history shows that the plates are moving.• The current location of the
continents on earth will continue to change.
Continental Drift Diagram
SRP Work
• Watch the following video on Colliding Continents
• Answer the questions in the SRP handout / complete the groupwork
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KCSJNBMOjJs
• 50 mins National Geographic video
Types of plate boundaries
• Convergent plate boundary• Divergent plate boundary• Transform plate boundary• Refer to pg 9 textbook
Divergent platesOceanic – Oceanic divergence
• Area where two oceanic plates move away from each other• Magma moves up to the surface and
cools to form new oceanic crust • Mid-Atlantic Ridge• Possible to find underwater
volcanoes at such locations.
Diagram of Divergent plate boundary(insert water surface for oceanic)
Continental – Continental divergence
• Area where two continental plates move away from each other
• Magma moves up to the surface and cools, forming new land.
• Often fractures form at the plate boundary, forming a linear depression (rift valley)
• Great African Rift Valley
Exercise Time
• What do you think is needed to answer this question?– “ With the aid of diagram (s), explain the different
types of divergent plate boundaries that you have learnt. Give specific examples.”
– Use Foolscap paper, complete your diagrams and short explanations with examples.
– Diagrams in pencil please.
Part 2: Convergent plates
Plate movements
• If there are plate boundaries that are diverging, at the end of that plate, there will be convergence.
• 3 common types of convergent boundaries–Oceanic vs Oceanic plate–Oceanic vs Continental plate–Continental vs Continental plate
Reasons for convergence
• Plates converge due to continental drift.• As the plates are pushed apart, they crash into
one another.• Generally, the denser plate will subduct (sink)
below the less dense plate.• The plate that is riding above will buckle (fold)
and massive landforms will occur.
Oceanic Crusts
• Beneath deep oceans• Between 5km and 8km• Consists of basalt• Very dense and heavy• Made of young rock (200 million years ago)
Continental Crust
• Beneath the earth’s land masses• Between 30-60 km• Consists of lighter rock, like granite• Wide range of rock ages, from recent to over 4
billion year old.
Oceanic-oceanic plate boundaries• When two oceanic plates converge• Denser plate subducts under the less dense
plate• Area where it subducts is called the
subduction zone• A depression in the sea floor occurs at the
subduction zone and is called a deep sea trench. (The Mariana Trench)
• Volcanic islands can also be formed at such boundaries
Oceanic-oceanic plate boundaries
Oceanic-Continental plate convergence• When an oceanic plate converges with a
continental plate.• The dense oceanic plate is forced down into
the mantle.• A deep sea trench is often formed at the
subduction zone. (Japanese deep sea trench)• The continental plate folds and forms fold
mountains and volcanoes• The Japanese Islands were a result of such
convergence.
Oceanic-Continental plate convergence
Continental-Continental plate convergence
• When two equally dense continental plates converge.
• There will still be a subduction occurring for one of the plates. However there is a large amount of friction built-up before it occurs.
• The strong force generated also causes folding.• At such plate boundaries, large mountain
ranges tend to form. (Himalaya)
Continental –continental plate convergence
Transform boundary
• Occurs when plates slide past one another horizontally.
• Huge energy released when friction is overcome
• Large massive earthquakes experienced• San Andreas Fault (California)
Exercise time
• Take a look at the handout (exercise 2).• Using the information you have learnt so far,
answer the question to the best of your abilities.
• Good luck
Review Comparison TablePlate boundary type Associated landforms Example Divergent Oceanic-Oceanic
Deep sea ridge
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Divergent Continental-Continental
Rift Valley
Great African Rift Valley
Convergent Oceanic-Oceanic
Deep Sea Trench, Volcanoes, Volcanic Islands
Mariana Trench, Mariana Islands, Pacific plate and the Philippine plate
Convergent Oceanic-Continental
Deep Sea Trench, subduction zone, Volcanoes, Fold mountains
Sunda Trench, Barisan mountains, Australian plate and the Eurasian plate
Convergent Continental-Continental
Deep sea trench, subduction zone, fold mountains
Himalayas, Eurasian plate and the Indian plate
Part 3
Landforms commonly associated at tectonic boundaries
Fold Mountains
Fold Mountains
• The rock layers on the crust are constantly exposed to pressure• When they are compressed, they
fold, forming fold mountains.• To upfold is called the anticline and
downfold is called the syncline.
Fold Mountains
• The major ranges are along convergent plate boundaries• The rocky mountains• Himalayas• Swiss Alps• Pg 22
Rift Valleys / Grabens
Rift Valleys
• Near divergent plate boundaries, plates pull apart, causing land displacement.
• The downward displacement forms rift valleys.• Found commonly along divergent boundaries• Also called Graben• East African Rift Valley
Rift Valley diagram
Block Mountains / Horst
Yosemite National Park
Block Mountains
• When sections of the crust are pulled apart by tensional force, some parts are ripped off.
• The downward displaced areas are the rift valleys
• The blocks left behind form block mountains with steep sides.
