PERSONAL POH by Bruce Blaney (Version 6.0 12/01/06) “Let’s get one thing straight. There’s a big difference between a pilot and an aviator. One is a technician and the other is an artist in love with flight” (Elrey Jeppesen) Greetings: I have been working on this project for over 2 years now. The original version started with just 4 pages, and as I came across the great information available around the internet and in books, I started arranging it in a more cohesive fashion, and in an order that made sense while flying… now it’s many pages! Hopefully, now, instead of trying to remember where you saw something pertaining to a particular phase of fly such as a Rule of Thumb for Descent, for example, it will now be in the appropriate section of the Personal POH, or you can plug a new one in where you think it belongs. Please feel free to change it in any way. I use the clear page “Flight Crew Check Lists”, which I purchased at WINGS Pilot Shop located at KASH or on line at their website. These pages can hold 5 ½ X 8 ½ sheets. When I print the POH, I set the printer to print 2 pages per page, and then cut then in half and install into the pages. You may have to re- format the pages as they seem to change on every computer. I then use Ultra fine point Vis-a’-Vis markers by Expo, which won’t smudge, but can be wiped clean with a damp cloth. (available from any office supply store.) In real life as in flight simulation, I fly different planes… that’s why the V-speeds, etc are blank. If you fly the same plane all the time, personalize it with your #’s and information where applicable before printing. I fill out as much of the pages as I can in the pre-flight session and then the rest while flying. Please feel free to change this around anyway you like. I just ask that you give credit to the folks who you get the information from. I have given credit when I knew who said what if it was something specific. If I missed anyone I need to give credit to, please contact me. If I have used any copyrighted material, I apologize and will give credit when I am made aware. If you have any questions or comments, or have any suggestions to make this better, please feel free to write. Bruce Blaney ([email protected]) I strongly recommend the following web sites to learn every day! http://www.overtheairwaves.com http://www.AOPA.org DISCLAIMER : If you use this in real life flying, please remember that this is not an approved FAA document (it makes too much sense and is real easy to read and follow ☺ ), so use your head when using it. Always refer to the aircraft’s POH, the AIM, PIM or any other official publications in your country for any particular specifics necessary for your flight. "High Flight" Oh! I have slipped the surly bonds of earth And danced the skies on laughter-silvered wings; Sunward I've climbed, and joined the tumbling mirth Of sun-split clouds - and done a hundred things You have not dreamed of - wheeled and soared and swung High in the sunlit silence. Hov'ring there, I've chased the shouting wind along, and flung My eager craft through footless halls of air. Up, up the long, delirious, burning blue I've topped the wind-swept heights with easy grace Where never lark, or even eagle flew - And, while with silent lifting mind I've trod The high untrespassed sanctity of space, Put out my hand and touched the face of God. John Gillespie Magee, Jr. "We can make aviation as safe as we choose. What level of safety do you choose?" - Kevin Clover, FAA National Safety Program Manager «Безопасность авиации –вопрос нашего выбора. Какой уровень безопасности Вы выбираете?» Кевин Колвер, руководитель национальной программы безопасности FAA.
Transcript
PERSONAL POH by Bruce Blaney (Version 6.0 12/01/06) “Let’s get one thing straight. There’s a big difference between a pilot and an aviator. One is a technician and the other is an artist in love with flight” (Elrey Jeppesen) Greetings: I have been working on this project for over 2 years now. The original version started with just 4 pages, and as I came across the great information available around the internet and in books, I started arranging it in a more cohesive fashion, and in an order that made sense while flying… now it’s many pages! Hopefully, now, instead of trying to remember where you saw something pertaining to a particular phase of fly such as a Rule of Thumb for Descent, for example, it will now be in the appropriate section of the Personal POH, or you can plug a new one in where you think it belongs. Please feel free to change it in any way.
I use the clear page “Flight Crew Check Lists”, which I purchased at WINGS Pilot Shop located at KASH or on line at their website. These pages can hold 5 ½ X 8 ½ sheets. When I print the POH, I set the printer to print 2 pages per page, and then cut then in half and install into the pages. You may have to re-format the pages as they seem to change on every computer. I then use Ultra fine point Vis-a’-Vis markers by Expo, which won’t smudge, but can be wiped clean with a damp cloth. (available from any office supply store.) In real life as in flight simulation, I fly different planes… that’s why the V-speeds, etc are blank. If you fly the same plane all the time, personalize it with your #’s and information where applicable before printing. I fill out as much of the pages as I can in the pre-flight session and then the rest while flying. Please feel free to change this around anyway you like. I just ask that you give credit to the folks who you get the information from. I have given credit when I knew who said what if it was something specific. If I missed anyone I need to give credit to, please contact me. If I have used any copyrighted material, I apologize and will give credit when I am made aware. If you have any questions or comments, or have any suggestions to make this better, please feel free to write. Bruce Blaney ([email protected])
I strongly recommend the following web sites to learn every day!
http://www.overtheairwaves.com
http://www.AOPA.org DISCLAIMER: If you use this in real life flying, please remember that this is not an approved FAA document (it makes too much sense and is real easy to read and follow ☺ ), so use your head when using it. Always refer to the aircraft’s POH, the AIM, PIM or any other official publications in your country for any particular specifics necessary for your flight.
"High Flight"
Oh! I have slipped the surly bonds of earth And danced the skies on laughter-silvered wings;
Sunward I've climbed, and joined the tumbling mirth Of sun-split clouds - and done a hundred things
You have not dreamed of - wheeled and soared and swung
High in the sunlit silence. Hov'ring there, I've chased the shouting wind along, and flung
My eager craft through footless halls of air. Up, up the long, delirious, burning blue
I've topped the wind-swept heights with easy grace Where never lark, or even eagle flew -
And, while with silent lifting mind I've trod The high untrespassed sanctity of space,
Put out my hand and touched the face of God.
John Gillespie Magee, Jr.
"We can make aviation as safe as we choose. What level of safety do you choose?" - Kevin Clover, FAA National Safety Program Manager
«Безопасность авиации –вопрос нашего выбора. Какой уровень безопасности
Вы выбираете?»
Кевин Колвер, руководитель национальной программы безопасности FAA.
A cursory look at the most recent NTSB reports of GA accidents (about 5 a day, on average) suggests that about 70% of them involved poor aeronautical
decision making (ADM). In simple terms, the pilot exercised poor judgment, either in commencing the trip or in electing to continue it when circumstances dictated otherwise. Беглый взгляд на отчеты NTSB об инцидентах в авиации общего назначения (в
среднем 5 в день) позволяет сделать вывод, что около 70% их произошли по причине
неподготовленного принятия аэронавигационного решения (ADM – aeronautical
decision making). В простых терминах, пилот совершил неподготовленное суждение
о возможности перелета или продолжения его, когда обстоятельства требовали
иного.
There have been lots of tools and techniques developed over the years to help impart proper ADM skills to pilots. One that Bob Miller, CFII, recently developed and have spoken of in talks around the country is "The 4 Ms". Имеется большое количество инструментальных средств и методов, развитых за эти годы, чтобы помочь передать надлежащие ADM мастерство пилотам. То,
что Боб Миллер, CFII, недавно разработал и распространил по всей стране, как – 4M.
The 4 "Ms" is a simple mnemonic that helps pilots consider the various risk factors before beginning any flight. 4M – простой мнемонический код, который помогает пилотам учесть разнообразные факторы риска перед началом любого перелета.
The 4 "Ms"
Mission Задача
A planned trip from point "A" to point "B" involves decisions regarding terrain and airspace.
• Will I be crossing mountains or large bodies of open water?
• Will my route of flight take me through congested airspace?
• Do I have the required charts?
• Do I have acceptable "back doors" if I encounter difficulties along my route of flight?
Планирование перелета из пункта А в пункт В требует учета ландшафта и воздушного пространства. – Пересекаю ли я горы или большие пространства открытой воды? – Пересекаю ли я переполненное воздушное пространство? – Имею ли я необходимые карты? – Имею ли я приемлимые варианты возвращения в случае возникновения трудностей на маршруте?
Me
Am I both mentally and physically up to the trip?
• Do I have the required training, e.g., mountain flying, instrument skills, night experience.
• Am I both current and proficient for this flight?
• Don't think in legal terms. Sure, you may be "legal" to fly, but are you willing to wager the farm on the definition of "legal?"
Готов ли я мысленно и физически для перелета? Имею ли я достаточную подготовку, например, опыт горных или ночных полетов, инструментальные навыки…? Действительно ли я подготовлен и опытен для данногоперелета? Оцените себя фактически, а не по наличию юридических прав на данный перелет.
Machine
Is my airplane up to the task? • Can I fly high enough to clear the terrain
or weather, e.g., turbocharging, O2, pressurization?
• Do I have sufficient fuel range to span remote or over-water areas?
• Can I carry or shed ice, handle turbulence,or outrun a rapidly moving weather system?
• Do I have sufficient weather avoidance equipment on board, e.g., spherics, radar, uplinked weather?
• Do I have necessary life rafts and floatation gear? Survival kit?
• Do I have a backup radio and portable GPS?
Подходит ли мой самолет для выполнения задачи? Могу ли я лететь достаточно высоко, чтобы
преодолеть ландшафт и погоду (турбонагнетатель, кислород, герметизация кабины)? Имею ли я достаточно топлива, чтобы преодолеть большие пустынные или водные пространства? Могу ли я предотвратить или выдержать обледенение, справиться с турбуленцией, опередить быстро перемещающиеся погодные образования? Имею ли я достаточное метеорологическое оборудование на борту, например, spherics?, погодный радар, передаваемая на борт погода? Имею ли я спасательный плот, поплавковые шасси? Средства спасения? Имею ли я резервное радио и GPS?
Meteorology
Is the weather suitable for safe flight from departure point, enroute, and at my planned destination?
• Is the weather trending better or worse? • Are there fronts along my route of flight? • Will I be influenced by low pressure
areas? • Are their any SIGMETS or AIRMETs
along my route of flight? • If the weather is questionable, do I have
sufficient "backdoors" to make a safe escape?
Действительно ли погода благоприятна в пункте отправления, прибытия и на маршруте? – Погода улучшается или ухудшается? – Имеются ли погодные фронты по маршруту перелета?– Буду ли я под влиянием областей низкого давления? – Имеются ли любые SIGMETS или AIRMET по маршруту перелета? – Если погода сомнительна, то имею ли я достаточно безопасные варианты возвращения?
Some folks like to reduce poor ADM to simply "dumb pilot tricks." In truth, poor ADM has many causes. Sometimes it is ignorance, or arrogance, or the feeling of invincibility, or impatience. Something interfered with the pilot's ability to exercise sound judgment.
If we pilots simply pondered these 4 "Ms" before each flight, our chances of arriving at our destination safely will be significantly enhanced!
