REGII_I PROF_._SOR OF G[_F,.EK IN | 'HE UHIVEKSITV OF OXFORD
DO_OR IN rH]R_|.OGY OF THE U_|VI_RS|TV OF LEYDEN
IA r _II.'E VOZ UMES
VOL. I I
AND AN INDEX OF SUBfECTS A.
VD PROPER .VAMES
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LOWE BRYDONE,ONDON
INTRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS.
THE Republic of Plato is the longest of his works with the Republic.
exception of the Laws, and is certainly the greatest of them. INrao,uc.
ION.
Phi
l
ebu
s
ideal; the form and institutionsof the State are more clearly
drawnoutin the Laws; as works of art, the Symposiumand the
Pro
t
a
g
style; no other showsan equal knowledgeof the world,or con-
t
ain
s
s
wel
l
a
s
o
l
d,and
not of one age only but of all. Nowherein Plato is there a
deeperirony or a greater wealth of humouror imagery,or more
drama
t
icpower
other Dialoguesmay be grouped; he
r
knowledge,althoughneither of them always distinguishedthe
bare outlineor form from the substance of truth; and both of
them had tobecontent withan abstractionof sciencewhich was
no
ty
etrea
l
ized
the worldhas seen; and in him,more than in any otherancient
thinker, the germs of future knowledgeare contained. The
sciencesof logicand psychology,which have suppliedso many
instrumentsof thoughtto after-ages
r
meansand ends
,
t
.and other great formsof thoughtare all ofthemto be foundin the
I
N
T_OD
U
ofall logicaltruths, and the one ofwhich writers on philosophy
aremostapt to losesight,thedifferencebetweenwordsand things,
Polit.
avoided the confusionof them in his own writings (e.g. Rep.
463 E). But he does not bind up truth in logical formulae,-
logic is still veiled in metaphysics; and the sciencewhich he
imagines to
unlike the doctrine of
Neither mustwe tbrget that the Republicis but the third part
of a still largerdesignwhichwas tohaveincludedan idealhistory
of Athens, as well as a politicaland physicalphilosophy. The
fragmentof theCritiashasgiven birth to a world-famousfiction
,
second onlyin importanceto the tale ofTroy and the legend of
Arthur; and is said as a factto have inspired some of the early
navigators of the sixteenth century. This mythical tale, of
which the subject as a history of the wars of the Athenians
against the island of Atlantis, is supposed to be founded upon
an unfinished poem of Solon, to which it would have stood
in the same relation as the writingsof the logographers to the
poems of Homer. It would have told of a struggle for Liberty
(cp.Tim.
2
Timaeus,fromthe fragmentofthe Critiasitself
and fromthe third
book of the Laws, m what manner Plato wo ld have treated
this high argument. We can only uess why the great design
was abandoned; perhaps becausePlatobecamesensibleof some
incongruity in a fictitioushistory, or because he had lost his
interest in it
or becauseadvancingyears forbadethe completion
of it ; and we mayplease ourselveswith the fancy that had this
imaginary narrative ever been finished,we should have found
Plato himself sympathisingwith the struggle for Hellenic in-
dependence (cp. Laws, iii. 698 ft.), singi g a hymn of triumph
over Marathon and Salamis,perhaps making the reflectionof
Herodotus (v. 78) where he contemplates the growth of the
Athenian empire--
,
 
The greatnessof Plalo. iii
which has made the Atheniansso far exceedevery other state of R
epu
b
lic
Athene (cp.Introd.to Critias).
leaderofa goodlybandof follo
foundtheoriginalof"Cicero'sDe Republica
other imaginaryStates whichare framedupon the same model.
The extent to which Aristotle or the Aristotelianschool were
indebted to him in the Politicshas been little recognised,and
the recognitionis the more necessarybecauseit is not madeby
Aristotlehimself. The twophilosophershadmore incommonhan
remain still undetected in Aristotle. In Englishphilosophytoo,
manyaffinitiesmay be traced,not onlyin the worksof the Cam-
bridge Platonists,but in great originalwriters like Berkeleyor
Coleridge,to Platoand his ideas. That there is a truthhigherthan
experience
whichinourowngenerationhas beenenthusiasticallyasserted,and
is perhaps gaining ground. Of the Greek authors who at the
Renaissan ebrought a new lifeinto the world Plato has had the
g
r
upon education,of which the writings of Milton and Locke,
RousseauJean Paul,and Goetheare the legiti
m
atedescendants.
in the early Church he exerciseda real influence on theology,
and at the Revivalof Literatureon politics. Even the fragments
ofhis words when 'repeated at second-hand'(Symp.2I5D) have
in all ages ravishedthe hearts of men, who have seen reflected
in them their own highernature. He is the father ofidealismin
philosophy, in polities, in literature. And many of the latest
conceptionsof
m
ode
r
of knowledge, the
havebeenanticipatedina dreambyhim.
The argument of the Republic is the search after Justice,the
n
atu
r
e ofwhich is first hintedat by Cephalus,the just and blame-
b2
INr_OD_C-T,O_.ySocratesandPolemarehus--thencaricaturedbyThrasymaehus
a
ndp
a
rti
a
llyexpl
a
individualreappears at length in the ideal State which is con-
structed by Socr
a
providingonly for an improvedreligion and morality,and more
simplicityin music
led on to the conceptionof a higherState,in which
'
a
phers
a
a
swell
a
s
o
f
art, andnotof youthonlybut of the whole of life. Such a State
is hardly to be realizedin this world and quicklydegene ates.
T
o
mocracyinto tyranny,in an imaginarybut regular order having
not much resemblanceto the actual facts. When 'the wheelhas
come full circle' we do not begin again with a new period of
humanlife; but we have passed from the best to the worst,and
therewe end. The su
the earlier booksof theRepublicis now resumedandfoughtout
to a conclusion. Poetry is discoveredto be an imitationthrice
rem
o
a
ment
a
l
o
a o
fthe St
later than the age of
P
number;--(i) BookI andthe first halfof BookII down top. 368,
whichis introductory; thefirstbookcontaininga refutationofthe
some of the earlier Dialogues,without arriving at any definite
result. To thisis appendeda restatementof the natureof justice
1Cp.Si
r
G
.C.
Lew
i
s
n
theCl
a
ssi
c
alMuseum,ol.i
i.
p.
L
question--Whatis justice,stripped of appearances? The second I
w
rRoDuc.
ION.
division(2)includestheremaind
r
division(3)consistsof the fifth
secondState is constructedonprinciplesof communismand ruled
byphilosophers,and the contemplationof the idea ofgoodtakes
the place of the social and politicalvirtues. In the eighthand
ninthbooks(4)the perversionsofStatesand ofthe individualswho
pleasureand the principleof tyranny are further analysedin the
indi
v
determined,and the happinessof the citizensin this life,whichhas
now))eenassured, is crownedby the visionof another.
Or a more generaldivisioninto two parts may be adopted; the
first (BooksI-IV) containing the description of a State framed
gene
r
transformedinto an ideal kingdom of philosophy, of which all
other governmentsarethe perversions. These twopointsofview
are
r
Phaedrus)
breaksthroughthe regularityof theHellenictemple,whichat last
perfectreconcilementin the write
elements of thought which are now first brought together by
him; or,perhaps, from the compositionof the work at different
times--a
r
a,;d the Odyssey,which areworth asking,butwhichcannot have
a distinctanswer. In the ageof Plato the
r
and an author would have the less scruple in
altering or adding to a work which was known only to a fewof
his friends. There is no absurdityin supposingthat he may have
laid his labours aside for a time, o
r
tu
rn
 
,nother; and such interruptions would be more likely to occur
1_
r
_oot.c.T_o._.n the case of a longthan of a short riting. In all attemptsto
determine the chronologicalorder of the Platonic writings on
internalevidence,this uncertaintyaboutany singleDialoguebeing
composedat on time is a disturbing element,which must be
admitted to affect longer works, such as the Republic and the
Laws, more than shorter ones. But, on the other hand, the
seemingdiscrepanciesof the Republicmay onlyarise out of the
discordantelementswhichthe philosopherhasattempted to unite
in a singlewhole,perhapswithoutbeinghimselfable torecognise
the inconsistencywhichis obviousto us. For there is a judgment
of after ages which few great writers have ever been able to
anticipate for themselves. They do not perceive tl_ want of
connexionin their own writings, or the gaps in their systems
whichare visibleenough to those who come after them. In the
beginningsof literatureand philosophy
preciselydefined.
F
and someof the greatestcreationsof the human mind havebeen
wanting in unity. Tried by this test, several of the Platonic
D
times or by differenthands. And the supposition that the Re-
publicwas written uninterruptedlyand by a continuouseffort is
in somedegree confirmedbythe numerous referencesfrom one
part of the workto another.
The secondtitle,' ConcerningJustice,'is not the one bywhich
the Republicisquoted,either by
thereforebe assumedtobe oflater date. Morgensternand others
haveaskedwhether the definitionofjustice,whichis the professed
aim,or the constructionof the State is the principal argumentof
the work. The answeris, that the twoblend inone, and are two
faces of the same truth ; forjusticeis the order of the State,and
the State is the visibleembodimentofjustice under theconditions
of human society. The one is the souland the otheris the body,
and the Greekidealof the State,as ofthe individual,isa fairmind
 
