PLATE TECTONICS
The Earth is divided into layers by density.
As the Earth solidified during the formation of the solar system elements with higher density were drawn toward the center of the Earth by gravity.
EARTH’S CRUST Oceanic crust is comprised mainly of
the rock basalt
EARTH’S CRUST Continental crust makes up the land
masses. This thicker, less dense material allows the continents to rise above sea level and remain dry for very long periods Continental crust is made primarily of the rock granite
As the very hot core heats the material in the Mantle it causes the material to move in a circular pattern. The mantle material heats up and rises and then cools and sinks. This circular pattern of movement within the mantle (called a convection current) pushes the lithospheric plates as they float. The movement and interaction of these plates causes most of the large scale changes on Earth's surface.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT Alfred Wegener a German scientist was
the first to propose this theory to the scientific community in the early 1900’s
CONTINENTAL DRIFT Pangea was the name for this
supercontinent that began to break up about 200 million years ago
CONTINENTAL DRIFT Wegener’s theories were not accepted
at the time because his explanations were not supported by physicists
CONTINENTAL DRIFT His explanation for movement was that
the continents plowed through the seafloor crust like moving islands
CONTINENTAL DRIFT His explanation for the reason why the
continents moved was the spinning of the earth
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT Although his explanations for the
reason the continents drifted were incorrect there was still convincing evidence that they were indeed once together.
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT Rock formations in the Appalachian
Mountains matched up with ones in Greenland.
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT Fossil evidence found in South America
and Africa were especially strong
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT Bones from the Mesosaurus and
Kannemeyerid were found in the same rock formations in Brazil and Chad
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT Even glacial striations from ancient Ice
ages were found to match perfectly
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT Climatic evidence found that there
were coal deposits in Antarctica suggesting that continent was at one time much closer to the equator
SEA FLOOR SPREADING In the early 1960’s new evidence
revealed the process on how the continents could indeed move
SEA FLOOR SPREADING Advances in sonar technology in the
1940’s and 50’s allowed us to begin to accurately map the seafloor
SEA FLOOR SPREADING This evidence proved that the seafloor
was not flat and featureless as once thought. Vast underwater mountain chains and deep trenches were discovered.
SEA FLOOR SPREADING Earthquakes and volcanic activity was
prevalent in certain parts and missing in others
SEA FLOOR SPREADING The ocean floor was found to be much
younger than the continental crust
SEA FLOOR SPREADING The thickness of the layers of
sediments increased with the distance on either side of the ocean ridges
PALEOMAGNETISM Once scientists were able to bring sea
floor samples to the surface they were able to determine that a record of the seafloor was being kept by Earth’s magnetic field
PALEOMAGNETISM Paleomagnetism is the study of this
magnetic record using data gathered from iron-bearing minerals
PALEOMAGNETISM The magnetic records for the seafloor
on either side of the mid-ocean ridges matched perfectly showing that the seafloor was growing outward from the ridges in both directions
THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS Theory of Plate Tectonics states that
the Earth’s crust and rigid upper mantle are broken into enormous slabs called plates.
THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS There are 17 known plates
THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS The plates do not remain still. They
slide across the partially molten mantle material of the asthenosphere as a result of convection currents deep in the Earth’s interior.
PLATE BOUNDARIES Tectonic plates interact at places called
plate boundaries.
PLATE BOUNDARIES Typically, since the Earth is spherical
the plate boundaries would appear as the threads of a baseball weaving through the mid-ocean rifts and around the smaller plates.
PLATE BOUNDARIES Notice that ALL of the major plates
include both continental and oceanic crust
PLATE MOTIONS Some plates move towards each other,
some move away, and some slide horizontally past each other. Each interaction results in geologic process and characteristics that we can now associate with it.
PLATE MOTIONS Divergent boundaries are places where
tectonic plates are moving apart
PLATE MOTIONS Most divergent boundaries are found
on the seafloor where they form mid-ocean ridges
PLATE MOTIONS Iceland is a continuation of the Atlantic
mid-ocean ridge
PLATE MOTIONS The Arabian Peninsula is an example of
a newly formed divergent boundary as it separates from the rest of Africa
PLATE MOTIONS Convergent boundaries are where
plates move toward each other.
These boundaries give us the most interesting geologic features. There are three types of convergent boundaries
PLATE MOTIONS Oceanic crust to oceanic crust results
in the subduction of one of the two plates and an island arc
PLATE MOTIONS Subduction is the process of one plate
descending beneath the other
PLATE MOTIONS The Phillippines are a noticeable
example
PLATE MOTIONS Oceanic to continental convergence
also results in the subduction of the oceanic crust
PLATE MOTIONS A volcanic mountain range such as the
western portions of North and South America is the result
PLATE MOTIONS The oceanic crust always subducts
because it is denser than continental crust
PLATE MOTIONS Continental to continental convergence
results in folded mountains
PLATE MOTIONS The Himilayas are an active folded
mountain chain
PLATE MOTIONS Transform boundaries occur where
plates slide horizontally past each other. They rarely are seen on the continents however the San Andreas Fault in California is an exception
EARTHQUAKES Most earthquakes occur when rocks
fracture deep within the Earth
EARTHQUAKES Compression decreases the volume of a
material
EARTHQUAKES Tension pulls the material apart
EARTHQUAKES Shear causes a material to twist
EARTHQUAKES WAVES The vibrations in the ground during an
earthquake are called seismic waves
EARTHQUAKES WAVES Primary Waves (P-waves) squeeze and
pull rocks in the same direction along which the waves are traveling
EARTHQUAKES WAVES P-waves travel the fastest and CAN
travel through liquids
EARTHQUAKES WAVES Secondary Waves (S-waves) cause
rocks to move at right angles to the direction of travel
EARTHQUAKES WAVES S-waves travel slower than P-waves
and CANNOT travel through liquids
EARTHQUAKES WAVES Surface Waves (L-waves) travel only on
the surface in two directions causing an up-and-down and side-to side motion
EARTHQUAKES WAVES Most of the damage we see on the
surface from earthquakes is caused by surface waves
EARTHQUAKES WAVES Most of our knowledge of Earth’s
interior comes from the study of seismic waves. The relationship between P-waves and S-waves allows us to measure the size of the inner and outer cores
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES More than one million earthquakes
occur each year. More than 90 percent of these are not even felt by humans.
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES Magnitude is the amount of energy
released by an earthquake
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES Richter Scale is the numerical scale to
measure magnitude based on the size of the largest seismic waves generated
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES Each number on the Richter scale
represents an increase in amplitude by a factor of 10
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES 8 is ten times the amplitude of 7
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES Modified Mercalli Scale measures the
amount of damage done by the earthquake in Roman numerals I - - X II
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES Earthquakes are located by tracking
the seismic waves registered at different locations and plotting circles based on the speed of the waves and time elapsed
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES Seismometers are sensitive
instruments used to detect and record even the slightest vibrations of the earth’s surface
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES Focus is the point of initial fault rupture
and the location where the earthquake originates
MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES Epicenter is the point on the surface
directly above the focus Focus is the point of initial fault
rupture and the location where the earthquake originates