Некоторые люди низводят ADM до сомнительных экспериментальных уловок. По правде говоря, недостаточный ADM имеет много причин. Иногда это – невежество, или высокомерие, или чувство непобедимости, или нетерпения. Это мешает пилоту нормально рассуждать. Если мы будем обдумывать 4M, наши шансы безопасно достигнуть пункта назначения значительно возрастут!
Aircraft Specification Sheet Спецификация воздушного судна Make & Model: _______________________________ Производитель и модель Vso _________ Vs __________ Vx __________ Vy _________ Vfe __________ Va __________ Vlo _________ Vle __________ Vno __________ Vne _________ Vr __________ Vref __________ Maximum Rate of Climb………………..…….. __________ fpm Макс. скороподъемность Service Ceiling………………………..…….… __________ msl Практический потолок Best Glide Speed (Vg) ……………………… __________ kts Наилучшая скорость планирования MULTI-ENGINE Для самолета с двумя и более двигателями
Vyse (Blue Radial Line Синяя радиальная линия)…...... _________kts Vsse (Min. Safe Speed Мин. Безопасная скорость).…... _________kts Vmca (Red Radial Line Красная радиальная линия)...... _________kts Single Engine Service Ceiling…………... ___________MSL Практический потолок на одном двигателе
POWER SETTINGS (knowing the numbers) Настройки двигателя для разных режимов полета
Fuel Burn….________ GPH. Useable Fuel…. _________ gals Скорость расходования топлива Количество топлива
Normal Range / 45 minutes reserve………… ____________NM Нормальная дальность полета (с резервом в 45 минут)
Normal Endurance / 45 minutes reserve……. ____________NM
Нормальная дальность полета (с резервом в 45 минут)
Oil Grade….. __________ Oil Capacity…..__________qts Тип масла Количество масла
Min. Safe Oil. _________ qts. Max Gross Weight.._______lbs Мин. безопасное кол-во масла Макс общий вес
Empty Weight._________lbs Useful Load…... __________lbs Вес пустого самолета Полезная нагрузка Engine Type.. ___________ Displacement …..____________ Тип двигателя
Maximum RPM. __________ Horsepower… ____________ Макс RPM Мощность двигателя (л.с.)
Electrical ________volts. Alternator……. _________ amps Эл. Напряжение (Вольт) Генератор (Ампер)
Nose Wheel… ________psi. Main Wheels……. ________ psi Давление в носовом колесе в основных колесах
GENERAL OPERATING & FLIGHT RULES
Основные правила осуществления полетов PreFlight Planning Required FAR 91.103 Предполетная подготовка
1. Weather Reports and Forecasts Текущие погодные условия и прогноз 2. Fuel Requirements Планирование количества топлива 3. Alternatives if flight cannot be completed as planned. Альтернативы,
если полет не может быть выполнен как запланировано 4. Any known traffic delays as advised by ATC. Возможные задержки,
связанные с трафиком. Согласно рекомендациям диспетчеров. 5. Runway lengths at airports of intended use. Длины ВПП в аэропортах,
которые планируется посетить. 6. Takeoff and landing distance data in the approved
aircraft flight manual. Длины ВПП для взлета и посадки согласно РЛЭ. Special VFR Operations FAR 91.157 Специальные визуальные правила полетов
· Special VFR Clearance Разрешение на выполнение полета согласно специальных правил
· 1 statute mike ground visibility for takeoff and landing. Видимость в 1 милю для взлета и посадки
· 1 statute mike flight visibility. Видимость в 1 милю в воздухе · Clear of the Clouds. Запрет влетать в облака · Instrument rating and IFR aircraft required at night (sunrise to sunset).
Pilot and aircraft must be instrument current. Инструментальный рейтинг требуется для ночных полетов. Самолет должен быть оборудован соответствующими инструментами.
IFR Fuel Requirements FAR 91.167 Требования по планированию топлива для инструментальных полетов
Each aircraft shall carry enough fuel to fly to the destination airport (considering weather reports and forecasts) plus: Каждый самолет должен иметь топлива, достаточного для полета в порт назначения (с учетом текущих погодных условий и прогнозов) плюс:
a. Fuel to the filed alternate (if required by FAR 91.169c) and: Запас топлива до запасного аэродрома (если требуется согласно FAR 91.169c) и: b. Fuel to fly for 45 minutes thereafter at normal cruising airspeed. Топлива для осуществления полета на нормальной крейсерской скорости в течение 45 минут.
1-2-3 Rule When Alternate is not required FAR 91.169 Правила в случаях, когда запасной аэродром не обязателен When the destination airport has a published instrument approach procedure and weather reports/forecasts indicate: В случае, когда аэропорт назначения имеет процедуры инструментальной посадки и метеообстановка/прогноз показыавет:
+/- 1 hour of planned ETA; +/- 1 час до планируемого времени прибытия (ETA) 2,000’ Ceilings or Greater and 2000 футов или более потолок
3 Miles Visibility or Greater 3 мили или более видимость
Alternate Airports Weather Requirements FAR 91.169 Требования к выбору запасного аэродрома по погодным условиям To qualify as an alternate airport, the forecast must indicate at the estimated time of arrival the weather to be at least: Прогноз погоды на запасном аэродроме во время прибытия должен соответствовать: * Airports with a Precision 600’ ceiling and 2 miles Approach Procedure: visibility. Для портов с точными процедурами захода 600 потолок и 2 мили видимость * Airports with a Non-Precision 800’ ceiling and 2 miles Approach Procedure: visibility Для портов со свободными процедурами захода 800 потолок и 2 мили видимость * Airports without an Instrument Ceiling and visibility to
Approach Procedure: allow a descent from the MEA to landing in VFR
Для портов с инструментальными процедурами захода – потолок и видимость для захода по MEA и посадки по VFR
IFR CLEARANCES Разрешение на вылет по IFR
POP-UP CLEARANCE Получение разрешения на вылет
· Call – Contact ATC Связаться с диспетчером
· Who – State call sign, A/C type and equipment suffix Кто – сообщить позывной, тип самолета и суффикс типа оборудования
· Where – Current position and altitude Где – сообщить местоположение и намерения
· What – Make abbreviated Request Что – запросить разрешение вылет
CLEARNACE DELIVERY (AIM 5-2-1) Получить разрешение на вылет
· Special frequency at busy tower airports Знать спецчастоту диспетчера в загруженных портах
· Use ground control at smaller airports – Использовать частоту руления в меньших портах
· Receive and readback IFR clearance. – Получить и повторить разрешение на вылет
· Call not more than 10 minutes prior to taxi – Вызывать диспетчера не более чем за 10 минут до вылета
CLEARANCE VOID TIME (AIM 5-2-4) Время действия разрешения не вылет
· Uncontrolled airports. В неконтролируемых портах · Climb through uncontrolled airspace. Набор высоты в неконтролируемых зонах · Notify ATC within 30 minutes if not airborne. – Сообщить диспетчеру в течение 30
минут если вылет не совершен · Do not take off after void time. Не взлетать после истечения времени действия
разрешения на взлет
TOWER ENROUTE CONTROL (TEC) (AIM 4-1-18) Диспетчерский контроль в ходе полета
· Short flights less than 2 hours and under 10,000’ MSL. Короткие полеты продолжительностью до 2 часов и ниже 10000 MSL
· Links approach control areas using identified routes on existing airways. Осуществлять подход к контролируемой зоне с использованием определенных чартами маршрутов на существующих воздушных трассах
· Request TEC on Clearance Delivery or flight plan. Запросить диспетчерский контроль во время запроса разрешения на взлет
VFR-ON-TOP CLEARANCE (AIM 4-4-7) Разрешение на вылет по правилам визуальных полетов VFR
· Maintain appropriate VFR altitudes. Сохранять правильную высоту · Maintain VFR cloud clearances and visibility minimums. Держаться на предписанном
расстоянии от облаков и зон с ограниченной видимостью · Both VFR & IFR rules apply. Исполнять правила как для VFR, так и для IRF. · Report changes in altitude to ATC. В случае изменения высоты сообщать
диспетчеру · Separation is not always provided. Не забывать, что правила разделения трафика
действуют не всегда. · Pilot is responsible to see-and-avoid other aircraft. Пилот несет ответственность за
предотвращение столкновений в воздухе.
IFR CLIMB TO VFR-ON-TOP Conditions (AIM 4-4-7) Набор высоты по IFR для осуществления полета по VFR.
· IFR flight plan. May include a clearance limit. Иметь IFR план полета. Он может иметь ограничения.
· Say direction of flight or destination. Сообщить направление вылета и порт назначения.
· Clearance will contain a top report if available. Разрешение на вылет может иметь метеоданные по маршруту.
· Report reaching VFR-ON-TOP. Сообщить достижение высоты VFR. · If not VFR-ON-TOP at a specific altitude, advise ATC. Если на предположительной
высоте VFR видимость не соответствует правилам визуальных полетов сообщить об этом диспетчеру.
CRUISE CLEARANCE (AIM 4-4-3) Круиз
· Assigns block of airspace. Знать тип зоны, в которой осуществляется полет. · Pilot may climb and descend between the MEA and assigned altitude. Пилот может
осуществлять подъем и снижение в рамках MEA от назначенной высоты. · Once verbally reporting a descent from an altitude in the block, the pilot may no longer return
to that altitude. Однажды сообщив об оставлении высоты в зоне пилот не может на нее вернуться.
CONTACT APPROACH (AIM 5-4-22) Связаться с подходом
· Only on request by PIC… not assigned by ATC · Airport must have an Instrument Approach Procedure. Аэропорт должен иметь
процедуры инструментального подхода · 1 mile visibility, clear of the clouds and reasonably expect to continue to airport. Видимость
1 миля, свободная от облаков позволяет полагать, что эти параметры не изменятся до порта.