INTRODUC-
andyet developesinto Churchor ex- T_ON.
ternal kingdom; 'the house not made with hands, eternal in the
heavens,'is reducedto the proportionsofan earthly building. Or,
to usea Platonicimage
woofwhich run through the whole texture. And when the con-
stitutionof the State is completed
,
throughoutthe work
,
life. The virtuesare based on jus
t
ice
of whichcommonhonesty
in buyingand selling is the shadow,and justice is based on the
ideaofgood
,
bothin the institutionsof states and in motions of the heavenly
bodies(cp.Tim.
4
rather than the ethicalside of the Republic,and is chieflyoccu-
piedwith hypothesesconcerningthe outwardworld, yetcontains
Sta
te
,overnatur
e,
all works
,
remainsoftena largeelementwhichwasnot comprehendedin the
original design. For the plan grows under the author's hand;
new thoughts occur to him in the act of writing; he has not
workedoutthe argumenttothe end beforehe begins. The reader
who seeksto findsomeone idea under which the whole may be
conceived,mustnecessarilyseizeonthevaguestand mostgeneral.
the true argument
t
ate
perfectedbyjustice, and governedaccordingto the ideaof good.'
There maybe someuse in suchgeneraldescriptions,butthey can
,
that we may as well speak of many designsas of one ; nor need
anythi
n
not int
 
I_,
o
D_C.n
o
p
att
ern
a
ofhistory.Thewriteris not fashioningisideasintoa artistic
o ;t y a o s ss o a a o o
We havenoneedthereforeo discusswhethera Statesuchas
trulysaidto bear thegreatestmarksofdesign--justicemore
 
Tke imaginary dale. ix
spirit i which the higher knowledgeis to be pursued by the Republic.
spectator ofalltime and all existence. It is in the fifth,sixth,and INT_O_C-
ION.
these,althoughthey fail to satisfy the requirementsof a modern
thinker,maythereforebe regardedas the mostimportant,as they
are alsothe most original,portionsof thework.
It is notnecessarytodiscussat length a minor questionwhich
hasbeen raisedby Boeekh,respectingthe imaginarydateat which
theconversationwas held (the year 4i_ B.c.whichis proposedby
him will do as well as any other); for a writer of fiction,and
especiallya writer who, like Plato, is notoriouslycareless of
chronology(ep.Rep. i.336,Symp.193A,etc.),onlyaimsat general
probability. Whether all the personsmentionedin the Republic
could ever have met at any one ime is not a difficultywhich
wouldhaveoccurredto an Athenianreadingthework fortyyears
Shakespeare respecting oneofhis own dramas); and need not
greatly trouble us now. Yet thi may be a question having no
answer'whichis stillworthasking,'becausetheinvestigationshows
thatwecannotarguehistoricallyfromthedatesinPlato; itwouldbe
Adeimantusare notthe brothersbut the unclesof Plato(cp.Apol.
34.A),or the fancyof Stallbaumthat Plato intentionallyleft ana-
chronisms indicatingthe dates at which some of his Dialogues
werewritten.
marchus, Thrasymachus, Socrates, Glaucon, and Adeimantus.
Cephalusappears in the introductiononly,Polemarchusdrops at
the end of the first argument,and Thrasymachus is reduced to
silence at the close of the first book. The main discussionis
carried on by Socrates,Glaucon,and Adeimantus. Among the
companyare Lysia
--these are mute auditors; also there is Cleitophon,who once
interrupts (34o A), where, as in the Dialoguewhich bears his
name,he appearsas the friendand allyof Thrasymachus.
 
ReHtbllc. Cephalus,the patriarch of the house, has been appropriately
I_T_ODuC-T_ON.ngagedin offeringa sacrifice. He is the pattern ofan old man
who has almostdone with life
,
and is at peacewith himselfand
with all mankind. He feels that he is drawing nearer to the
worldbelow,and seemstolinger aroundthe memoryof the past.
He is eager that Socratesshould come to visit him,fondof the
poetry of the last generation,happy in the consciousnessof a
well-spentlife
ful lusts. His love of conversation,his affection,his indifference
to riches, even his garrulity, are interesting traits of character.
He is not one of those who have nothing to say, becausetheir
wholemindhas beenabsorbedin makingmoney. Yetheacknow-
ledges that riches have the advantageof placing men above the
temptationto dishonestyor falsehood. The respectfulattention
shown to him by Socrates,whose loveof conversation,no less
thanthe missionimposedupon him by the Oracle
,
askquestionsof allmen,youngand old alike(cp.i.328A), should
than Cephalus, whose life might seem to be the expression of
it? The moderationwith which old age is picturedby Cephalus
as a very tolerableportion of existenceis characteristic,not only
of him, but of Greek feeling generally, and contrasts with the
exaggerationof Cicero in the De Senectute. The evening of
life is described by Plato in the most expressive manner, yet
with the fewest possible touches. As Cicero remarks (Ep.ad
Attic.iv.i6), the agedCephaluswouldhave been out of place in
the discussionwhich follows,and which he could neither have
understood nor taken part in without a viola ion of dramatic
propriety(cp.Lysimaehusin the Laches
petuousnessof youth; he is for detainingSocratesby forcein the
openingscene
view,and represents the proverbial stage of moralitywhichhas
rules oflife rather thanprinciples; and he quotesSimonides(cp.
Aristoph.Clouds,I35,5T.)s hisfatherhadquotedPindar. Butafter
this he has no more to say; the answers which he makes are
only elicitedfro him bythe dialect cof Socrates. He has not
yet experienced the influenceof the Sophistslike Glauconand
 
of arguing,and is bewilderedby Socratesto sucha degreethat he
does not knowwhat he is saying. He is made to admit that
justice isa thief,and thatthe virtuesfollowtheanalogyof the arts
(i.333 E). From his brother Lysias(eontra Eratosth.p 121)we
learn that he fell a victimtothe ThirtyTyrants
,
s
,
already heard in the Phaedrus (267D)
,
discourseunlesshe is paid
thereby to escape the inevital_leSocrates; but a mere child in
argument,and unableto foresee that the next 'move' (to use a
Platonicexpression)will' shut himup' (vi.487BJ. He has reached
the stage of framing general notions,and in this respect is in
advance of Cephalus and Polemarchus. But he is incapableof
defendingthemin a discussion
fusionwithbanter and insolence. Whether such doctrinesas are
a
t
any other Sophist is uncertain; in the infancy of philosophy
serious errors about morality might easilygrow up--they are
certainlyput into the mouthsof speakers in Thucydides; butwe
are concernedatpresent with Plato's descriptionof him,and not
with the historical reality. The inequality of the contest adds
greatly to the humour of the scene. The pompousand empty
Sophist is utterly helpless in the hands of the great master of
dialectic
,
who knows how to touch all the springs of vanity and
weaknessin him. He is greatlyirritated bythe irony ofSocrates,
but his noisy and imbecilerage only lays him more and more
open to the thrusts of his assailant. His determinationto cram
downtheir throats,or put 'bodily intotheir souls'his own words,
elicitsa cry of horror from Socrates. The state of his temper
is quite as worthy of remark as the process of the argument.
Nothingis more amusingthan hiscompletesubmissionwhenhe
..... 77  "
Republic.he discussionwith reluctance,but soonwith apparent good-will,
I_T_ODuC-nd he even testifies his interest at a later stage by one or twoION,
occasional remarks (v. 45
'
has never been his enemy and is nowhis friend.' FromCicero
and Quintilianand fromAristotle'sRhetoric(iii.I. 7 ; ii. 23.
2
9)we
learn that the Sophistwhom Plato has made so ridiculouswas a
ma
n
playonhis namewhichwas madeby hiscontemporaryHerodicus
(Aris. Rhet. ii. 23,
When Thrasymachushas been silenced,the tw
o
as in Greek tragedy (ep.Introd.to Phaedo),three actors are in-
troduced. At first sight the two sons of Ariston may seem to
wea a familylikeness,like thetwofriendsSimmiasand Cebesin
thePhaedo. Buton a nearer examinationof them the similarity
vanishes,and
t
he
y
o
l
ea
s
ure
who is acquaintedwith the mysteries of love (v. 474 D) the
'juvenis qui
,
Thras
y
machu
st
o
t
he
seamyside of huma life,and yet does not lose faithin the just
and true. It is Glaueonwho seizes what may be termed the
ludicrousrelationof thephilosopherto theworld
(iii.398C
secondthe hum
of theatricals(v.475D)
alludedto by Socrates(iii.4o_E;v .474D, 475E),who, however,
will not allow him to be attackedby his brotherAdeimantus
(viii.548D, E). He is a oldier
,
characterofAdeimantusis deeperand graver,and the profounder I_TRODUC-_ON.
objectionsare commonlyput into his mouth. Glauconis more
demonstrative,and generally opens the game; Adeimantus pur
-
and quicksympath ofyouth; Adeimantushas the maturerjudg
-
Glauconinsiststhat justice and injusticeshallbe consideredwith-
out regard to their consequences,Adeimantusremarks that they
are regarded by mankind in general only for the sake of their
consequences and in a similarvein of reflectionhe urges at the
beginning of the fourth book that Socrates fails in makinghis
citizenshappy, and is answeredthat happinessis not the first but
the secondthing,not the direct aim but the indirect consequence
of the goodgovernmentof a State. In the discussionabout re-
ligionand mythology,Adeimantusis the respondent(iii.376-398),
the conversationin a lighter tone about musicand gymnasticto
the end of the book. It is Adeimantusagainwhovolunteersthe
criticism of commonsense on the Socratic methodof argument
(vi.487B),andwhorefusesto letSocratespasslightlyovertheques-
spondent in the moreargumentative,as Glauconin the lighterand
moreimaginativeportionsof theDialogue. For example,through-
with Adeimantus. At p. 5o6 C, Glauconresumes his place of
principalrespondent; but he has a difficultyin apprehendingthe
higher educationof Socrates,and makes some falsehits in the
course of the discussion(526D,527D). Once more Adeimantus
returns(viii.548)withthe allusionto his brotherGlauconwhomhe
againsuperseded,and Glauconcontinuesto theend (x.62i B).
Thusin a successionof characters Plato representsthe succes-
sivestagesof morality,beginningwith the Atheniangentlemanof
regulatinghis life by proverbs and saws; to him succeedsthe
wild generalizationof the Sophists, and lastly come the young
disciplesof the great teacher
Republic
.but will not be convincedby them,and desire to go deeper into
I_
T
ION.
Thrasymachus
a singlecharacterrepeated.
sistent. In the firs
,
questio
n
i
n
g
r
r
bookh
i
that
t
h
e
t
ruc-
tive,passingbeyondth
e
o
himselfseemsto intimatethat the time hadnowcomeforSocrates,
who had passed his whole life in philosophy,to give his own
opinionand notto be alwaysrepeat
t
ion
t
hinker
i
i
lia
and every inferenceiseither put intothe mouthof the respondent
or represented as the commondiscoveryof him and Socrates.
Butany onecan see
tation grows wearisomeas the work advances. The method of
enquiryhas passedinto a method
v
a
r
n
r
Neither can we be absolutelycertain that Socrates himself
 