• Also called Horst
Block Mountain diagram
Volcanoes
• Landform formed by magma ejected from the mantle.
• Magma builds up in the earth’s crust to form a magma chamber.
• With repeated layering of ejected magma, the volcano grows in height
• Found a divergent and convergent plate boundaries where there is subduction.
• Vents are openings in the earth’s surface with a pipe leading into the magma chamber
• When magma is ejected onto the surface, it is called lava. There is no change in composition.
• Vulcanicity refers to the upward movement of magma in the crust and onto the surface.
Let’s take a short Brain Break
• Take a look at the video on Mt St Helens in America• Half the volcano
was blown off in the eruption
Viscosity• The stickiness of the lava• The resistance of the lava to flowing• High viscosity flows slowly• Low viscosity flows quickly• Viscosity of the lava determines the
volcano’s shape
2 Key types of Volcanoes
1.Shield Volcanoes2.Composite Volcanoes
(Stratovolcanoes)
Shield Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes• Gentle sloping sides and a broad
summit• Low-silica lava (low viscosity) present• Lava flow is fast, spreading out
quickly• Subsequent layering leads to wide
base with low overall height.• Mount Washington in America
Stratovolcanoes
Stratovolcano• Developed from successive eruptions.• Ash and lava (coarse fragment) accumulate over
time.• Layers of ash are locked in by subsequent layers of
lava.• Tall volcanoes with concave bases formed.• Secondary cones may develop as magma from the
vent seeps into the sides of the cone and erupts.• Pyroclastic flow common – Hot rock fragments and superheated gases.
• Mount Pinatubo, Philippines
Mt Pinatubo
Distribution of volcanoes
• Pacific Ring of Fire is the most active volcanic activity occurs
• Many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur along the ring of fire
• Ring is along several converging plates (Pacific, Nazca, Philippines, Australian and Eurasian plates)
• Volcanoes can also form where plates diverge.• Pg 29
Volcanic Eruptions
• Volcanoes fall into 3 states–Active–Dormant–Extinct
Active Volcano
• Constant volcanic activity • Currently undergoing eruption or
are expected to erupt in the future.• Mt Pinatubo, Philippines; Mt St
Helens, America.
Dormant Volcano
• Currently inactive but may erupt in the near future• Prolonged period of no volcanic
activity• Inner magma chamber still hot
and active• Mt Fuji, Japan
Extinct Volcano
• Volcanoes without current seismic activity• No geological evidence of eruption in
the past thousands of years.• Almost no risk of eruption.• Lake Toba, Indonesia
Risks of living near volcanic areas
1.Destruction by volcanic materials
2.Landslides3.Pollution4.Effects on weather
Destruction by volcanic materials
• Lava, rock fragments, volcanic bombs (ejected molten lava blobs)
• Extreme temperatures of projectiles and lava flow, destroying and killing.
• Inhaling hot gases and ash can also lead to injury and death.
• With pyroclastic flow, speeds above 80km/hr can be achieved, making it impossible to escape.
Landslides
• Collapse of a volcanic cone during eruption.• Downward displacement of previous slide of
volcano.• Causes large scale damage to infrastructure
and loss of life.• Settlements near the volcano may get wiped
out totally.
Pollution
• Ash particles and gases released disrupt human activities over long distances.
• Some gases (Carbon monoxide, Sulphur dioxide, etc) are harmful to humans
• Fine ash particles captured in the air endanger planes and cause large monetary loss due to grounding of flights.
Effects on weather
• Sulphur dioxide reacts with water vapour in the atmosphere.
• The particles reflect the sun’s energy back into space.
• This leads to a cooling of surface temperatures on earth.
• Fall in global temperature might affect plant and animal life.
Let’s attempt an exercise on what we have covered.
• 15 - 20 minutes,• Complete all the questions in
Foolscap / space provided• Good luck
Earthquakes
• Caused by sudden release of stored energy due to movements of crustal plates.
• Occurs along faultlines as pressure builds up stress and when the plates slip, earthquakes are formed.
Key Earthquake Terms
• Seismic waves – energy that is released by earthquakes.
• Focus – the point in the crustal plate where the seismic energy originates.
• Epicentre – point above the Focus on earth’s surface. Most of the energy released travels along the surface of the earth.
• Aftershocks – subsequent smaller earthquakes that follow
after a major earthquake. –Could continue to occur months after the
initial earthquake.– Some aftershocks might be as powerful as
the original earthquake.
Depth of Focus
• The depth of focus affects the impact felt on the surface.• 2 key types
1. Deep-focus earthquakes2. Shallow-focus earthquakes
Depth of focus
• Deep-focus earthquake–70 to 700km below surface–Smaller impact on land–Most of seismic waves lose their
energy as they reach the surface.
Depth of focus
• Shallow-focus earthquake–70km and above in the crust–Greater impact on land –Seismic waves reach surface
quickly and with more energy.