· Separation provided between IFR and SVFR traffic Обеспечивается разделение трафика IFR и специального VFR
VISUAL APPROACH (AIM 5-4-20) Визуальный заход
· Still on IFR flight plan. Может осуществляться по плану IFR · VFR minimums apply. Применяются ограничения VFR · Must have airport or preceding aircraft in sight. Обязателен визуальный контакт с
предшествующим воздушным судном
BEFORE GOING INTO THE CLOUDS… proficient pilots ALWAYS checks two items. The first is OAT. If the OAT is below 40F, the pilots turn on the pitot heat. Secondly, the vacuum pressure gauge is checked to be the vacuum pump is working correctly. “ Go / No-Go” Evaluation Sheet (AOPA SAFETY FOUNDATION)
Factor VFR IFR Score <100 hours in type + 2 + 3 _____
Unfamiliar Destination + 1 + 1 _____
Fatigue (less than normal sleep) + 2 + 3 _____
Flight at end of work day + 2 + 3 _____
Scheduled commitment after flight + 2 + 2 _____
Recent death of close family member + 1 + 2 _____
Major domestic problems + 2 + 2 _____
Illness in family + 1 + 1 _____
Second rated / current pilot - 1 - 1 _____
Alcohol within 24 hours + 2 + 2 _____
Taking OTC medications + 3 + 3 _____
Inadequate nourishment before flight + 2 + 2 _____
Inadequate water before flight / none on board + 2 + 2 _____
Day > 10,000 feet altitude without oxygen + 2 + 2 _____
Night > 5000 feet altitude without oxygen + 3 + 3 _____
Flight duration greater than three hours + 2 + 2 _____
Required fuel & reserves < 60 percent of total - 2 - 3 _____
Weight & Balance calculated - 1 - 1 _____
Weight within 10 percent of MGTOW + 2 + 2 _____
Take off or landing requires > half of runway + 2 + 2 _____
Aircraft Subtotal _____
"Take nothing for granted; do not jump to conclusions; follow every possible clue to the extent of usefulness . . . . Apply the principle that there is no limit to the amount of effort justified to prevent the recurrence of one aircraft accident or the loss of one life." — Accident Investigation Manual of the U.S. Air Force. [Reprinted from the 2005 Nall Report.]
Factor VFR IFR Score
Visibility 3 to 5 miles + 2 0 _____
Visibility 1 to 3 miles + 3 0 _____
Destination visibility less then 1 mile +20 + 1 _____
_________________________________________ EDC time: ___________ Cleared as filed:______
SID:_____________________________________
Expect: FL ______ in: ____minutes/at:_________ . Clearance Void if not airborne by:_____________ AOPA NOTAM site:
PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION & INFO
CABIN * control locks……………………… REMOVED elevator trim……………………… Free movement & set to 0 avionics master……………………OFF ignition switch…………………… OFF and keys on panel landing gear selector switch…….. DOWN before master MASTER switch………………… ON Instrument sounds………………. ? Abnormal mechanical sounds ?
flaps…………………………….. DOWN fuel quantity……………………. Check GAUGES: ______ gals alternator warning light………… check on
Pitot Heat……………………….. turn on & check for heat at probe stall warning……………………. CHECK lights……………………………. Check all, especially landing MASTER switch………………… OFF
Standard Temperature (ISA) is 15C @ SL, and decreases 2C for each 1000’ To calculate standard at altitude: Altitude (in thousands):_____ x 2 = ______ , And then subtract from 15 = _______ (standard temp at that altitude) Example: at FL210, 15 –42 = -27 (standard temp at that altitude)
First Aid / Survival kit………….. Up-to-Date POH/flight manual supplement... in Aircraft Air-Sickness bags and
fluid evacuation bottle….. on board
RIGHT WING flap…………………………….. check position & security
aileron…………………………. Check freedom of movement & security
wing tip and landing light…….. condition & security wing…………………………… overall condition main landing gear…………… tire condition, strut, psi:_____
microswitches, door, brakes, j-locks & wheel well
fuel vent……………………….. check for stoppage * fuel drain……………………… Check for water, sediment &
proper fuel grade de-icing boots………………….. Check for cracks &/or tears
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT & BALANCE info. Take the basic empty weight and moment from appropriate weight and balance records carried in the airplane, and enter them in the below table. In addition to the basic empty weight and moment noted on these records, the C.G. arm (fuselage station) is also shown, but need not be used on the table below. Use the Loading Graph (POH) to determine the moment/1000 for each additional item to be carried; then list these on the table below.
1. Divide the total moment (in-lb) by the total weight (wt) to find the CG location in inches from the reference datum. 2. If the calculated CG is not between the forward and aft limits, as specified in the A/C POH, rearrange the load prior to takeoff. 3. If the weight exceeds the maximum allowable, reduce the load prior to takeoff.
NOTE: Empty weight specifications for some airplanes may include full oil. Check the Aircraft POH.
Empty Weight:_________ lbs Maximum Allowable Zero Fuel:________lbs
M.T.O.W. : _________lbs Useful Load:_________ lbs Fuel: _________ gals (_________usable) x 6 lbs/US gal = _____________lbs Oil: _____quarts divided by 4 = _____ gal X 7.5 lb/US gallon = ________lbs Water: _______ gallons on board X 8.35 lb/US gallon = ______________lbs Jet Fuel (Jet A): _______ gallons X 6.70 lb/US gallon = ______________lbs
(JP-4 ): _______ gallons X 6.50 lb/US gallon = ______________lbs
Maximum Forward C.G.: __________ Maximum Aft C.G.: ___________
Item Length “’s Weight - Moment (ARM) Pounds IN – LB Basic Empty Wt. ________ ________ ________ Pilot & Front Pax ________ ________ ________ Center Pax ________ ________ ________ Rear Pax ________ _______ _ ________ Baggage (1) ________ ________ ________ Baggage (2) ________ ________ ________ Zero Fuel Weight ________ ________ ________ Useable Fuel ________ ________ ________ Ramp Wt. ________ ________ ________ Start Taxi T/O ________ ________ ________ Gross Take-Off Wt. ________ ________ ________ Fuel Burn ________ ________ ________ Gross Landing Wt. ________ ________ ________ OAT ________ ________ (Standard ) RoT: 10/20 rule = A 10% change in wt will cause at least a 20% change in Takeoff & Landing distances. RoT: Density Altitude (DA) = Pressure Altitude (PA) plus120 times the difference between actual OAT & Standard Temperature (15C @ SL) PA:_________ + _________(120x temp difference) = DA__________
PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION & INFO (Continued)
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT & BALANCE info. SAMPLE Sample Your LOADING PROBLEM Airplane Airplane (Cessna 172RGII) Weight Moment Weight Moment (lbs) (lb.-ins. (lbs) (lb.-in. / 1000) / 1000) 1. Basic Empty weight (Us e the date Pertaining to your airplane as it is Presently equipped. Includes unusable Fuel and full oil 1664 / 63.1 _______/________ 2. Usable fuel @ 6 lbs. / Gal.)
Standard tanks (62 Gal. Maximum) ________/________ Reduced Fuel (44 gallons) 264 / 12.7 _______/________ 3. Pilot & Front Passenger 340 / 12.6 _______/________ 4. Rear Passengers 340 / 24.8 _______/________ 5. Baggage Area 1* 50 / 4.8 _______/________
6. Baggage Area 2* ________/________ 7. RAMP WEIGHT AND MOMENT 2658 / 118.0 ________/________ 8. Fuel allowance for engine start, taxi & runup - 8 / - .4 ________/________ 9. TAKEOFF WEIGHT & MOMENT (subtrack step 8 from step 7) 2650 / 117.6 ________/________ Locate this point (2650 at 117.6) on the Center of Gravity Moment Envelope, and since this point falls within the envelope, the loading is acceptable. * The maximum allowable combined weight capacity for baggage areas 1 & 2 is 200 pounds
PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION & INFO (Continued)
Maneuvering Speed - Va To get today’s Va, take ½ of the % of decrease from Gross Weight and reduce the POH Max weight Va by that amount…(example: 2550 gross wt. minus today’s wt. of 1900 = 650lbs divided by 2550 = 26% less weight, so you decrease the POH Va of 105 by 13% (13.65kts)=92.65kts to be exact. ☺ (a) A/C gross wt:_________ - (b) Today’s wt:_________ = (c) _________
divided by (a) = (d) ________ % difference.
A/C Gross wt Va: _________ reduced by ½ of (d) _____% or ________kts =
Va of________ kts minus (10 - 15 kts) = ____________ Today’s Va
(“Personally, in turbulence I prefer flying 10 – 15 kts below Va. This not only prevents a gust from temporarily raising my indicated airspeed above Va, but also it makes things a lot more comfortable for my passengers and me.” Rod Machado) Aircraft and Pilot Currency FAA Inspector is authorized to inspect: F.R. & Medical 24 mo Airworthiness certificate (91.203[b])
Transponder 24 mo Aircraft registration Altimeter / Pitot static 24 mo Operating Handbook Annual 12 mo Weight & Balance information IFR 6 mo Minimum equipment list VFR 90 days Aeronautical charts (for currency) VOR test [FAR 91.171(a)(2)] 30 days General airworthiness of the A/C Months are calendar ELT Battery / Seats / Safety belts
VOR CHECK Date Place Error 1 Error 2 Signature _______/_________/_________/__________/_________________________ _______/_________/_________/__________/_________________________ _______/_________/_________/__________/_________________________ _______/_________/_________/__________/_________________________ _______/_________/_________/__________/_________________________ _______/_________/_________/__________/_________________________ !! PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION & INFO………… COMPLETE:_____!!
Aircraft Operating Speeds Limiting and recommended V speeds _____V1 - Takeoff decision speed (multi); formerly denoted as critical engine failure speed. _____V2 - Takeoff safety speed (multi). _____V2 - Minimum takeoff safety speed (multi). _____VA - Maneuvering speed, the maximum speed at which application of full available aerodynamic control will not overstress the airplane; usually decreases as gross weight decreases. _____VB — Design speed for maximum gust intensity. _____VC — Design cruising speed. _____VD — Design diving speed. _____VDF/MDF — Demonstrated flight diving speed. _______VDEC - Decision – Go / No Go Vdec runway length necessary = _______‘ ________/________ Takeoff distance / > 50’ ________/________ Landing distance / >50’
_____VEF — Critical engine failure speed, the speed at which the engine was failed during certification flight testing to determine accelerate-stop and accelerate-go distances. _____VF — Design flap speed. _____VFC/MFC — Maximum speed for stability characteristics. _____VFE — Maximum flap-extended speed, the highest speed permissible with wing flaps in a prescribed extended position; top of white arc. _____VH — Maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power. _____VLE — Maximum landing gear extended speed. _____VLO — Maximum landing gear operating speed. _____VLOF — Liftoff speed. _____VMC — Minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative (multi). _____VMCA — Minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative out of ground effect — red radial line (multi). _____VMCG — Minimum control speed with critical engine inoperative during takeoff roll (multi). _____VMO/MMO — Maximum operating limit speed, the speed that may not be deliberately exceeded at any time; redline or "barber pole" (turboprop/jet). _____VMU — Minimum unstick speed. _____VNE — Never-exceed speed, the speed that may not be exceeded at any time; redline.
_____VNO — Maximum structural cruising speed, the speed that should not be exceeded except in smooth air and then only with caution; top of green arc. _____VR — Rotation speed. _____VREF — Reference speed for final approach, usually 1.3 times VSO. _____VS — Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable. _____VS1 — Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specific configuration. _____VSO — Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable in the landing configuration; bottom of white arc. _____VSSE — Minimum safe single-engine speed (multi). _____VTOSS — Takeoff safety speed for Category A rotorcraft. _____VX — Best angle-of-climb speed, the airspeed that delivers the greatest gain of altitude in the shortest possible horizontal distance. _____VXSE — Best single-engine angle-of-climb speed (multi).