ION.
nor ist ere any reason to suppose that he used myths or reve-
lationsof another world as a vehicle of instruction,or that he
would have ban
mythology. Hisfavouriteoath is retained,and a slightmentionis
made of the daemonium,or internal sign
,
Republicthan in anyof the other Dialoguesof Plato,is the use of
exampleand illustration (r&dp
' Let us apply the test of commoninstances.' 'You,' says Adei-
mantus, ironically,in the sixth book, 'are so unaccustomedto
speak in images.' And this use of examplesor images,though
t
form of an allegoryor parable,which embodiesin the concrete
what has been already described,or is about to be described,in
the abstract. Thus the figure of the cave in BookVII is a re-
capitulation of the divisions of knowledge in Book VI. The
compositeanimal in Book IX is an allegoryof the parts of the
soul. Thenoblecaptainand the shipand thetrue pilotinBookVI
are a figureof the relationof the peopleto the philosophersin the
Statewhichhas been described. Other figures,suchas the dog
(ii.375A, D ; iii.404A, 416A ; v.451D),or the marriage of the
portionlessmaiden (vi.495,496),or the drones and wasps in the
eighth and ninth books, also form links of connexionin long
passages,or are usedto recallpreviousdiscussions.
Plato is most true to the character o his master when he
describeshim as ' not ofthis world.'
A
of himthe ideal state and the other paradoxesof the Republicare
quite in accordance,though theycannot be shown to have been
speculationsof Socrates. Tohim
philosophicaland religious,when they lookedupward, the world
seemedtobetheembodimentoferror andevil. The commonsense
ofmankindhas revoltedagainstthisview,or has onlypartiallyad-
Menin general are incapable of philosophy,and are thereforeat
enmity wi
R¢ibubl£c.s unavoidable(vi.494foil.; ix.589 D): for theyhavenever seen
I_ROD_C-T,o_.im as he truly is in his own image; they are only acquainted
with artificialsystemspossessingno native force of truth--words
whichadmitof many applications. Their leaders have nothingto
measure with
Buttheyare to be pitiedor laughed at, not to be quarrelledwith;
they meanwell with their nostrums,if theycould onlylearn that
theyare cuttingoff a Hydra's head (iv.4
2
6D
E). Thismodera-
tion towards those wh are in error is one of the most charac-
teristic features of Socratesin the Republic(vi.499-502). In all
the differentrepresentationsof Socrates,whether of Xenophonor
Plato,and amidthe differencesof the earlier or later Dialogues,
he alwaysretainsthe characterof theunweariedand disinterested
seeker after truth, without which he would have ceased to be
Socrates.
Republic
this Hellenicidealof theState,(_)The modernlightsin whichthe
thoughtsof Platomaybe read.
f
e
stival in honour of the goddess Bendis which is held in the
Piraeus; tothis is addedthe promise of an equestriantorch-race
i
n
g. The whole work is supposed to be recited by
Socrateson the dayafter the festivaltoa smallparty,consistingof
Critias,Timaeus,Hermocrates,and another; this we learn from
the first wordsof the Timaeus.
Whenthe rhetoricaladvantageof recitingthe Dialoguehas been
gained,the attention is notdistracted by any referenceto the au-
dience; nor is the read
er
length of the narrative. Of the numerous company, three only
take any serious part in the discussion; nor are we informed
whether in the evening they went to the torch-race,or talked,as
in the Symposium,throughthe night. The manner in which the
conversationhas arisen is describedas follows:- Socratesandhis Steph.
companionGlauconare about to leave the festivalwhen they are 327
detained bya messagefrom Polemarchus,who speedilyappears
acco
m
playfulviolencecompelsthemto remain,promisingthemnotonly
e
p
u
b
lic
I
.
whichto Socrates is a far greater attraction. They return to the
A
' Youshouldcome to me oftener
329age
that thesorrowsand discontents
ofage are to beattributed to the tempersof men,and that age is a
time of peace in which the tyranny of the passions is no longer
felt. Yes
that
you are happy in old a e becauseyouare rich. ' And there is
somethingin what they say, Socrates,but not so much as they
33° imagine--asThemistoclesreplied to the Seriphian
,
,
if you had been an Athenian,nor I, i f I had been a Seriphian,
wouldever have been famous,"I might in like manner reply to
you,Neithera goodpoorman can behappy in age,nor yet a bad
rich man.
not acquiredthem
be the chief advantageof them. Cephalus answers that when
you are old the beliefin the world below grows upon you,and
331then to havedone justice and never to have been compelledto
do injustice through poverty
and never to have deceivedany
one, are felt to be unspe kable blessings. Socrates, who is
evidentlypreparing for an argument
What is the
meaning of the word justice? To tell the truth and pay your
debts? No more than this? Or must we admit exceptions?
Ought I
who has gonemad
wasin his rightmind? ' There must be exceptions.' 'And yet,'
says Polemarchus,' the definitionwhich has been given has th
authorityof Simonides.
sacrifices
,
,
is, has touchedthe key-note of the whole work in asking for the
d
e
fini
t
ionof
j
ustice
c
I
T,ON.introductionto
t
helongdiscours
e
whichfollows,andmay
p
erhaps
,
Socrateshasa mind to showthatthe resolutionof justiceintotwo
unconnectedprecepts
his? idhe meanthat I wastogivebackarms to a madman? ' No,
not in thatcase,not if the partiesare friends,and evilwouldresult.
He meant that y
and followingthis analog
pr
o
He is answered
that justice does good to friends and harm to enemies. But in
whatwa
y
g
o
ingt
o
goodofjustice? The answeris thatjustice is ofuse in contracts,333
and contracts are mone
partnerships. Yes; but how in such
partnerships is the just man of more use than any other man?
' When y
difficulty justice
o
pp
o
sites,g
oo
standing,like Autolycus,the Homerichero,who was 'excellent
aboveallmen in theft and perjury '--to sucha pass haveyouand
H
o
thievingmustbe for thegoodoffriendsand the harmof enemies.
And still there arises another question: Are friends to be in-
terprete
d
to
be
t
he
evil? The answer is, that we must dogood to our seemingand
realg
o
goodto thegood,evilto theevil. But oughtwe to renderevilfor
evilat all,when to do so will onlymake men more evil? Can
justiceproduceinjusticeany more than the art of horsemanship
 
Ret
Mic
clusionis, thatno sageor poet ever said that the just return e
v
il
TION.
shown to be inadequate tothe wants of the age; the authority
of the poets is set aside, and through the winding mazes of
dialecticwe make an approach to the Christianprecept of for
-
mystic poet to the Divine being when the questioningspirit is
stirred within him:--' If because I do evil
,
t
his
theologians. The first definitionofjusticeeasily passes into the
second;forthe simplewords'to speakthe truthandpayyourdebtsI
harmtoyourenemies.'Eitheroftheseexplanationsgivesasufficient
ofphilosophy. We may notein passing the antiquityof casuistry,
whichnot only arises outof theconflictof establishedprinciples
in particular cases
,
and
is prior as we l as posterior to our fundamental notions of
morality. The 'interrogation' of moral ideas; the appeal to
the authori y of Homer; the conclusionthat the maxim
,
couldnot havebeenthe wordof any great man (cp.ii. 38oA, B),
are allofthem very characteristicof the PlatonicSocrates.
• . . Here Thrasyma
hus,who has made severalattempts to AsALrs_s.
interrupt, but has hitherto been kept in order by the company,
takes advantageof a pauseand rushes intothe arena,beginning,
like a savage animal
another in a pretended argument?
'
33
7
ordinary definitionsof justiee; to which Socratesreplies that
he eannot tell how many twelve is, if he is forbiddent
o
say
338toargue; butat length,witha promiseof payment onthepart of
¢2
/.
the game. ' Listen,'he says ; ' my answer isthat might is right,
tC,_LYSIS.
understand you first. Doyou meanthat becausePolydamasthe
wrestler, who is stronger than we are, finds the eating of beef
for his interest,the eatingof beef is also for our interest,who
are not sostrong? Thrasymachusis indignantat the illustration,
and in pompouswords,apparentlyintended to restore dignityto
the argument,he explainshis meaningto be thatthe rulers make
laws fortheir own interests. Butsuppose,says Socrates,thatthe 339
ruler or stronger makes a mistake--then the interest of the
stronger is not his interest. Thrasymachus is saved fromthis
speedy downfallby his discipleCleitophon,who introducesthe 34o
word' thinks; '--not the actualinterest ofthe ruler,but what he
thinks or what seems to be his intere t, is justice. The contra-
dictionis escapedby the unmeaningevasion: for thoughhis real
and apparent interests may differ,what the ruler thinkstobe his
interest willalwaysremainwhathe thinksto be his interest.
Of course this was not the original assertion, nor is the new
interpretation accepted by Thrasymachushimself: ButSocrates
is not disposed to quarrel about words, if, as he significantly
insinuates,his adversaryhas changed hismind. In what follows
Thrasymadhusdoes in factwithdrawhis admissionthat theruler
may make a mistake,for he affirmsthat the ruler as a ruler is
infallible. Socrates is quite ready to accept the new position,34I
which he equally turns against Thrasymachusby the help of
the analogyof the arts. Everyart or sciencehas an interest,but 342
this interest is to be distinguishedfrom the accidentalinterest
of the artist, and is onlyconcernedwiththe goodof the thingsor
personswhichcome under the art. And justice has an interest
which is the interest not of the ruler or judge, but of those
who comeunder hissway.
Thrasymachus is on the brink of the inevitable conclusion,
when he makes a bold diversion. ' Tell me, Socrates,'he says, 343
'have you a nurse ?' What a question Why do you ask?
' Because,if you have, she neglectsyou and lets you go about
drivelling,and has not even taught you to know the shepherd
from the sheep. For you fancythat shepherds and rulers never
 