Measurement of earthquakes• Richter scale (Pg31 in textbook)
9?? Destruction impacts thousands of kilometers of land
Factors affecting earthquake damage
• Population Density• Level of Preparedness• Distance from epicentre• Time of occurance• Soil type
Population density
– High population density affects more people– Tendency for high-rise buildings increases damage– Higher literacy rate in cities mean higher chance of
better preparedness.• Higher chance of survival• Better evacuation plans, trained rescue workers.
Level of preparedness
• Proper public training and social awareness leads to less panic• Repeated practice of emergency
exercise leads to familiarity of action• Emergency preparedness kits raise
possibility of survival
Earthquake Preparedness
Distance from the epicentre
• Seismic energy weakens as the distance increases from the epicentre.• Locations further away from the
epicentre suffer less from the earthquake.
Time of occurance
• Time of earthquake determines what people are doing and whether they are able to react.
• At night, people are asleep. There is less time to react.
• In the day, survivors of an earthquake are able to avoid subsequent accidents.
Type of soil• Loose and unconsolidated (not packed
tightly) soil move more in times of an earthquake.
• Impact on the buildings on the surface is greater. Damage is often worse.
• Liquefaction – loose soil flowing like water.
• Danger of landslides after earthquakes cause more harm.
Earthquake zones
• Tendency for earthquakes to occur along crustal plate margins. • Tendency for earthquakes to be
caused when subduction along destructive plates or slipping of transform plates
Earthquake Zones
Hazards of living in earthquake zones
• Tsunamis• Disruption of services• Fire• Landslides• Loss of lives• Loss of property
Tsunamis
• Tsunami – an unusually large sea wave• Formed by sudden movement of sea floor• Possible causes– Earthquakes at subduction zones– Explosive underwater volcano eruption– Underwater landslide– Large coastal landslides
Tsunamis
• As the displaced water moves, it gathers strength and size.
• When it hits the coast, large destruction is resulted.
Disruption of services
• Loss of electricity, gas and water leads to loss of essential services.
• Broken pipelines also raise the risk of explosions.
• Roads and railway destruction make it harder to send aid.
Fire
• Earthquakes at timings where meals are prepared raise risk of fires.
• Gas pipes and electric cables that are broken lead to fire risk.
• Urban areas are densely populated, hence larger fire risk.
Landslides
• Shaking of earthquakes loosen soil.• Along slopes and hills, original vegetation
may no longer be able to hold soil.• Landslides and mudflows cause large
damage.• Heavy rainfall after earthquakes raise the
risk of landslides.
Destruction of property and Loss of lives
• Earthquakes destroy homes and buildings that are not earthquake proof.
• Large amount of money needs to be spent to rebuild the property.
• Urban areas with more infrastructure (roads, subways) cause even more money to repair.
Part 4
Benefits of living near a Volcano
4 key benefits of living near volcanoes
• Fertile soil• Precious stones and minerals, building
materials• Tourism• Geothermal energy
Fertile Soil
• Lava and ash breakdown to form fertile volcanic soils
• The richest soils on earth, highly favourable for agriculture
• Hawaii and Bali
Precious stones and building materials• Volcanic rocks can be rich in precious stones
and minerals.• After the top layers of volcanic rocks are
eroded, these can be extracted.• The volcanic rocks at Kimberley, South Africa,
are the richest source of diamonds globally.• Other useful materials like sulphur can be
collected from volcanic rocks. Sulphur is used to refine sugar and make matches and fertilisers.
Tourism
• Volcanic areas have dramatic landscapes.• Scenery attracts tourists for hiking and
camping.• Volcanic areas are rich in history and attract
visitors too. • The ruins of Pompeii, Italy. The black beaches
in Bali
Geothermal Energy
• When groundwater comes in contact with the hot rocks underground, it heats up and escapes as steam.
• This can be harnessed to produce Geothermal Energy.
• Large turbines are used to complete this process.
• Iceland uses Geothermal energy to power over 70% of their homes.
Part 5 : Responses to Earthquakes
‘O’ Level only
Why do people live in such places?
• Favorable living conditions–Fertile soil conditions for
agriculture.• No alternative location to live in.–Case of no choice
Review Question
• Turn to pg 47 of your textbook.• Using that map, let’s answer the questions in
the handout.
3 approaches to earthquakes
1.Fatalistic approach2.Acceptance approach3.Adaptation approach
Fatalistic approach
• People who accept earthquakes as unavoidable.
• Tend to resist evacuation in the face of an earthquake.
• Common for communities in less developed countries with limited access to other places.
• People who live near Mt Pinatubo.
Acceptance approach
• People who accept the risk of living in earthquake-prone areas due to the benefits of living in that area.
• Benefit outweigh the costs of moving away.
• Mostly accepted by the developed countries.
• People of Christchurch.
Adaptation approach• People who successfully live in
earthquake-prone areas as they are well prepared.
• Use of earthquake monitoring devices, risk assessment, technology to increase earthquake resistance.
• Costly approach but able to save many lives and property.
• People in Taiwan and Japan.
Responding to earthquakes