_____VY — Best rate-of-climb speed, the airspeed that delivers the greatest gain in altitude in the shortest possible time. _____VYSE — Best single-engine rate-of-climb speed (multi).
Airspeed indicator markings Red radial line — Never-exceed speed (VNE); also, for twin-engine aircraft, minimum control speed with critical engine inoperative (VMC). Redline or barber pole — Maximum operating limit speed, the speed that may not be deliberately exceeded at any time for turboprop/jet aircraft (VMO/MMO). Yellow arc — Caution range between maximum structural cruise speed (VNO) and never-exceed speed (VNE). Green arc — Normal operating range; upper limit is maximum structural cruise speed (VNO); lower limit is power-off stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in a specific configuration — usually with flaps and landing gear retracted (VS1). White arc — Flap operating range; upper limit is maximum full flaps extended speed (VFE); lower limit is power-off stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration — usually with full flaps and landing gear extended (VSO). White triangle — Standard designator used for certain speed limitations; for example, maximum flap-extended speed with flaps in a prescribed extended position (VFE) or maximum landing gear extended speed (VLE); the manufacturer determines the type of speed limitation for which the designator is used. Blue radial line or arc — For twin-engine aircraft, one-engine inoperative best rate-of-climb speed (VYSE).
PAC = Power, Attitude and Configuration POWER ATTITUDE CONFIGURATION PERFORMANCE Gear / Flaps IAS / VS
Load & baggage…………………. SECURE * Weight & CG……………………. CHECKED: ______ * Altimeter………………………… Set: within 75’ of field elevation
Avionics…………..…………..…. Off Circuit breakers……….………..... Check & note location Electrical switches……………….. Off Gear handle…………………....… “DOWN” before Master “ON” Oxygen…………………………… Charged & available Cowl flaps…………….…………. OPEN Trims………………………….…..Set for Takeoff Manifold Pressure Gauge (MP)…. Check: (Note the altimeter setting in the
Kollsman window, subtract one inch per thousand feet above sea level, and the MP gauge should show very close to that value with the engine not running. Anything else is an error in the instrument!)
Fuel selector…………………….... BOTH / SOP
Passenger Briefing………………. Topics to be covered during the briefing:
Seats & seat belts secure, but if slips, don’t grab yoke. Medical Factors If at any time you feel ill, tell me… do
not be embarrassed or timid – it will only make things worse…
Exits how to open… Signal when to open… Commands what I’ll say… Turbulence explain the how and why… Communications how to use radios and X-ponder… Mayday 121.50 on Com 1 and 7700 on X-ponder.
Speak slowly and clearly. Use “Mayday” Pilot incapacitated Fly the airplane… look out the window…
don’t be concerned with the instruments. Just keep the horizon level in the windscreen and call for help. There are professionals at the other end who can help you.
!! Before Engine Start Checklist ……..COMPLETE:_____!!
If you are in a hurry… you are in trouble!!! EMERGENCY Procedures
Starting Engine Engine FIRE during Start 1. Cranking……………….. CONTINUE, to get a start which
would suck the flames and accumulated fuel through the carburetor and into the engine.
If engine starts: 2. Power…………………… 1700 RPM for a few minutes. 3. Engine…………………… SHUTDOWN and inspect for damage. If engine fails to start: 4. Throttle………………… FULL OPEN 5. Mixture………………… Idle CUT OFF 6. Cranking……………….. CONTINUE 7. Fire Extinguisher…….. OBTAIN (have ground attendants
obtain if not installed). 8. Engine…………………… SECURE. a. Master Switch……. OFF b. Ignition Switch…… OFF c. Fuel Selector Valve. OFF
9. Fire……………………… EXTINGUISH using fire extinguisher, wool blanket, or dirt.
10. Fire Damage…………… INSPECT, repair damage or replace damaged components or wiring before conducting another flight.
Flooded Engine - Weak intermittent firing followed by puffs of black smoke from the exhaust stack indicates over-priming or flooding. Excess fuel can be cleared from the combustion chamber by the following procedure: MASTER Switch- OFF; Set the MIXTURE control at FULL LEAN and the THROTTLE at FULL OPEN; crank the engine through several revolutions with the starter. Repeat the starting procedure without any additional priming
STARTING ENGINE MASTER Switch…………..…….. On Flaps & flap handle………………. Up
* Fuel quantity…………………….. Compare to visual “sticked” level Rotating beacon………………..… On Gear lights…… ………….…….…GREEN lights / NO RED
Mixture………………..…………. SOP – Rich or Idle cutoff Fuel boost pump…………………. SOP / (On for Hot start on N9554B) Prop…………………..….……..... HIGH RPM Magneto switches………………… ON Carb Heat………………….…..…. COLD Primer …………………………… 2-4 shots if engine cold Throttle……………………………”Cracked” Prop area…………………………. CLEAR Start sequence……………………. Initiate Mixture………...…If at IDLE, advance slowly to rich as engine fires
ONCE ENGINE IS RUNNING…
RPM……………………………… 1000 rpm or less for 2 – 3 min. Oil Pressure……. ….……………. Rise within 15 seconds or shutdown Oil Temperature…………………. Warm up before takeoff Fuel pressure…………………….. Check Hydraulic warning indicators……. Check Alternator output………………… Charging Avionics Power Switch………….. ON Radios……………………………. ON & set for Departure (next page)
GNS / GPS………………………. Power ON Engine instruments……………… in Green / Normal ranges
Instrument Air…………………… Above 3 psi Annunicator / Warning Lights……Press to Test / Clear Fuel Selector………………………Opposite tank for taxi / SOP Fuel pump…………………………Off for taxi Autopilot………………………… Preflight check & then OFF
Transponder…………………….. “STBY” Confirm^
^ If the Transponder is in the ‘Altitude-Reporting’ mode (ALT), the TCAS (Traffic Collision & Avoidance System) of a landing aircraft may register your close proximity and signal the pilot to ABORT the landing a thereby causing an unnecessary Go-Around!!!
!! Starting Engine Checklist ……..COMPLETE:_____!! The most important part of flying…
CLEARANCE DELIVERY on __________.______ (if available) for departure info.
** Who you are, What you are, Where you are… What do you want to do **
_________________/______________/________________/____________________________. ie: Manchester Clearance Delivery… Beechcraft N109GE is a King Air B200 at Wiggins… VFR to Concord… 2500’… with Bravo…
Ground Control on: __________.____. Re-Back: _____ completed Nav 1: Return:_________on__________ / Leg 1:____________on________ Nav 2: Leg 1 cross check: ___________ / Leg 2: ___________on________
** Tune Com 2 to CTAF on ___________ to monitor Takeoff instructions to get an idea of what to expect when it’s your turn.
GNS/GSP ………………………. D Departure Airport GNS/GPS ………………………. Set Up all pages for Takeoff
OBS……………………………… Runway Heading or return IAP Autopilot………………………… Run Pre-Flight tests
!! BEFORE TAXI Checklist ……..COMPLETE:_____!!
The Next ‘2’ Things
TAXI
• If Clearance already completed on previous page…
N ________________ @____________________ , taxi for takeoff______.
or
• If no Clearance has been obtained before hand…
N___________ @ _______________ w/information_______ ready to taxi,
!!! At uncontrolled airports, before Taxiing, call Flight Service or listen to ASOS to be sure radios are transmitting and receiving
and that volume is turned up to adequate levels!!!
Mixture…………………………. LEAN for Taxi Brakes…………………..………. CHECK Flight Instruments………………. Monitor
IAS……………………… 0 Attitude…………………. Erect (may not be centered on ground) * Altitude…………………. +/- 75’ of field elevation VSI………………………. 0 or note error DG heading …………….. = compass & turns correctly Turn & Bank……………. Shows proper turns
ball moves opposite Alternate Static………… check OFF
Flight Director…………. ON / SOP * OAT: –2C = 42% chance of icing / -22C = 10% chance
After reaching the run up area for the departure runway, switch to tower frequency and complete you before-takeoff checklists. Then tell the tower you’re ready for departure. Don’t be surprised with any last minute instructions, such as a new heading or altitude to fly after takeoff.
Lift increases in proportion to the square of airspeed. For example, when airspeed doubles, lift increases by a factor of four! Stated the other way, lift decreases by a factor of four for each 50% reduction in airspeed. This fact is illustrated by the following formula for lift:
L = (1/2) d v2 s CL
• L = Lift, which must equal the airplane's weight in pounds
• d = density of the air. This will change due to altitude.
• v = velocity of an aircraft expressed in feet per second
• s = the wing area of an aircraft in square feet
• CL = Coefficient of lift, which is determined by the type of airfoil and angle of attack.
Diverse Departure: Cross DER at or above 35’; climb straight ahead at no less than 200’ per nautical mile (nm) to 400’ above DER; turn in any direction while maintaining at least 200’ per nm until reaching an appropriate altitude, such as an IFR altitude or MEA.
Diverse Departure: Cross DER at or above 35’; climb straight ahead at no less than 200’ per nautical mile (nm) to 400’ above DER; turn in any direction while maintaining at least 200’ per nm until reaching an appropriate altitude, such as an IFR altitude or MEA.
RoT: If 70% of T.O. speed (Vr) is not obtained by 50% of runway used, ABORT!
For a smooth departure, there are 3 things necessary…
1. As part of your pre-flight planning, think through how you’ll clear the pattern and turn on course, keeping in mind the usual pattern-entry procedures and departure procedures from the AIM, as well as terrain and obstruction concerns.
2. Check traffic in the pattern and any using another runway, make sure the runway is clear before you cross the hold-short line, and be on the lookout for aircraft not following the local traffic pattern procedures
3. When you make your radio call upon departure, clarify your intentions
and departure heading once clearing the pattern. As you leave the pattern, make one last call prior to leaving the frequency to give your altitude and intentions again. Leave your landing lights on until 10 miles away from your departure airport.
TAKEOFF
!! Look for reasons to be Disappointed on Take-Off !! (Rod Machado)
Takeoff Briefing: Explain takeoff (VFR / IFR)… What to expect… What will happen in the event of emergencies… on the ground… in the air… climbing out… Where to land in the event of engine failure…
HOTTS
Heading……………………. Set DG to compass Oil Temperature / Pressure… monitor Transponder………………. switch to “ALT” Time off: ___________________________ Strobe / landing lights…….. ON
ATC: “Cleared for T.O. Fly:__________________ ___________________________________________.” !! TAKEOFF Checklist………..COMPLETE:_____!! Turn to next page before applying power to have Takeoff Emergency numbers in front of you.!!