I.
subjects alike. And experience proves that in every relation ANALYsis.
of life the just man is the loser and the unjust the gainer,
344especiallywhere injustice is on the grand scale,which is quite
another thing from the pettyrogueriesof swindlersand burglars
and robbers of temples. The languageof men proves this-our
'gracious' and 'blessed' tyrant and the like--all whichtends to
show (i) thatjustice is the interest of the stronger; and (2)that
injusticeis more profitableand alsostronger thanjustice.
Thrasymachus,who is better at a speech than at a close
argument,havingdelugedthe companywith words, has a mind
345toescape. But the others willnot let him go,and Socratesadds
a humblebut earnest request that he will not desert them at
such a crisisof their fate. ' And what can I do more for you?'
he says; 'would you have me put the words bodily into your
'
inexact,--if the words are strictl taken, the ruler and the
shepherd look only to the good of their people or flocksand
not to their own: whereas you insist that rulers are solely
actuatedby love of office. ' No doubt ab ut it,' replies Thrasy-
346machus. Thenwhy are they paid? Is not the reason, thattheir
interest is not comprehendedin their art, and is therefore the
conc rn of another art, the art of pay, which is commonto the
arts in general,and therefore not identicalwith any one ofthem?
347Nor wouldany man be a ruler unless he were induced by the
hope ofreward or the fear ofpunishment;--the reward is money
or honour,the punishment is the necessityof being ruled by a
man worse than himself. And if a State [orChurch]were com-
posed entirely of good men, they wouldbe affected by the last
motiveonly; and there wouldbe as much 'nolo episcopari' as
there is at presentof the opposite...
The satire onexistinggovernmentsis heightenedby the simple ISrRODUC-
I
ON.
and apparently incidental manner in which the last remark is
introduced. There is a similar irony in the argument that the
governorsof mankinddo not like being in office
,
 
/" Now,as youand I, Glaucon,are not convincedby him,we must 348
NAL
Y
SIS
,
reply to him; but if we try to compare their respective g
a
ins
we shallwant a judge to decidefor us; we had better therefore
proceedby makingmutualadmissionsof thetruth to one another.
Thrasymachus had asserted that perfect injustice was more
gainfulthan perfect justice, and after a little hesitation he is
-
and assumesthe attitudeof onewhose onlywishis to understand
the meaning of his opponents. At the same time he is weaving
a net inwhich Thrasymachusis finallyenclosed. The ad
m
ission
is elicitedfrom himthat the just man seeks togainan advantage
over the unjust only, but not over the just, while the unjust
wouldgainan advantageover either. Socrates,in order to test
this statement
arts. The musician,doctor, skilledartist of any sort
,
does not 350
seek to gain more than the skilled, but only more than the
unskilled(that is to say, he works up to a rule, standard,law,
and does not exceed it
)
m
effortsat excess. Thus the skilledfalls on the side of the good,
and the unskilledonthe sideofthe evil,and the just is the skilled,
and the unjustis the unskilled.
There was great difficultyin bringing Thrasymachus to the
point; the day was hotand he was streamingwith perspiration,
and for the first time in hislife he was seen to blush. But his
other thesis that injusticewas stronger than justice has not yet
been refuted
,
clear up; the latter is at first churlish,butin the judicioushands
of Socratesis soonrestoredtogood-humour: Is there nothonour 35i
among thieves? Is not the strengthof injusticeonlya remnant
of justice? Is not absolute injustice absolute weakness also ?
A housethatis divided againstitselfcannotstand; twomen who 352
quarrel detract from one another's strength, and he who is at
war with himself is the enemy of himselfand the gods. Not
wickednesstherefore,but semi-wickednessflourishesin states
,
--
a remnant of goodis needed in order to make union in action
possible,--thereis nokingdomofevilinthis world.
Another questionhas not been answered: Is the just or the
Re/ublic
353unjust the happier? To this we reply, that every art has an /"
ANA
L
Y
S
L
And is not the end of the soul happiness
,
354and happinessbeing thus shown to be inseparable
,
whether the just or the unjust is the happierhas disappeared.
Thrasymachus replies: ' Let this be your entertainment,.
Socrates, at the festival of Bendis.' Yes; and a very good
entertainmentwith which your kindnesshas suppliedme, now
thatyou haveleft offscolding. And yet nota goodentertainment
--but thatwas myown fault,forI tasted oftoo manythings. First
,
thenthe comparativeadvantagesof just and unjust: and the sum
of all is that I know not what justice is ; howthen shallI know
whetherthe just is happy or not?...
Thus the sophisticalfabric has been demolished,chiefly by I_rRoDvc.
TI
ON,
(
and (3)justice is to happiness what the implementof the work-
manis to hiswork.' At this the modernreader is apt to stumble,
because he forgetsthat Plato is writing in an age w en the arts
and thevirtues
undistinguished. Among early enquirers into the nature of
human actionthe arts helped to fill up the void of speculation;
and at first the comparisonof the arts and the virtues was not
perceivedbythem to be fallacious. They onlysawthe pointsof
agreementin themand not the points ofdifference. Virtue
,
like
art, must ta e means to an end; goodmanners are bothan art
and a virtue; character is naturally describedunder the image
ofa statue (ii.36I D; vii.54° C); and thereare manyother figures
of speechwhichare readilytransferredfrom art to morals. The
next generationclearedup theseperplexities; o
after ages with a further analysis of them. The contemporaries
of Plato were in a state of transition, and had not yet fully
realized the common-sensedistinctionof
or that 'virtue implies intention and constancy of purpose,'
 
Republicwhereas' art requiresknowledgeonly' (Nie.Eth.ii.3). And yet
Z
. in the absurdities which follow from some uses of the nalogy
INTRODUC-
virtue is more than art. This is implied in the
reductioad ab
'commonto all thearts' isnot in accordancewiththe ordinaryuse
of language. Noris it employedelsewhereeither byPlato or by
,
seems to extend the conceptionof art to doingas wellas making.
Anotherflawor inaccuracyof languagemaybe noted in the words
(i.335C)
those who are injured are not necessarilymadeworse,but only
harmedor ill-treated, t
The second of the three arguments,'that the just does not
aim at excess,
enigmaticalform. That the good is of the nature,of the finite
is a peculiarlyHellenicsentiment
t
h
the language of those modern writers who speak of virtue as I
fitness
and of freedom as obedienceto law. The mathematical
or logical notion of limit easily passes into an ethical one, and I
even findsa mythologicalexpressionin th conceptionof envy
(_b06,o,).Ideasofmeasure,equality,order, unity,proportion,still
linger in the writingsofmoralists; and the true spiritof the fine
arts is better conveyedby suchterms than by superlatives.
' Whenworkmentriveto dobetterthanwell,
soulwith one another (iv.44zC), a harmony ' fairer than that of
musicalnotes
fectionof human nature.
In what may be called the epilogue of the discussionwith
Thrasymachus, Plato argues that evil is not a principle of
strength,butof discordand dissolution,ust touchingthe question
which has been often treated in modern times by theologians
and philosophers,of the negativenature of evil(cp.on the other
h
a
n
d
Aristoteliandoctrineof an end and a virtuedirected towards the i_e_ublic
end, which again is suggested by the arts. The final recon- /"
INT
RODUC
x
_os.
and the Stateare alsointimated. Socratesreassumesthecharacter
of a 'know-nothing;' at the same time he appears to be not
whollysatisfied with the manner in which the argument has
been conducted. Noth ng"s concluded; butthe tendencyof the
dialecticalprocess,here as always,isto enlarge ourconceptionof
ideas,and towiden theirapplicationto humanlife.
N
A
L
YS
I
S.
35
7
insists on continuingthe argument. He is notsatisfiedwith the
indirect manner in which, at the end of the last book,Socrates
had disposedof the question 'Whether the just or the unjust
is the happier.' He beginsby dividinggoodsintothree classes:
--first, goodsdesirablein themselves; secondly
358classes he would place justice. In the second class, replies
Socrates,among goodsdesirable for themselvesand alsofortheir
results. 'Then the world in general are of another mind, for
they say that justice belongs to the troublesomeclass of goods
whichare desirabletbr their results only. Socratesanswers that
this is the doctrineof Thrasymachuswhich he rejects. Glaucon
thin s that Thrasymachuswas too ready to fistento the voice
of the charmer, and proposes to considerthe nature of justice
and injusticein themselvesand apartfromtheresults and rewards
of them whichthe world is alwaysdinning in his ears. He will
first of all speak of the nature and originof justice ; secondly,
of the manner in which men view justice as a necessity and
not a good; and thirdly, he will prove the reasonablenessof
this view.
' To do injusticeis said to be a good; tosufferinjusticean evil.
As he evil is discoveredby experience to be greater than the
359good,the sufferers,who cannot also be doers, akea compact
that the
justice,but is reallythe impossibilityof doing injustice. Noone
would observe such a compactif he were not obliged. Let us
supposethatthejust and unjusthavetworings, likethat of Gyges
 