Convert Climb Gradient To Climb Rate: (in hundreds of feet) Divide your current ground speed by 60 and multiply by climb gradient. Ex. If you are required to gain 200 ft per nautical mile and you have a 150kt ground speed, your rate of climb in hundreds of feet is 500. (150/60=2.5*200=500)
FDC NOTAM 4/4386 = “All aircraft, if capable, shall maintain a listening watch on VHF guard 121.5”
The Next ‘2’ Things
EMERGENCY Procedures - Cruise
Engine Fire In Flight
1. Mixture……………IDLE CUT OFF 2. Fuel Selector………OFF 3. Master Switch…….OFF 4. Cabin Heat & Air…OFF 9except overhead vents) 5. Airspeed………….DIVE to Vmo to put out fire
LAND IMMEDIATELY
Electrical Fire in Flight 1. Master Switch…………………. OFF 2. Avionics Power Switch……..… OFF 3. All other switches (except ignition switch… OFF 4. Vents / Cabin Air / Heat……………….. CLOSED 5. Fire Extinguisher………………………. ACTIVATE
WARNING – After discharging extinguisher within a closed cabin, ventilate
the cabin & LAND IMMEDIATELY
Cabin Fire 1. Master Switch…………………………… OFF
2. Vents / Cabin Air / Heat……………….. CLOSED 3. Fire Extinguisher………………………. ACTIVATE
WARNING – After discharging extinguisher within a closed cabin, ventilate
the cabin & LAND IMMEDIATELY
Wing Fire 1. Navigation light switch………………………. OFF 2. Strobe Light Switch………………………….. OFF 3. Pitot Heat Switch……………………………. OFF NOTE: Sideslip to keep flames away from the fuel tank and cabin.
LAND IMMEDIATELY
RoT: Glide Ratio: 100 ft/min is approximately 1 knot. So to figure your glide ratio: ground speed divided by VSI/100 (just drop the zeros). Example: VSI shows 500 ft/min down… Ground speed = 100kts Drop the zeros on VSI = 5 kts. 100 divided by 5 = 20:1 glide ratio VSI:________ = (a):______kts. Ground speed: (b)_________ (b)__________ divided by (a)______ = ________ :1 glide ratio
EMERGENCY Procedures
Cruise – Cont’d Engine Failure During Flight
1. Establish GLIDE 2. Switch TANKS 3. Mixture RICH 4. CARB Heat 5. BOOST Pump 6. PRIMER locked 7. Check MAGS 8. IGNITION Switch ON or START if prop stopped
Emergency Landing Without Power – 13 “Lucky” Steps to a SAFE Forced Landing
1. To avoid landing downwind, especially in IMC, compare the GPS groundspeed to true airspeed.
2. Compare GPS heading with DG to find crosswind direction and strength.
3. Find an airport, field, or deserted road if possible 4. Remember the best landing area may be behind you. 5. Seatbelts as tight as you can stand 6. Stow loose objects. 7. Once landing area is made, slow to minimum sink rate. ( It’s close to maximum endurance speed and roughly 1.2 times clean stall speed. 8. Give position report to ATC… GPS coordinates if you can. 9. Flaps to full. 10. Landing gear is a toss-up. Make your best call 11. Try to relax 12. Electrics, fuel off, and doors cracked open. 13. Cushion face with pillow, folded jacket or blanket
Ditching 1. Radio………………. 121.5, giving location & intentions 2. Transponder……….. 7700 3. Heavy Objects……… Secure or Jettison 4. Flaps ………………. 20 – 30 degrees 5. Power……………….. Establish 300’ descent at 1.3 Vsl 6.Approach… High Winds, Heavy Seas – INTO THE WIND Light Winds, Heavy Swells – PARALLEL TO SWELLS 7. Cabin Doors…………….. UNLATCH 8. Splashdown…………….. LEVEL ATTITUDE 9. Face……………………. CUSHION with pillow or folded coat 10. EVACUATE & INFLATE vests & raft if available. 11. If no raft &/or vests available…. K.Y.A.G. (Kiss Your Ass Goodbye)
GPS / IMC Emergency Landing (Bob Miller, MCFI)
http://www.rjma.com/flight/airwaves/
1. Advise ATC: Declare an emergency . . . even at the first sign of engine difficulty. This will enable ATC to begin clearing the airspace below you.
2. Achieve Best Glide Speed: This is the same thing you do with an engine failure in VFR.
3. Hit the "Nearest" Button on Your GPS: Know you GPS unit well enough to instantly locate the nearest suitable airport.
4. Point the Airplane in the Direction of the Nearest Airport: Here is the best reason to always operate at the highest possible altitude whenever in IMC conditions. Hopefully, you are within glide range to an airport. If not, continue following these suggestions and hope for the best!
5. Attempt an Engine Restart: Don't start troubleshooting the engine or attempting a restart until you are pointed to the nearest airport. Minutes and seconds apply in this scenario.
6. Circle Over the Nearest Airport: Using the GPS moving map, begin a standard rate circling turn over the airport. Monitor your descent rate so as to reach the base key point 500' AGL (see illustration below).
Your goal is to make a controlled descent through the clouds to VFR conditions below and close enough to glide to the runway.
S – Surface / W – Weather / A. Airspace / T – Traffic True Altitude: Actual height in feet above mean sea level.
Absolute Altitude: Actual height above the ground.
Pressure Altitude: Weight of the atmosphere measured in inches of mercury, millibars, or hectopascals.
Density Altitude: Equals pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature.
Fuel Flow/Management
Pounds of Fuel vs. Gallons For every 100 pounds of fuel there is 15 gal. Ex. So if you need 1000 pounds of fuel that equates into 150 gallons.
Convert Pounds of Fuel to Gallons Take the amount of pounds needed, drop the last zero, divide that new number by 2 and add it to the new number. That is the same amount in gallons!! Ex. Say 400 pounds is needed. Drop the last zero = 40. Then divide by 2 which = 20. Add 40 and 20 to get 60 gallons of fuel Fuel Flow If your airplane has a fuel flow gauge multiply that number by 3 to get gallons per hour. Ex. If your fuel flow is 2.3 per engine. Then, you are burning 69 gallons per hour per engine. (2.3*3=69 gals)
Cruise - IFR Communications Failure Actions required by FAR 91.185
· The route assigned by ATC in the last clearance received. · If being radar vectored, the direct route from the point of radio failure to
the fix, route, or airway specified in the radar vector clearance. · In the absence of an assigned route, the route ATC has advised to expect
in a further clearance. · In the absence of an assigned or expected route, the route filed in the
flight plan. · The altitude or flight level assigned in the last ATC clearance. · The minimum altitude or flight level for IFR operations. · The altitude or flight level ATC has advised to expect in a further
clearance. 1. Squawk 7600 2. Descend to a VFR altitude (no other IFR traffic should
be at a VFR altitude in IMC conditions.) 3. Fly to known VFR conditions or get on the first instrument approach you can find and land
Turn, Time,Twist, Throttle, Talk & Track
RoT: GLIDE RATE: Every 1000’ agl =1.5 miles of glide
EMERGENCY Procedures
En-Route ICING INADVERTENT ICING ENCOUNTER * Turn Pitot Heat switch ON * Turn back or change altitude to obtain an OAT that is less conducive to icing.
Stratus Ice – Most stratus ice is less than 3000’ thick and can be climbed through with enough surplus performance.
Warm-Front Ice – Dropping through it to colder air below. Cumulus Ice – may be a large distance vertically, but may allow bobbing
& weaving to stay largely in the clear. * Contact ATC and tell them you need to take action due to icing. * Do use ALL POWER AVIALBLE when climbing through an icing layer. * Do enter the icing layer at MAXIMUM FORWARD SPEED possible. * Do ZOOM CLIMB through layer if you can * Pull cabin heat and cabin air controls full out and open defroster valves to obtain maximum defroster airflow. * Increase engine speed to minimize ice build-up on propeller blades. * Watch for signs of carburetor air filter ice and apply carburetor heat as required. An unexplained loss of manifold pressure could be caused by
carburetor ice or air intake filter ice. Lean the mixture if carburetor heat is used continuously. * NRST on GPS and plan on landing ASAP. With an extremely rapid ice build-up, plan for an “off airport” landing. * With ¼” of ice or more on the wing leading edge, be prepared for significantly HIGHER STALL SPEED. * Leave WING FLAPS Retracted. * Perform a landing approach using a FORWARD SLIP, if necessary, for improved visibility. * Approach at 1.5 Vsl or higher depending on the amount of ice build-up. STATIC SOURCE BLOCKAGE 1. Alternate Static Source Valve (if installed) ….. PULL ON 2. Windows………………………………………. CLOSED 3. Airspeed……………………………………….. Slightly Slower NOTE: In an emergency on airplanes not equipped with an alternate static source, cabin pressure can be supplied to the static pressure instruments by breaking the glass in the face of the vertical speed indicator
Carburetor Icing…Carburetor ice is most likely to occur when temperatures are below 70°F (21°C) and the relative humidity is above 80 percent. However, due to the sudden cooling that takes place in the carburetor, icing can occur even with temperatures as high as 100°F (38°C) and humidity as low as 50 percent. This temperature drop can be as much as 60 to 70°F. Therefore, at an outside air temperature of 100°F, a temperature drop of 70°F results in an air temperature in the carburetor of 30°F.
RoT: The ability of the atmosphere to hold moisture doubles
with each 11°-Celsius temperature rise.
RoT: Temperature in Farenht minus dew point divided by 4.5 times 1000 = cloud bases. Ie: 75F minus 70 (d.p.) divided by 4.5 x 1000 = 1555’ agl. RoT: Velocity of Windshear to be expected: Speed of a thunderstorm + 30 divided by 2 = Velocity of Windshear to be expected. Ie: 30 kts + 30 = 60 / 2 = 30Kts
En-Route … (Continued) RoT: To find total trip time, including climb, cruise and decent: Double flight level, then divide by 10. Add this value to the trip distance. Divide this number by the cruise speed.
Ie: 300 NM trip. Cruise GS 350 Kts at FL250. FL250 x 2 = 500/10 = 50. Trip distance of 300 + 50 = 350. 350/350GS = 1 hour.
Flight Level: __________ X 2 = _________ / 10 = ___________; added to
trip Distance of: ___________ = ___________; divided by the cruise speed
of: ____________ = _____________ total time of trip
RoT: Time to cover distance. To find the time required to fly a given distance, take your groundspeed remove the last digit and you have the distance in miles you will cover in six minutes. Ie: 180=GS distance to travel=36 miles you remove the 0 in 180 to get 18 miles in six minutes so 36 miles will take 12 minutes.