and then 36o
11. no differencewill appear in them, for every one will do evil if
NALYSIS.
he can. And be who abstainswill be regardedby the world
as a fool for his pains. Men may praisehim in publicout
of fearfor themselves
r
hearts.
(Cp.Gorffhs
t
. Imagine
strength--the greatestvillain bearing the highestcharacter: and
at his sidelet us placethe just in his noblenessand simplicity--
being, not seeming--without name or reward--clothed in his
justice only--the best of men who is though
t
,
and let him die as he has lived. I might add (but I wouldrather
put the rest into the m uthof
t
,
,
will have his eyes put out,and will at last be crucified[literally
impaled]--andall this becauseheoughtto havepreferred seeming
to being. How differentis the case of the unjust who clings362
to appearanceas the true reality His highcharacter makeshim
a ruler; he can marry where he likes, tradewhere he likes,help
his friendsand hurt his enemies; havinggot rich by dishonesty
he canworship the godsbetter,and will thereforebe moreloved
by
t
,
already unequalfray. He considered that the most important
point of all had been omitted:--' Men are taught to be just for
the sakeof rewards; parents and guardiansmake reputa
t
ionthe363
ofa moresolid kind
suchaswealthymarriages and highoffices.
There are the pictures in Homer and Hesiod of fat sheep and
heavyfleeces,rich corn-fieldsand trees topplingwith fruit,which
the godsprovide in this life for the just. And the Orphicpoets
add a similarpicture of another. The heroes of Musaeusand
Eumolpus lie on couchesat a festival,with garlands on their
heads
enjoying as the meed of virtue a paradise of immortal
draankenness.Somegofurther
third and fourthgeneration. Butthewickedtheybury ina slough
 
NALYSIS
andprose :--"Vi
tue,"as Hesiodsays, "is honourablebutdifficult,
vice is easy and profitable." You may often see the wicked in
greatprosperity and the righteousafflictedby thewill of heaven.
Andmendicantprophets knockat rich men's doors,promisingto
atoneforthe sins ofthemselvesor their fathers inan easyfashion
withsacrificesand festivegames,orwith charmsand invocations
toget rid of an enemygoodorbad by divinehelp and at a small
charge;--they appea to books professing to be written by
Musaeus and Orpheus, and carry away the minds of whole
cities, and p omi e to "get souls out of purgatory;" and if we
365refuse to listen to them,no one knows what will happen to us.
'When a lively-mindedingenuousyouth hears all this
,
what
will be his conclusion? "Will he," in the language of Pindar,
"make justice his high tower, or fortifyhimselfwith crooked
deceit?" Justice, he reflects,without the appearance ofjustice,
is misery and ruin; injusticehas the promiseof a gloriouslife.
Appearanceis master oftruth and lordof happiness. To appear-
ance then I will turn,--I will put on the show ofvirtue and trail
behind me the fox of Archilochus. I hear someone sayingthat
wicked
n
r
ceand rhetoricwill do much; and
if men say that they cannot prevail over the gods,still how do
we knowthat there aregods? Onlyfrom thepoets,whoacknow-
366ledge that they may be appeasedby sacrifices. Then why not
sin and payfor indulgencesoutof your sin? For if the
r
ighteous
are only unpunished, still they have no further reward, while
the wickedmay be unpunishedand havethe pleasureof sinning
too. But what of the world below? Nay, says the a
r
gument
the
r
,
poets, whoarethe sons of the gods,tellus; and this is confirmed
by the authorityof the State.
' Howcanwe resistsuchargumentsin favourofinjustice? Add
,
smilingat the praises ofjustice? Evenif a man knowsthebetter
 
Republicmore than humanvirtue is neededto savea man,and that he only
IL
A
NA
L
YSIS.raisesjus
t
'
,
temporal dispensation,"he honours and profits of justice. Had
we been taughtin earlyyouth the power of justice and injustice367
inherentin the soul,and unseenbyany humanor divine eye,we
shouldnot haveneeded othersto be our guardians,but every one
wouldhavebeen the guardianof himself. This is what I want
you to show
tend to strengthen the positionof Thrasymachusthat "might is
right;" but from you I expect better things. And please,as
Glaucon said, to exclude reputation; let the just be thought
unjust and the unjust just
,
superiority of justice.'...
TI
O
N
the interest of the strong
e
r
weaker. Startingfromthe samepremiseshe carries the analysis
ofsocietya stepfurther back;--might is still right,but the might
is the weaknessof the manycombinedagainstthestrengthof the
few.
whichhavea familylikenessto the speculationsof Glaucon e.g.
that power is the foundationof right; or that a monarchhas a
divineright togovernwellor ill; or that virtue is self-loveor the
love of power; or that war is the natural state of man ; or that
privatevicesare publicbenefits. Allsuchtheorieshavea kindof
human natureoscillatesbetweengoodand evil
extent oneither hypothesisaccordingto the characteror point of
view of a particular thinker. The obligation of maintaining
authority under all circumstances and sometimes by rather
questionablemeans is felt strongly and has become a sort of
instinct amongcivilizedmen. The divineright ofkings,or more
generallyof governments, is one of the forms under which this
natural feelingis expressed. Nor again is there any evilwhich
has not someaccompanimentof goodor pleasure; nor any good
 
whichis freefrom some alloyof evil; nor any nobleor generous RepubZic
I/.
actionsare imperfect; butwe do not therefore attribute them t0J
theworse rather than to the better motiveor principle. Sucha
philosophyisboth foolishand false,like that opinionof the clever
rogue who assumes all other men to be likehimself (iii.4o9C).
Andtheoriesof this sort do not represent the real nature of the
State
which is based on a vague sense of right graduallycor-
rected and enlarged by custom and law (althoughcapable also
of perversion),any more than they describethe originof society,
whichis to be soughtin the familyand in the socialand religious
feelingsof man. Nordo theyrepresent the averagecharacterof
individuals,whichcannotbe explainedsimplyon a theory of evil,
but has always a counteractingelement of good. And as men
becomebetter such theoriesappear more and moreuntruthful to
them,becausetheyaremore consciousoftheir owndisinterested-
ness. A littleexperiencemay makea man a cynic; great deal
will bring him back to a truer and kindlier view of the mixed
natureof himselfand hisfellowmen.
happywhen they havetakenfrom himall that inwhichhappiness
is ordi arily supposed to consist. Not that th re is (i) any
absurdityin the attempt to framea notionof justice apart from
circumstances. For the idealmust alwaysbe a paradox when
compared with the ordinaryconditionsof human life. Neither
the Stoicalidealno the Christianideal is true as a fact,butthey
may serve as a basisof education,and may exercisean ennobling
influence. An ideal is none the worse because'some one has
madethediscovery' thatno such idealwas ever realized. (Cp.v.
472D.) And in a few exceptionalindividualswho are raised
abovethe ordinarylevel of humanity
the ideal of happinessmay
be realizedin death and misery. This may be the state which
the reason deliberatelyapproves
and which the utilitarianas
well as every other moralist may be boundin certain cases to
:: prefer.
Nor again, (2) must we forget that Plato, though he agrees
generallywith the view implied in the argument of the two
brothers, is not expressing his own final conclusion,but rather
_4
II. developinghis ideagraduallyin a seriesofpositionsor situations.
NTRO
DUC
-
T,o_. He is exhibiting Socra es for the first time undergoing the
Socraticinterrogation. Lastly
modern philosophywith consciouspleasure or satisfaction,which
was not equallypresent tohis mind.
Glaueonhas been drawing a picture of the miseryof the just
and the happinessof the unjust,to whichthemiseryof the tyrant
in BookIX is the answerand parallel. And still the unjust must
appear just ; that is ' the homagewhichvicepays to virtue.' But
nowAdeimantus,takingup thehintwhich had beenalreadygiven
mankindjustice is regarded only for the sake of rewards and
reputation,and points out the advantagewhich is given to such
argumentsas those of Thrasymaehusand Glauconby the conven-
tional morality of mankind. He seems to feel the diffieultyof
'justifying the ways of God to man.' Both the brothers touch
upon thequestion,whether the moralityof actionsis determined
by their consequences(cp. iv. 42ofoll.); and both of them go
beyondthe positionofSocrates
that justice belongsto the classof
goodsnot desirablefor themselvesonly,but desirablefor them-
selves and for their results,to which he ecalls them. In their
attempt to view justice as an internal principle, and in their
condemnationof the poets
the natureof things.
It has been objected that justice is honesty in the s nse of
Glaueonand Adeimantus,but is taken by Socrates to mean all
virtue. Maywe not moretruly say that the old-fashionednotion
of justice is enlarged by Socrates, and becomes equivalentto
universal order or well-being,first in the State, and secondly
in theindividual? He has f unda ew answer to his old ques-
tion(Protag.329), whether thevirtues are oneor many,'viz.that
one is the ordering principle of the three others. In seeking
to establishthe purely internal nature of justice,he is met by
the fact that man is a social being, and he tries to harmonise
the two opposite theses as well as he can. There is no more
inconsistencyin this than was inevitablein his ageand country;
 