RoT: High speed aircraft – Ground Speed Calculations with DME: Note distance traveled in 36 seconds = 1% of 1 hours X 100 = GS EVALUATING CHANGE Too often, we are forced to change our plans. Unforecast storms intrude, a tailwind becomes a headwind or fuel consumption is greater than normal. How pilots recognize, evaluate and react to changes in their planned flight often means the difference between a boring trip and a more exciting one. A process for decision-making, called DECIDE, has been used to train more than 200,000 emergency response professionals with impressive results. Based on that process, a training program for pilots was developed by the AOPA Air Safety Foundation. DECIDE is a six-step decision-making model that can be learned and practiced. Here are the six steps…
D – Detect change E – Estimate the need to react C – Choose the flight’s desired outcome I – Identify successful actions to control the change D – Do something positive to adapt to the change E – Evaluate your actions’ effects
Descent Distance To Descend and Rate of Descent 1. Take your altitude to lose and multiply it by 3. That equals your distance in miles to begin your descent. 2. Now take half your ground speed. This is your rate of descent in hundreds of feet. Ex. If you are flying at 12000’ at a ground speed of 150kts and you need to descend to 2000’, the difference is 10000’. Multiply 10*3=30 miles out you must begin your descent. Half your ground speed is 75, add a zero, and 750 ft per minute is your rate of descent.
1) ALT (000’s) ______ X 3 = _______ distance in miles to begin descent
RoT: 3 Degree Glide Slope To maintain a 3 degree glideslope (eg: ILS) multiply the groundspeed you are achieving by 5. The resulting number is the rate of descent to fly. Ex. Groundspeed = 110 Kts x 5 = 550fpm rate of descent to maintain 3 degree glideslope.
GS: ___________ x 5 = ____________3 degree Rate of Descent.
RoT: VFR Approach to a controlled airport (Class B,C or D airport)
When instructed to: “Fly left downwind…”, or “Enter right base for…”, Continue flying toward the airport until approximately 1 nm out and then enter pattern as instructed.
PAC = Power, Attitude and Configuration POWER ATTITUDE CONFIGURATION PERFORMANCE Gear / Flaps IAS / VS Descent: _______ ________ ______ / _______ _______ / _______ Level Prior To FAF, PT: _______ ________ ______ / _______ _______ / _______
DESCENT / DESTINATION
ALT to lose (000’s) X 3 = _______ distance in miles to begin descent.
GS:__________ / 2 = __________, add a 0 = _______Rate of Descent
Power Reduction Restrictions…………… Observe per POH FL180…………………………… Altimeter to local setting < FL100…………………………. 250 KIAS max Pitot heat………………………… ON Wing Anti-ice…………………… ON if required Engine Anti-ice…………………. ON if required Fuel selector……………………. Fullest tank / Both Ignitions……………………….. Arm / SOP Mixture…………..……………… ENRICHEN as required Propellers………………………. Forward as desired (Beware of Noise
Abatement restrictions) Cowl Flaps……………………… CLOSED Fuel pumps……………………… SOP for aircraft
Temperature ______________ Dew: ____________ Altimeter: _________
Density Altitude_________________ Runway in Use_______________ Remarks_____________________________________________________ Traffic Pattern Operations Parallel Runways “We can make aviation as safe as we choose. What level of safety do you choose?" - Kevin Clover, FAA National Safety Program Manager
RECOMMENDED STANDARD TRAFFIC PATTERNS AND PRACTICES FOR AERONAUTICAL OPERATIONS AT AIRPORTS WITHOUT OPERATING CONTROL TOWERS. FAA Advisory Circular 90-66a
This publication comes closest to providing life-saving guidance governing traffic patterns at non-towered fields.
“Prior to entering the traffic pattern at an airport without an operating control tower, aircraft should avoid the flow of traffic until established on the entry leg. For example, wind and landing direction indicators can be checked while at an altitude above the traffic pattern. When the proper traffic pattern direction has been determined, the pilot should then proceed to a point well clear of the pattern before descending to the pattern altitude.”
The first thing a proficient pilot should do is listen to the airport's AWOS or ASOS at least 10 miles out. If there is no AWOS or ASOS, or if the winds do not clearly indicate the runway in use, call the airport UNICOM or CTAF frequency and request airport advisories. If no answer, listen to what other aircraft in the pattern are saying.
If still no answer, proceed to the airport at an altitude at least 500 feet above the published traffic pattern altitude (TPA), then look down for a windsock, wind tee, or some other wind direction indicating device. Continue circling until you have a clear sense of the wind direction.
Then maneuver at least two miles away from the airport, then descend to the published TPA. Make a proper pattern entry, then land.
Lastly, when approaching the airport, announce your position and intentions in aeronautical terms, e.g., "N109GE two miles west of Mayberry, 2,500 feet, entering a left downwind to Runway 28." Keep your eyes outside the airplane and land.
What if the visibility is poor and you are having difficulty locating your destination airport?
Please pay close attention here. This is where lots of traffic pattern accidents occur. If the visibility is, say, less than three miles, you DON'T want to be stooging around at traffic pattern altitude searching for the airport. You might accidentally blast through and scatter those airplanes already in the pattern, or worse! (Bob Miller, MCFI)
The solution to poor visibility approaches to non-towered fields is found in AC 90-66a. That is, climb to an altitude at least 500 feet above your destination's published traffic pattern altitude (TPA), then begin your search. Once you find your airport, maneuver to a point well clear of the traffic pattern, then descend to the TPA and make the proper pattern entry.
Always Fly Coordinated: The turn coordinator ball must ALWAYS be centered, particularly when maneuvering low and slow. [Exception: Deliberate forward and/or side slips.]
APPROACH - (M.A.R.T.H.A.)
Instrument Procedure to be used: ___________________________________
Nav 1: _______________ on__________ / ______________ on__________
Nav 2: _______________ on_________ / ______________ on__________
· CLIMB straight ahead at MAX rate of climb to: _____________ · Climb (L) (R) turn to altitude of ………………. _____________ · To some particular heading: _____________________________ · Go to some FIX: ___________________________, “and HOLD” · _____ Standard Hold (right turns) _____ Non-Standard (left turns)
A – Approach plan big picture: ILS: _____ / LOC: _____ / GPS: _____ VOR: _____ / NDB: _____ / TACAN: _____ / DME Arc: _____
R – Radio frequencies available, tuned & identified: Localizer: ________/ __________ NDB: ________/ ___________ VOR: ________/___________ DME: ________/___________
T – Time from FAF: 90:_____ / 120: _____ / 150: _____/ 180: ______
H – Heading: Outbound (IAF): ________ / Inbound (FAF): _________
PT Outbound: ________ / PT Inbound: _________ A – Altitude at MDA: _____________’ / DH: ______________’
!!! The Five Most Common ILS errors!!!
1. Failure to understand the localizer course dimensions 2. Failure to intercept & capture the localizer outside the
marker. 3. Failure to establish stabilized power settings and trim for
airspeed. 4. Failure to make the “mental movie” of where you are
relative to the approach. 5. Failure to understand the approach, study the plate, and
copy the numbers before you need them.
Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk, Track
!! APPROACH Checklist………...COMPLETE:_____!!
PRE-LANDING
Landing Briefing… E.S.C.A.P.E.
E.- Exits……………….. how to open… S – Signal……………… when to open… C – Commands……..…. what I’ll say… A – Assess conditions…. discuss weather outside P – Procedures………… explain appr & landing… E – Equipment………… all set to go…
RoT: X-wind component (xwc)…If the wind differs from the RWY hdg by 15 degrees, the XWC is 25% of the wind velocity. 30 degrees = 50%. 45 = 75%. 60 degrees, assume same as total wind. Wind:__________@________
Runway Heading:________. Difference = ________ degrees = _______xwc Set GPS - HSI /OBS to RWY Heading if not on IFR approach
Gas……………………………… BOTH / Fullest tank Undercarriage……………… Down (Vle= ______ KIAS) Green Light
Mixture………………………… Rich (as necessary) Props…………………………… High RPM (check for noise abatement) Flaps…………………………… As needed (see below) Engine instruments……… Monitor Seats(belts)…………………… SECURE Trim…………………………… Set for Landing
Keep the “BALL” CENTERED in all traffic pattern turns!!!
(Except when “slipping-In” to loose altitude)
!! PRE - LANDING Checklist………...COMPLETE:_____!!
The Next ‘2’ Things
EMERGENCY Procedures
Landing
Landing Gear Fails To EXTEND
1. Master Switch………………………..……….… ON 2. Landing Gear Lever….……………………..….. DOWN 3. Landing Gear & Gear Pump Circuit Breakers…. IN 4. Emergency Hand Pump --- EXTEND HANDLE and PUMP until
resistance becomes heavy --- about 35 cycles. 5. Gear Down Light……………………………….. ON 6. Pump Handle…………………………………… STOW
GEAR-UP Landing
1. Landing Gear Lever --- UP 2. Landing Gear & Gear Pump Circuit Breakers --- IN 3. Runway --- SELECT longest hard surface or smooth sod runway. 4. Wing Flaps --- 30 degrees (on final approach 5. Airspeed --- 1.2 Vsl 6. Doors --- UNLATCH PRIOR TO TOUCHDOWN.
7. Avionics Power and Master Switches --- OFF when landing is assured. 8. Touchdown --- SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW. 9. Mixture --- IDLE CUT OFF. 10. Ignition Switch --- OFF 11. Fuel Selector Valve --- OFF EVACUATE IMMEDIATELY
PAC = Power, Attitude and Configuration POWER ATTITUDE CONFIGURATION PERFORMANCE Gear / Flaps IAS / VS Descent to Minimums:
______ Vref kias for this landing. (Thomas A. Horne “Flying Final” AOPA July 2003
ATC Instructions: ____________________________________________ Flaps…………………………….. LANDING Config Yaw Damper……………………. OFF Autopilot ……………………….. Off (configure for “Missed”) Speed Control………………….. confirm OFF Speedbrakes. …………………… Confirm RETRACTED
Spoilers…………………………. “Armed” (if available) Propeller(s)……………………. FULL FORWARD
Mixture………………………… FULL RICH < 3000’ Power levers…………………… Beta range or Reverse
* Keep the “BALL” CENTERED in all traffic pattern turns!! *
”Final is clear… Check the GEAR!!!” !! LANDING Checklist………...COMPLETE:_____!! Circling to Land - Using Standard-Rate Turns:
120 second circumference, 40 seconds diameter (OK, 39.2 seconds).
1. Get to the MAP and maintain minimum until lined up with the runway and cross the threshold to get a reading on the windsock. ** If you have a GSP, “Set OBS and Hold” to runway heading for added situational awareness. (this extends the centerline out)
2. When ready, (say 10 seconds after crossing the threshold) Start a standard-rate turn to 22.5 degrees off the runway. (15 seconds, +/-)
3. Time for 40 seconds. (+/- a bit to allow for any crosswind) 4. Start standard-rate turn back to the runway. 5. Maintain minimum until 90 degrees to the runway and it’s in clear
view. **Turn off the AP (if in use) and hand-fly the airplane to a perfect landing on the VASI or PAPI.