e stal
e, xxxi
there is no use in turning upon him he cross lights of modern
Republic
NTRODUC-
equally inconsistent. Plato does not give the final solutionof T_o_.
philosophicalquestionsfor us; nor can he be judged of b our
standard.
The remainderof the Republicisdevelopedoutof the question
of the sons of Ariston. Three points are deserving of remark
in what immediatelyfollows--
is altogetherindirect, tie doesnot saythat happiness consistsin
the contemplationof the idea of justice, and still less will he
be temptedto affirmthe Stoicalparadox that the just man canbe
happ on the rack. But first he dwells on the difficultyof the
,
before he will answer the questionat all. He too will frame
an ideal, but his ideal comprehends not only abstract justice,
butthe wholerelationsof man. Under the fancifulillustrationof
the large letters he implies that he will only lookfor justice in
society,and that from the State he wiUproceedto th individual.
His answer in substanceamounts to this,--that under favourable
conditions
i.e. in the perfect State, justice and ha piness will
coincide
,
happiness
may be left totake care of itself. That he fallsinto somedegree
of inconsistency,whenin the tenth book(612A) he claimstohave
got rid of the rewards and honoursof justice,maybe admitted;
for he has left those which exist in the peri_ct State.
A
nd
'
world. Still he maintains the true attitude of moral action.
Let a man do his duty first
,
happy or not
and happiness will be the inseparable accident
which attends him. ' Seek ye first the kingdomof God and his
righteousness,and all these things shallbe addeduntoyou.'
Secondly
character of Greek thought in beginning with the State and
in going on to the individual. First ethics,then politics--thisis
the orderofideas tous; the reverse isthe order ofhistory. Only
after many struggles of thought does the individualassert his
right as a moral being. In early ages he is not
one,
but one
 
Ret_ublicasno notionof goodor evilapart fromthe law ofhis country or
I/. the cree of his church. And tothis type he is constantlytending
NTRODUC
•io_. to revert, whenever the influenceof custom,or of party spirit,or
the recollectionofthe pastbecomestoostrongforhim.
individualand the State, of ethics and politics,which pervades
early Greek speculation,and even in modern times retains a
certain degree of influence. The subtle differencebetween the
collectiveand individualactionof mankindseemsto haveescaped
early thinkers, and we too are sometimes in danger of for-
gettingthe conditionsof unitedhumanaction,wheneverweeither
elevatepoliticsintoethics,orlowerethicsto the standardofpolitics.
State ; and this perfectioncannotbe attainedby legislationacting
upon them from without,but, if at all,by educationfashioning
them fromwithin.
ANALVS_S... Socratespraisesthesons of Ariston, ' inspiredoffspringof368
the renowned hero,' as the elegiacpoet terms them; but he does
not understand how t ey can argue so eloquentlyon behalfof
injusticewhile their charactershows that they are uninfluenced
by their own ar uments. He knows not how to answer them,
although he is afraidof deserting justice in the hour of need.
He therefore makesa condition,that having weak eyes he shall
be allowedto read the large letters first and then go on to
the smaller, that is, he must look for justice in t e State first,
and will then proceedto the individual. Accordinglyhe begins369
to constructtheState.
Societyarisesout of the wants of man. Hisfirst want is food;
his second a house; his third a coat. The sense of these needs
and the possibilityof satisfying them by exchange, draw in-
dividualstogether on the same spot; a d this is the beginning
of a State,which we take the liberty to invent,althoughneces-
sity s the real inventor. There must be first a husbandman,
secondly a builder, thirdly a weaver, to which may be added
a cobbler. Four or five citizens at least are required to make
a city. Nowmen havedifferentnatures,and onemanwilldoone 37o
thing better than many; and businesswaitsfor noman. Hence
there mustbe adivisionoflabourintodifferentemployments; into
I£
this will havefar exceededthe limitoffour or five,and yet not be
ANALYSIS.
37xvery large. But then again imports will be required, and im-
ports necessitateexports, and this impliesvariety of produce in
order to attract the taste of purchasers; also merchants and
,
the valuabletimeof the producerswill be wasted in vain efforts
at exchange. If we add hired servants the State will be com-
plete. And we may guessthat somewherein the intercourseof
372the citizenswith one another justiceand injusticewillappear.
Here followsa rusticpictureof their way of life. They spend
their days in houseswhich theyhavebuilt for themselves; they
make their own clothes and produce their own corn and wine.
Their principal food is meal and flour, and they drink in
moderation. They liveon the bestof terms witheachother,and
take care not to have too many children. 'But,' said Glaucon,
interposing, 'are they not to have a relish?' Certainly; they
will have salt and olives and cheese, vegetables and fruits,
and chestnuts to roast at the fire. ' 'Tis cityof pigs,Socrates.'
Why, I replied,what do youwant more ? 'Only thecomfortsof
life,--sofasand tables,alsosauces and sweets.' I see; youwant
notonly a State,but a luxuriousState ; and possiblyin the more
complexframewe may sooner findjusticeand injustice. Then
373thefine arts must goto work--every conceivableinstrument and
ornament of luxury will be wanted. There will be dancers,
painters,sculptors ,musicians,cooks,barbers, tire-women,nurses,
physiciansto cure the disordersof whichluxuryis the source. To
feed all these superfluousmouths we shall need a part of our
neighbours'land, and they will want a part of ours. And this
is the origin of war, which may be traced to the same causes
374as other political evils. Our city wilt now require the slight
additionofa camp,and the citizenwillbe convertedinto a soldier.
But thenagainour old doctrineof the divisionof labourmustnot
be forgotten. The art of war cannot be learned in a day, and
there must be a natural aptitudefor militaryduties. There will
375be somewarlike natures who have this aptitude--dogskeenof
scent,swiftof foot to pursue,and strong of limb to fight. And
d
I/. men or animals,will be fullof spirit. But these spiritednatures
NA
LYS
I
S.
are apt to biteand devouroneanother ; the unionofgentlenessto
friends and fierceness against enem es appears to be an im-
possibility,and the guardianof a State requires both qualities.
Who then can be a guardian? The imageof the dog suggests
ananswer. For dogsare gentletofriendsand fierceto strangers.376
Your dog is a philosopherwho judges by the rule of knowing
or not knowing; and philosophy,whether in man or beast, is
the parentof gentleness. The humanwatchdogsmust be philo-
sophers or loversof learningwhichwillmake them gentle. And
howare they tobe learnedwithouteducation?
fashionedsort which is comprehendedunder the name of music
and gymnastic? Musicincludesliterature,and literatureis of two377
kinds, true and false. ' What do you mean?' he said. I mean
that children hear stories before they learn gymnastics,and that
the storiesare either untrue,or have at most one or twograins
of truth in a bushel of falsehood. Now early life is very im-
pressible, and children ought not to learn what they will have
to unlearnwhentheygrow up ; wemust thereforehavea censor-
ship of nurserytales,banishingsome and keepingothers. Some
of themare very improper,as we may see in the great instances
of Homerand Hesiod,who notonlytell lies but bad lies; stories
about Uranus and Saturn, which are immoralas well as false,378
and which should never be spoken of to young persons, or
indeed at all; or, if at all, then in a mystery,after the sacrifice,
not ofan Eleusinianpig,but of someunprocurableanimal. Shall
our youth be encouragedto beat their fathers by the example
of Zeus, orour citizensbe incited to quarrelbyhearingorseeing
representations of strife amongthe gods? Shall they listen to
the narrative of Hephaestus binding his mother, and of Zeus
sendinghim flyingfor helpingher when she wasbeaten? Such
tales may possiblyhave a mystical interpretation,but the young
are incapableof understandingallegory. If any one asks what
talesare tobe allowed,we willanswer that we are legislatorsand 379
not book-makers; we only lay down the principles according
to which booksare to be written; to write them is the duty of
others.
And our first principle is,thatGod must be representedas he Re2_ublic
is; not as the author of all things,but of good only. We will IL
ANALYSIS.
not suffer the poets to say that he is the steward of goodand
evil, or that he has two casks full of destinies;--or that Athene
and Zeus incited Pandarus to break the treaty; or that God
380caused the sufferingsof Niobe,or of Pelops, or the Trojan war ;
t s s t
Either these were not the actionsof the gods,or God was just,
and menwere the better for being punished. But that the deed
was evil,and God the author, is a wicked,suicidal fictionwhich
we will allow no one old or oung to utter. This is our firs
and greatprinciple--Godis theauthor ofgoodonly.
ablenessor change of form. Reason teaches us this ; for ifwe
supposea change in God,he must be changedeither byanother
or by himself. By another?--but the best works of nature and
381art and the noblestqualitiesof mindareleast liabletohe changed
by anyexternal force. Byhimself?--buthe cannotchangeforthe
better; he will hardly change for the worse. He remains for
ever fairestand best in his own image. Thereforewe refuse to
listento the poets who tell us of Here beggingin the likenessof
a priestess or of other deities who prowl about at night in
strange disguises; all that blasphemous nonsense with which
mothers fool the manhood out of their children must be sup-
382pressed. But some one will say that God, who is himselfun-
changeable,maytake a form in relationto us. Why shouldhe ?
For gods as well as men hate the lie in the soul,or principle
offalsehood; and as for any ther form of lying which is used
fora purpose and is regardedas innocentin certainexceptional
cases--what need have the gods of this ? For they are n t
ignorantofantiquitylike the poets, nor are they afraid of their
383enemies,nor is any madman a friend of theirs. God then is
true, h is absolutelytrue; he changes not, he deceives not,
by day or night, by word or sign. This is our second great
principle-God is true. Away with the lying dream of Aga-
memnonin Homer,and the accusationof Thetis againstApollo
in Aeschylus....
In order to giveclearnessto his conceptionof the State, Plato INT*oDUC-
TION*
proceeds to tr ce the first principles of mutual need and of
d2
IZ citizens. Gradually this communityinc eases; the division of Ii
Sa-RODI_C-
mediumof exchangeis required,and retailers sit in the market-
place to save the time of the producers. These are the steps
bywhich Platoconstructsthe first or primitiveState, introducing
the elements of politicaleconomyby the way. As he is going
to frame a second or civilizedState,the simple naturallycomes
before the complex. He indulges,likeRousseau,in a picture of
primitivelife--an ideawhichhas indeedoften had a powerfulin-
fluenceon the imaginationofmankind,but he does not seriously
mean to say that one is better than the other (cp. Politicus,
p. 272); nor can any inference be drawn from the descriptio
of the first state taken apart from the second,suchas Aristotle
appears to drawin the Politics,iv.4,i2 (cp
.
We should not interpret a Platonie dialogueany more than a
poem or a parable in too literal or matter-of-facta style. On
the other hand,when we compare the livelyfancyof Plato with
the dried-up abstractionsof modern treatises on philosophy,we
are compelledto say with Protagoras,that the'mythus is more
interesting' (Protag.32oD).
a place in a treatise on PoliticalEconomyare scattered up and
downthewritingsofPlato: cp.especiallyLaws,v.74o,Population;
Bequests; 93o, Begging; Eryxias,(thoughnot Plato's),Valueand
Demand; Republic,ii.369ft.,Divisionof Labour. The lastsubject,
and also the origin of Retail Trade, is treated with admirable
lucidityin the secondbookofthe Republic. But Platonevercom-
binedhis economicideas intoa system,and never seems to have
recognizedthat Trade is one of the great motivepowers of the
State and of the world. He wouldmake retail traders onlyof the
inferiorsort ofcitizens(Rep.ii. 371; ep.Laws,viii.847),thoughhe
men and the best women everywherewere compelledt
o
keep
.
The disappointmentof Glauconat the 'city ofpigs,'t e ludi-
crous descriptionof the ministersof luxuryin the more refined
 
,
the illus- Republic
tration of the nature of the guardian taken from the dog, the IL
NTRODLC-
d
e
sirabl
e
n
e
ssfofferingom
ea
lmostnpro
c
urabl
e
i
c
t
i
mh
e
insist that the wordwas inseparablefrom the intention,and that
we must not be ' falselytrue,' i.e. speak or act falselyin support
of what was right or true. But Plato would limit the se of
fictionsonly by requiring that they should have a good moral
effect,and that such a dangerousweaponas falsehoodshouldbe
employedbythe rulersaloneand for greatobjects.
A Greek in the age of Plato attached no importanceto the
questionwhether his religion was an historical fact. He was
just beginningto be consciousthat the past had a history; but
he couldsee nothing beyondHomer and Hesiod. Whether their
narrativeswere true or falsedid not seriouslyaffectthe political
or social life of Hellas. Men only be an to suspect that they
were fictionswhen they recognised them to be immoral. And
soin allreligions: the considerationof their moralitycomesfirst,
afterwards the truth of the documents in hich they are re-
corded, or of the events natural or supernatural which are told
of them. But in modern times,and in Protestant countriesper-
haps more than in CathoLic,we have been too much inclinedto
• identifythe hi toricalwith the moral; and some have refused
to believe in religionat all, unless a superhumanaccuracywas
discernibleneveryartoftherecord.hefactsfanancient
II
,
II_TRO_JUC.
-
differencebetween Plato and ourselves
thoughnot unimportant,
is not so great as might at first sight appear. For we should
agree with him in placing the
m
statementsof factwhich necessarily occur in the early stages of
all religions. We know also that changes in the traditions of a
co ntrycannot be made in a day; and are therefore tolerant of
many thingswhichscienceand criticismwouldcondemn.
r
icalnterpretationof mytho-
logy, said to have been first introduced as early as the sixth
century beforeChrist byTheagenes of Rhegium,was well estab-
lished in the age of Plato,and ere
,
though for a differentreason, was rejected by him That ana-
chronisms whether of religionor law
,
another stage ofcivilization,hould be got rid of by fictionsis in
accordancewith universalexperience. Great is the art of inter-
pretation; and by a naturalprocess,whichwhenoncediscovered
was always going on, what couldnot be altered was explained
away. And so without any palpableinconsistencythere existed
side by side two forms of religion, the tradition inherited or
invented bythe poets and the customaryworship of the temple;
on the other ha
,
was dwellingin the heaven of ideas,but did not therefore refuse
to offer a cock to ._Esculapius
,
at th
e
amongourselves. The Zeus ofHomer and Hesiodeasilypassed
into the ' royal mind' of Plato (Philebus,28); the giant Heracles
becamethe knight-e
beforeand after Christ. The Greek and Ro
m
ancient meaning,they were resolvedintopoetry and morality; Republic
and probablywere never purer than at the time of their decay, II.
I
N
T
R
ODUC
A singular conceptionwhich occurs towards the end of the
bookis the lie in the soul; this is connectedwith the Platonic
and Socratic doctrinethat involuntaryignorance is worse than
voluntary. The lie in the soul is a true lie, the corruption
of the highest truth, the deception of the highest part of the
soul,fromwhich he who is deceivedhas no power ofdelivering
himself. For example,to represent Godas false or immoral
,or,
ledge is sensation,'or that 'being is becoming,'or with Thrasy-
machus'that might is right,'wouldhave been regardedby Plato
as a lieof thishatefulsort. The greatestunconsciousnessof the
greatest untruth,e.g. if,in the language of the Gospels(John iv.
4I), ' hewhowas blind'were to say ' I see,'is anotheraspectof the
stateofmindwhich Plato is describing. The lie in the soulmay
be further comparedwith the sin against the Holy Ghost(Luke
xii.Io),allowingfor the differencebetweenGreek and Christian
modes of speaking. To his is opposed the lie in words, which
is only sucha deception as may occur in a play or poem,
or
man; and he is also contrastingthenature of Godand man. For
Godis Truth, but mankindcan onlybe true by appearing some-
times to be partial, or fals . Reserv ng for another place the
greater questionsof religionor education,we may note further,
(I) the approvalofthe oldtraditionaleducationofGreece; (2)the
preparationwhichPlato is makingfor the attack on Homer and
thepoets ; (3)the preparationwhich he is alsomakingfortheuse
of economies in the State; (4) the contemptuousand at the
same time euphemisticmanner in which here as below(iii.39o)
he alludesto the ChroniqueScandaleusef thegods.
St_h.
BOOK
III. There is another motive in purifying religion, A,_A_.vsts.
 
Ili
.
the poets co cerning the world below. They must be gently
NALYSIS,
requested not to abuse hell; they m y be reminded that their
stories are both untrue and discouraging. Nor must they be
angryif we expunge obnoxiouspassages
words of Achilles--'I would rather be a serving-manthan rule
over all the dead;' and the verses which tell of the squalid
mansions
7
bats. The terrors and horrors of Cocytusand Styx, ghosts and
saplessshades,and therest of theirTartareannomenclature,must
vanish Such tales may have their use; but they are not the
proper foodfor soldiers. Aslittle can we admitthe sorrows and
sympathiesof the Homeric heroes:--Achilles,the son of Thetis,
in tears, throwingashes on his head,or pacing upand downthe
sea-shore in distraction; or Priam, the cousin of the gods,crying
aloud,rollingin the mire. A good man is not prostrated at the
loss of childrenor fortune. Neither is deathterrible tohim ; and
therefore lamentationsover the dead shouldnot be practisedby
men of note; theyshouldbe the concern of inferiorpersonsonly
,
388
whether women or men. Still worse is the attribution of such
weaknessto the gods; as when the goddesses say, 'Alas my
travail
and worst of all, when the king of heaven hi
m
self
r
not ridiculedbyour young men, is likelyto be imitatedbythe
m
should our citizens be given to excess of laughter--' Such
violentdelights' arefollowedby a violentre-action. The desc
r
ip-389
tion in the Iliadof the gods shakingtheir sides at the clumsiness
of Hephaestuswillnot be admittedbyus. ' Certainlynot.'
Truth shouldhavea highplaceamongthe virtues,for falsehood,
as we were saying, isuseless to the gods,and onlyuseful tomen
as a medicine. But this employmentof falsehoodmust remaina
privilegeofstate ; the commonman mustnot in returntell a lie to
the ruler; any more than the patient would tell a lie to his
physician,or the sailorto hiscaptain.
 