(Alan Jeffs, Pembroke Ontario – IFR * February 2006)
RoT: 70 knots is 118 feet per second, and 60 is 101 fps. So if the approach speed should have been 60 knots and is 70, and if it takes five seconds to dissipate the extra speed, the airplane will have traveled about 550 feet in the float. No firm rule of thumb, but 10 knots extra on the approach speed usually uses about 500 extra feet of runway.
Here are several instrument approach rules you should always pay attention to: (Bob Miller, MCFI)
Instrument Approach Rule # 1: Never descend on an instrument approach unless you are established on a solid black line printed on the published approach procedure.
Instrument Approach Rule # 2: Never descend below the minimum altitude published for that solid black line.
Instrument Approach Rule # 3: Never descend below the published minimum descent altitude (MDA) or decision altitude (DA) unless
A. the flight visibility is equal or greater than that prescribed in the published approach procedure, and B. Runway lighting system is visible, or C. Landing runway is visible. -- FAR 91.175
GO-AROUND / GOING MISSED
“POWER UP / PITCH UP / CLEAN-UP”
Power……………………………. MAX mp / MAX rpm * Carb heat………………………… COLD
from the AIM: (d) While other entry procedures may enable the aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain within protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop and direct entries are the procedures for entry and holding recommended by the FAA. Having said that, ATC really doesn’t care how you enter the holding pattern. Also, if you have any questions about timing the legs, request mileage legs instead.
If ALTERNATE airport is necessary: D.R.A.F.T.
D–Destination: _______________________ Elev:_________ Non-Standard Alternate Minimums apply to this airport? – Yes___ / No ___ Navaids: Type / ID / Freq / Radial / Distance ___________/_________/___________/___________/__________ ___________/_________/___________/___________/__________ Approach Frequencies: ___________________________________________ ATIS/AWOS/ASOS Frequency: ___________ / Tel #: __________________
“Missed-Approach means ‘CLIMB’… not reading the approach plate while
farting around in the cockpit a couple of
hundred feet in the air!!!”
John Conrad, MCFI
Unicom: ___________ / TWR: ___________ / Ground Control: ________ CTAF: ____________ / CLNC DEL: _________________ on ___________ FSS: _____________________ on ________________________________ ASOS/ATIS/AWOS Information_________ Zulu Time: _______________ Winds___________-________ Peak gust________ Vis________________ Sky Conditions _____@_________ | ____@_________ | ____@_______ Temperature _________ Dew: _________ Altimeter: __________________ Density Altitude___________________ Runway in Use________________ NOTAMS_____________________________________________________
R – Route: _____________________________________
A–Altitude: _____________________________________
F -Fuel needed: ________________plus reserve of 45 minutes
T –Time to get there:____________________________________ Alternate Airport per FAR 91.169… When to file = 1-2-3 Rule (1 hr before and 1 hr after ETA, the ceiling will be at least 2000’ above the airport elevation and the visibility will be at least 3 statute miles.
Weather at Alternate to qualify = 600/2 (precision) or 800/2 (non-precision) No published instrument procedure at Alternate = VFR conditions apply Minimum Weather conditions at Alternate to qualify = Published Minimums
AFTER LANDING !! After crossing the hold-short line onto the taxiway, complete the ‘After Landing’ checklist and contact ground control, unless instructed otherwise !!
Strobe Lights…………………….. OFF Landing Lights………………….. OFF Transponder…………………….. STBY Trims…………………………….. Set for Takeoff Wing Flaps………………………. UP Speedbrake………………………. OFF Carb Heat…………………..…… COLD Cowl Flaps………………………. OPEN Anti-Ice…………………………. OFF
Fuel Pumps……………………… OFF
TAXI - Ground Control: ___________.______
LEAN MIXTURE for taxi / SOP if different “N__________ @_____________… taxi to:_____________________ “
ATC: Taxi to:_____________using taxiway: ____________________. CLOSE VFR Flight Plan with __________@ _______.____ on Arrival
FBO: ___________________________ Frequency: _____________. !! AFTER LANDING Checklist………..COMPLETE:_____!!
SHUT DOWN & POST-FLIGHT CHECKLIST
Parking Brake…………………… SET
BEFORE SHUTDOWN, 121.5 to be sure that ELT is not broadcasting Avionics Power Switch…………. OFF Electrical Equipment……………. OFF Throttle…………………………. 1000 RPM Mixture………………………….. IDLE Throttle…………………………. CLOSE as RPM drops Ignition Switch…………………… OFF – key on top of panel Control Lock……………. ……… INSTALL
Airport Diagram N W E
Cabin …………………………… Complete any necessary paperwork, including tach time, VOR checks, maintenance issues
Exterior Walk-a-round …………. Check for missing static wicks, fuel stains, oil streaks, tire / strut inflation. Antennas, Gear doors, cowl flaps, inspection covers. Clean leading edges of bugs. Polish windows. Inspect prop for new nicks, especially after flying through rain.
Fueling ………………………….. Attend the aircraft’s refueling to ensure proper grade and load request is met. Match amount pumped to fuel burned; investigate any discrepancies.
Wait for water /particulates to settle before sump-ing the tanks.
Other Consumables…………….. Check levels in brake fluid reservoir, O2 system, deicing fluid, and other consumables. Replenish and inspect for leaks. Oil needs to drain back into sump before checking, or you risk wasteful and messy overfilling..
!! POST-FLIGHT Checklist………..COMPLETE:_____!!
* = “Killer Items” / SOP = Standard Operating Procedure
“Nuggets of Wisdom” The following pages are not part of the Personal POH, but I have included them as they are “nuggets of wisdom”, and this is a nice place for them so they can be reviewed from time to time.
1) Power – Idle P - Power 2) Ailerons – Neutral A - Ailerons 3) Rudder – Full OPPOSITE rotation direction R - Rudder 4) Yoke – Full FORWARD w/ neutral ailerons E - Elevator 5) Rudder – Neutral when rotation stops
6) Yoke Pull smoothly from dive
Always Fly Coordinated: The turn coordinator ball must ALWAYS be centered, particularly when maneuvering low and slow. [Exception: Deliberate forward and/or side slips.] Instrument Flight RoT’s Reciprocal Heading If known heading is 0 -180, add 200 and subtract 20. If known heading is 181 - 360, subtract 200 and add 20. This is easier and quicker than trying 34 to add or subtract 180. Ex: Reciprocal of 120 is 120 + 200 = 320, 320 - 20 =300. Ex: Reciprocal of 210 is 210 - 200 = 10, 10 + 20 = 30. Northerly Turning Error: Another easy way to remember this compass tendency is: ANDS. Accelerate - North, Decelerate - South. VOR orientation When using a second VOR for cross radials, "Same side, not yet arrived" Ex., If the CDI is on same side of VOR head as the VOR is from your course, you have not yet arrived at the cross radial fix. Conversely, if the VOR is say, to the left of your course, and the needle is to the right, you have passed the fix Partial Panel Remember that if doing partial panel , that you have the other instruments, such as the obs on NAV 1 to help you visualize your position or heading. If every 30degress takes 10 seconds, then anytime you have the big numbers on the DG, such as 030, 060, 090, the time in between each will be 10 seconds. In order to also help you, if you think that you have to turn to a heading that is LOWER usually turn LEFT. I know that this does not work if you are on a NW heading and have to go to a north east heading, but use common sense. Instrument Landing Check C ompass L ights I dentify F laps F uel Use this on my procedure turn outbound in lieu with of the gump check. Check heading, runway lights, landing lights, frequency, approach flaps, check fullest tank. IFR approach or hold. Time, turn, throttles, twist, track, talk Time: start timing as required Turn: start turning to the desired course Throttles: set as applicable, precision approach, holding, etc Twist: re-set the HSI inbound course window if required Track: fly the airplane and track the inbound course Talk: tell the controller if you need to. Calculating VDP VDP - A point along a straight-in approach at which a 3 degree slope to the runway can not be maintained resulting in a, missed approach, circle to land, or unsafe maneuver. VDP’s are for straight in approaches and are simply used for a reference. it will indicate to you that a 3 degree descent path to the runway will not be obtainable from that position without an evasive maneuver There are three ways to calculate VDP: 1. They are published on the approach plate. 2. By DME - 300ft per nautical mile (from end of the runway) Ex. Say the MDA = 600 and the runway is 1 DME from the fix VOR, LOC, NDB, ETC) Your VDP = 3 DME 600/300 = 2 DME plus the 1 DME = 3 DME 3. Take 10% HAT off your time.
Ex. Say the published HAT is 800ft and the time for that approach is 5:20 Your VDP will be at 4:00 along the approach. 10% of 800 = 80 seconds, subtract that from 5:20 and you get 4:00 Drift Correction 300 divided by TAS) X (Crosswind divided by 5) = correction in degrees Ex. TAS 150, Crosswind=10 300/150=2 Times (10x5) 50 =100...drop the “0” 10 degrees correction
Altitude Deviation Correction 2 X deviation in feet = VSI indication back to altitude
Partial Panel Compass Flying "OSUN" used for partial panel compass flying. O vershoot S outh U ndershoot N orth Remember that the magnetic compass lags from the North and leads to the south. How much you over or under shoot your desired heading depends on the degrees latitude that you are flying. Overshoot the South heading by the required degrees and Undershoot the North heading by the required degrees. Ex.1 Suppose you are flying in Kansas (approximately 30 degrees latitude) and your heading is 090 degrees and you want to turn to a North heading. Because of the lags to the North you should roll out of your turn when your com pass reads 330 (360- 30=330 degrees) if your turn is to the right and 030 (360+30=030 degrees) if your turn is to the left. Ex.2 Suppose you are still flying in Kansas and your heading is still 090 and you want to make a turn to a south heading. Because the compass leads to the South you should roll out of your turn when your compass reads 210 (180+30=210 degrees) if the turn is to the right and 150 (180-30=150 degrees) if your turn is to the left ATC Speed Reductions In a turboprop a/c a quick rule of thumb for a speed reduction is take the airspeed subtract 100 from it divided by two and add five. that will give you your torque setting in percent. Ex: 180 kias. 180-100=80 80/2=40 add 5= 45% torque 210 kias. 210-100+110 110/2=55 add 5= 60% torque 1 In 60 Rule For every 1 degree displacement equals 1 nm in 60 nm. Ex.If heading is altered 5 degrees to the left: In 60 nm you will be 5 nm left of track. In 30 nm you will be 2.5 nm left of track. Estimating Cloud Bases: Temp. minus dew point divided by 4 and multiply by 1000' Ex. 72-52=20 20/4=5 5x1,000=5,000' bases = 5,000' agl during instability and warmer part of day Compass errors on an east-west heading ANDS: Accelerate North error Decelerate South Course Heading True Virgins Make Dull Company for figuring course Heading (True course +/- variation = magnetic, +/- deviation= Course heading.) Ex. 240 + 7 degrees equals 247 magnetic + 3 degrees deviation = 250 for a course heading.