Re
p
ublic
_.NALYSIS.
,
latter kind will not impress self-controlon the minds of youth.
The same may be saidabout his praises of eatingand drinking
and hisdread of starvation; alsoabout theverses inwhichhe tells
of the rapturous loves of Zeus and Here,or of how Hephaestus
oncedetainedAres and Aphrodite in a net ona similaroccasion.
,
receivebribes,or to say, ' Gifts persuade the gods,gifts reverend
kings;' or to applaud the ignobleadviceof Phoenixto Achilles
khathe shouldget money out of the Greeksbefore he assisted
them ; or the meannessof Achilleshimselfin taking gifts from
391Agamemnon or his requiring a ransomfor the bodyof Hector;
or his cursing of Apollo; or his insolence to the river-god
Scamander; or his dedicationto the dead Patroclusof his own
hair which had been already dedicated to the other ri er-god
Spercheius; or his crueltyin draggingthe bodyof Hector round
the walls,and sl ying the captives at the pyre : sucha combina-
tion of meanness and crueltyin Cheiron'spupil is inconceivable.
The amatory exploits of Peirithous and Theseus are equally
unworthy. Either theseso-calledsons of godswere not the sons
,
who believesthat such things are done by those who havethe
392blood of heaven flowingin their veins will be too ready to
imitatetheir example.
Enough of gods and heroes;--what shall we say about men?
What the poets and story-tellerssay--that the wickedprosper
and the righteousare afflicted,or that justice is another's gain?
Such misrepresentationscannotbe allowedby us. But in this
we are anticipatingthe definitionof justice
,
follows style. Now all poet
r
,
present,or to come; and narrative is of three kinds,the simple,
the imitative,and a compositionof the two. An instancewill
 
ake mymeaningclear. The first scenein Homeris of the last 393
II
Z
NALYSIS.
'
he passage
will run thus: The priest came and prayed Apollo that the 394
Achaeansmighttake Troyand have a safe return if Agamemnon
wouldonly give him back his daughter; and the other Greeks
assented
,
the three styles--whichof them is to be admittedinto our State?
'Do you ask whether tragedy and comedyare to be admitted?'
Yes, but also somethingmore--Is it not doubtfulwhether our
guardiansare tobe imitatorsat all? Or rather, has not the ques-
tion been already answered, for we have decidedthat one man
cannotin his lifeplaymany parts, any more than he canact both395
tragedyand comedy,or be rhapsodistand actor at once? Human
natureis coinedintovery smallpieces,and as our guardianshave
theirownbusinessalready,whichis the careof freedom,they will
haveenoughto dowithoutimitating. If they imitate they should
imitate,not any meanness or baseness,but the good only; for
the mask which the actor wears is apt to become his face.
We cannot allow men to play the parts of women,quarrelling,
weeping
,
andwise actions
which he has never practised; and he willprefer to employthe
descriptivestyle with as little imitationas possible. The man39
7
performancewill be imitationofgesture and voice. Now in the
descriptivestyle there are few changes,butin the dranmticthere
are a great many. Poetsand musiciansuse either,or a compound
ofbeth,and this compoundis very attractiveto youth and th ir
teachersas wellas to thevulgar. But our Stateinwhichone man
plays one part onlyis not adapted for complexity. And when 98
one ofthese polyphonouspantomimicgentlemenoffersto exhibit
himselfand his poetry we will show him every observanceof Republic
respect,butat the sametimetellhim that there is no roomforhis IIL
_ALYSIS,
departfromour originalmodels(ii.379foll.; ep. Laws,vii.817).
Next as to the music. A song or ode has three parts,--the
subject,the harmony,and the rhythm; ofwhich the two lastare
dependentuponthe first. As webanishedstrains of lamentation,
so we maynow banish the mixed Lydian harmonies,which are
the harmonies of lamentation; and as our citizens are to be
temperate,we may also banishconvivialharmonies,such as the
399Ionianand pure Lydian. Tworemain--theDorianand Phrygian
the first for war, the second for peace; the one expressive of
courage,the other of obedienceor instructionor religiousfeeling.
And as we rejectvarieties ofharmony, we shall also reject the
many-stringed,variously-shapedinstrumentswhichgiveutterance
to them,and in particularthe flute,which is more complexthan
any of them. The lyre and the harp may be permitted in the
town,and the Pan's-pipe in the fields. Thus we have made a
purgationof music,and will now make a purgation ofmetres.
4ooThese should be like the harmonies,simple and suitableto the
occasion. There are four notes of the tetrachord, and there
are three ratios of metre, a, 6, {, which ave all their charac-
teristics,and the feet havedifferentcharacteristicsas well as the
rhythms. But about this you and I must ask Damon,the great
musician,who speaks,if I rememberrightly,ofa martialmeasure
as well as of dactylic,trochaic,and iambicrhythms, which he
arrangessoas to equalizethe syllableswith one another,assigning
to each the proper quanti y. We only venture to affirm the
generalprinciplethat the styleis toconformto the subjectand the
metre to the style; an that the simplicityand harmony of the
soulshould be reflected in them all. This principleof simplicity
has to be learnt byevery one in the days of hisyouth,and may
4ol be gatheredanywhere,fromthe creative and constructivearts, as
wellas fromthe formsofplants and animals.
Otherartists as well as poets shouldbe warned againstmean-
ness or unseemliness. Sculptureand paintingequallywith music
mustconformtothe law of simplicity. He who violatesit cannot
be allowedto work in our city, and to corrupt the taste of our
 
Re_ublicdeformity which will gradually poisonand corrupt their souls,
III. but in a land of health and beautywherethey will drink in from
NALYSIS.
influences the greatest is the educationgiven by music,which
findsa way intothe innermost souland imparts to it the senseof 4o2
beautyand of deformity. At first the effectis unconscious; but
when reasonarrives,thenhe whohas been thus trainedwelcomes
her as the friendwhomhe alwaysknew. Asin learningtoread,
first we acquirethe elementsor letters separately,and afterwards
theircombinations,and cannotrecognizereflectionsof themuntil
we knowthe letters themselves;--in like manner we must first
attain the elements or essential forms of the virtues, and then
trace theircombinationsnlife and experience. There is a music
of the soulwhichanswersto the harmonyof the world; and the
fairestobjectofa musicalsoul is the fair mind in the fair body.
Some defectin the latter maybe excused,but not in the former.
T ue love is the daughter of temperance, and temperance is 4o3
utterly opposedto the madness ofbodilypleasure. Enough has
been saidofmusic,whichmakesa fairending withlove.
Next we pass on to gymnastics; aboutwhichI would remark,
that the soul is related to the bodyas a cause to an effect,and
therefore if we educate the mind we mayleave the educationof
the body in her charge, and need only give a general outline
of the coursetobe pursued. In the first placethe guardiansmust
abstainfrom strong drink for theyshouldbe the lastpersons to
losetheir wits. Whether the habits of the palaestra are suitable4o4
to them is more doubtful,forthe ordinarygymnasticis a sleepy
sort of thing, and if left offsuddenly is apt to endangerhealth.
But our warrior athletes must be wide-awakedogs, and must
also be inured to all changesof food and climate. Hence they
will require a simpler kind of gymnastic, akin to their simple
music; and for their diet a rule may be found in Homer,who
feeds his heroes on roast meat only, and gives them no fish
although they are living at the sea-side,nor boiledmeats which
involvean apparatus of potsand pans; and,if I am not mistaken,
he nowhere mentions sweet sauces. Siciliancookeryand Attic
confections and Corinthiancourtezans,which are to gymnastic
what Lydian and Ionianmelodiesare to music,mustbe forbidden.
Where gluttony and intemperanceprevail the town quicklyfills4o5
 
withdoctorsand pleaders; and lawand medicinegivethemselves Republic
airs as soon as the freemenof a State take an interestin them. III.
A
N
AL
Y
SIS.
to have to go abroadfor justice becauseyou have none ofyour
ownat home? And yet there isa worsestageof the samedisease
--when men havelearnedto takea pleasureandpride inthe twists
and turns of the law; not consideringhowmuchbetterit would
be forthem soto order their livesas to havenoneedofa nodding
justice. And there is a like disgrace in employinga physician,
not for the cure of wounds or epidemicdisorders,but because
a manhas bylazinessand luxurycontracteddiseaseswhichwere
4o6drinksa possetof Pramnianwine,which is of a heating nature;
and yetthe sonsof Asclepiusblameneitherthe damselwhogives
himthe drink,nor Patrocluswho is attendingon him. The truth
is that this modern system of nursing diseaseswas introduced
by Herodicus the trainer; who, being of a sickly constitution,
by a compoundof trainingand medicinetortured firsthimselfand
then a good many other people,and lived a great deal longer
thanhe had any right. ButAsclepiuswouldnot practisethis art,
because he knew that the citizens ofa well-orderedState have
no leisure to be ill, and thereforehe adoptedthe ' kill or cure'
method,whichartisans and labourersemploy. ' They must be at
their business,'they say, 'and have notime forcoddling: if they
407recover,well ; if they don't,there is an end of them.' Whereas
the richmanis supposed to be a gentlemanwho can afford tobe
ill. Do you know a maxim of Phocylides--that ' when a man
beginstobe rich' (or,perhaps, a little sooner)' he shouldpractise
virtue'? But how can excessivecare of health be inconsistent
withan ordinaryoccupation,and yet consistentwith that practice
of virtuewhich Phocylidesinculcates? When a student imagines
that philosophygives him a headache,he never does anything;
he is alwaysunwell. Thiswas the reasonwhyAsclepiusand his
sons practised nosu h art. They were actingin the interestof
the public,and did not wishto preserve useless lives,or raiseup
a punyoffspringtowretchedsires. Honestdiseasestheyhonestly
4o8cured; and if a man was wounded, they applied the proper
 
_Ill. though they mighthave made large fortunesoutof them. As to
A
NA
LYS
IS.
restoringa rich manto life,thatis a lie--followingour old rule we
must say either that he didnottake bribes,or that he was notthe
son ofa god.
GlauconthenasksSocrateswhether the bestphysiciansandthe
experienceof diseasesand ofcrimes. Socratesdrawsa distinction
between the two professions. The physician shouldhave had
experienceof disease in hisownbody,for he cures with his mind
and not with his body. But the judge controls mind by mind ;4o9
and thereforehis mindshouldnot be corruptedbycrime. Where
then is he to gain experience? How is he to be wise and also
innocent? When young a good man is apt to be deceivedb