RoT: DME – be one or more miles from station for each 1000’ of altitude above the facility for DME to be considered accurate. Always Fly Coordinated: The turn coordinator ball must ALWAYS be centered, particularly when maneuvering low and slow. [Exception: Deliberate forward and/or side slips.]
Weather Planning METAR WEATHER REPORT FORMAT Report Location Date / Weather & Sky Temp C/ Altimeter Type ID Time Wind Visibility Obstructions Conditions Dew PT METAR KOKC 011955Z 22015KT 3/4SM TSRA BR BKN015 06/05 A2990 METAR/TAF WEATHER REPORT CODES
OBSTRUCTIONS TO VISIBILITY Code Definition Think FG FOG< ½ MI VIS FoG BR MIST > ½ MI VIS Baby Rain FU SMOKE Fumes DU DUST Dust SA SAND Sand
AIRSPACE VFR REQUIREMENTS (Above 1,200’ AGL and Below 10,000.’ MSL) AIRSPACE THINK ACTION REQ’D VIS DIST. FROM CLOUDS CLASS B BIG CLEARANCE 3sm Clear of Clouds CLASS C CONGESTED COMMUNICATE 3sm 500 / 1000 / 2000 CLASS D DIALOGUE COMMUNICATE 3sm 500 / 1000 / 2000 CLASS E ELSEWHERE NONE 3sm 500 / 1000 / 2000 CLASS G GO FOR IT NONE 1sm (Day) 500 / 1000 / 2000 3sm (Night) CEILING: lowest broken or overcast layer aloft or VV into a surface based phenomenon. FAA definition of “CEILING”: Height of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomenon aloft that is reported as broken or overcast.
Weather – Continued
• Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate = 3 degrees per 1000’ (Unsaturated air) • Saturated air – does so slower • Standard Lapse rate = 2 degrees per 1000’ (until stratosphere =
isothermal @ about –59 degrees below zero. (example - +8c / standard = Oc… so freezing will be at 4000’
• Troposphere = an abrupt change in temperature lapse rate. • Stratosphere = small changes in temperature w/increase in altitude.
• Middle • High (least likely of no icing (cirrus type)
• Nimbus = Rain Cloud • Standing Lenticular Altocumulus Clouds (ACSL) = signals to you very
high turbulence and wind shear. Indication of mountain wave for several hundred miles down range on the leeward side.
• Stable air – cools off with altitude at a rate less than “standard lapse
rate”… will give you poor visibility, steady rain, flat layers of clouds (stratus type clouds)
• Temperature inversion = very stable air (Warm above / Cool below) will give you smooth air, poor visibility, fog, haze, low clouds, especially in high humidity.
• Radiation = clear, relatively still night = most frequent type of temp inversion.
• Unstable air = cools off with altitude at a rate > than standard lapse rate. General characteristics = good visibility, showery précip, turbulence, cumuliform type clouds (a lot of vertical height)
• Orographic lifting = wind raising up mountains = cumuliform type clouds, good visibility, showery rain, clear type ice due to big droplets (worst type of icing)
Cold (unstable) air moving over a warm surface = cold front = fair weather cumulus clouds = turbulent ride. Wind Circulation: “Coriolis Force” = force in Northern Hemisphere that acts at right angles to wind and deflects wind to the right until it tends to parallel The isobars (example… a string with a washer on it, and then swing it around your finger… it goes faster as it winds on the finger).
• As air moves from the equator, it is forced to the right. • Makes winds go counter clockwise around a low pressure at altitude, say
2000’ (ie: wind aloft is one direction while wind at the surface is another. This is caused by friction.)
Fronts – Boundary between fronts. • Wind Shift – is ALWAYS associated with the passage of a frontal
system! • A “WAVE” will be associated with a stationary or slow moving front. • Steady precip = statiform clouds = little or no turbulence
Water Vapor – amount of water vapor air can hold depends on OAT. Warm air can hold a lot. Dew point = Temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated. Clouds, fog & dew will form when water vapor condenses.
Fog • Radiation Fog: clear skies, little or no wind, small temp / dew spread,
flatland surface. • Advection Fog: warm air that moves in over cold surface. (requires a
wind) • Upslope fog: also requires wind to form. • Industrial Fog: Abundance of condensation nuclei from combustion
products. Frost: Happens when temperature is below dew point and dew point is below freezing. (this will cause “early airfoil separation” on your wing.)
Freezing Rain: Warmer layer of air above. Causes the highest rate of icing. If encountered, climb immediately to get to the warmer air if possible.
Ice Pellets: Freezing rain at a higher altitude… so don’t climb.
Wet Snow: Temp is above freezing at your altitude.
!! Frost, Ice and snow in the consistence of medium to rough sandpaper can reduce lift by as much as 30% and increase drag by as much as 40%!!
Weather Hazards: Cumulonimbus = Thunderstorm cloud = must have sufficient moisture, unstable lapse rate and some lifting action, such as convection, or a cold front, or up a hill. Thunderstorm: Mature stage = start of rain at surface. Downdrafts start. Dissipating Stage = pronounced anvil and all downdrafts. Lightening / Thunder = Thunderstorm… otherwise is just a
Cumulonimbus cloud.
Embedded Thunderstorm =- obscured by massive cloud layer. Cumulonimbus Clouds = the greatest turbulence.
Squall line: heavy hail, destructive winds, often time moving in front of a fast moving cold front. Squall = Abrupt increase in wind speed of at least 16 kts to a peak of 22kts or more, lasting for at least 1 minute. Airborne Weather Avoidance radar: shows echoes and returns from precipitation… therefore turbulence. It does not show clouds. !! Flight into unseen embedded TS – Vb or Va and attempt to remain level flight attitude. Set power for Vb or Va!! Wind Shear: Wind shift or wind speed gradient at any level of the atmosphere, by low-level temperature inversion (warm air above / cool air below), such as a jetstream, frontal zone, TS (and all around the storm). Warm front – most critical is when front hasn’t passed by the airport yet.
Example – Standard 3 degree glideslope – Headwind shears to Tailwind:
• Decrease in IAS – pitch attitude decrease • Airplane pitches down • Increase in VSI • Increase power… back up to glide path and the decrease power • Tendency to drop below the Glideslope
Tailwind shears to Headwind
• Increase in IAS • Airplane pitches up • Decrease in VSI • Decrease power… increase once back on Glideslope • Tendency to raise above Glideslope
Microburst = tremendous downdraft from a Thunderstorm
• Expected duration is seldom more than 15 minutes. • Maximum downburst can be up to 6000’ per minute downdrafts. • Unexpected increase in IAS = GO AROUND NOW!!!
Troposphere = near the surface of the earth up to about 37000’ Jetstream = 50 kts or grater at the top of the troposphere.
• In winter, jetstream is located south and is strong… • In summer, it is weaker and further north.
Private Pilot – 30 minute Workouts Review FAR parts 91 & 830 & POH
Quote: ”Some people fly so far behind the airplane that if they had a mid-air, they wouldn’t even be involved!!!”
Ron Caraway, MCFI
TAKEOFF Per the POH: Calculate V-speeds, takeoff distance and takeoff distance to clear a 50’ obstacle for the prevailing conditions. Vx = ________ / Vy = ________
A/C weight / Pressure Alt / Ground Roll / ground Roll . 50’ ___________/___________/_______________/___________________ (-10% for each 9kt headwind // +10% for tailwind up to 10kts // +15% for dry grass runway)
Actually measure the runway and then see if it’s true. Execute a soft-field takeoff (nurse aircraft off the ground at the lowest possible speed and fly at one (1’) foot above the ground until Vy. 0---------------------1---------------------2---------------------3---------------------4 get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
If you haven’t achieved 70% of takeoff speed by the time 50% of the runway is used, ABORT!
At Takeoff… E.S.C.A.P.E. E.- Exits S – Signal C – Commands A – Assess conditions outside P – Procedures E – Equipment After takeoff, pick a spot to maintain runway heading
2. Put “spot” on runway & try to touch down there. 3. Land on “Spot” with full flaps carrying a little power
(see: “The Threshold of Immediate Control” by Rod Machado) at just above stall / Vs1 = _______ &hold nosewheel off as long as possible.
0---------------------1---------------------2---------------------3---------------------4 get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
4. EMERGENCY Procedures: do some and pick a spot where A/C will come to a stop based on published data.
5. On takeoff, while on climb out, do some Dutch Rolls (Coordination exercise) while in this slow speed , high power configuration. Roll back & forth, keeping the nose nailed on a point. Level out at cruise flight level & trim immediately for hands-off flying.
0---------------------1---------------------2---------------------3---------------------4 get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
6. Dutch Rolls @ cruise, keeping nose nailed.
0---------------------1---------------------2---------------------3---------------------4 get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
7. Steep Turns – 720 degrees each way & rolling out on specific heading
and altitude. (keep head outside) 0---------------------1---------------------2---------------------3---------------------4 get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
hands in lap & keep level and “On heading” by rudder pedals only. 0---------------------1---------------------2---------------------3---------------------4 get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
Pro Pilot – 30 minute Power Workout
Quote: “In truth, if you don’t use it… you lose it!” ”
John Conrad, MCFI Note: John Conrad’s Holding Entry from any direction & any timer: “Fly to the fix, turn to the outbound heading and hack the watch. On the Outbound leg, dial up the inbound leg on the OBS & determine which side of the radial the aircraft is on. Make a 180 degree turn toward the inbound radial or bearing. Fly back to the fix and start holding.” 1) While tracking a navaid, pick a # between 1 & 360 and choose
left or right (holding clearance) 1 minute legs. Take a turn at level flight… then… add power, re-trim and climb 1000’ - level off, set power, fuel pumps, cowl flaps, etc., & go another turn in level flight… then… slow plane to config & speed used inside F.A.F. (Vref - ______) (gear, flaps, etc.) then go another turn… then… descend 1000’, level off… one more turn.
get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
2) (Multi-engine) At this point the engines are nice and cool… pull one engine back to 0 thrust and go through engine failure and feathering checklist… while still in holding pattern.
get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
3) Carry approach through to Circling Minimums and Circle to land… make a short-field approach & transition into a soft-field touchdown without wasting any runway. Check armpits
get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
Pro Pilot – 30 minute Power Workout
2) Missed Approach - 99.9% of all missed approaches in the USA use this order: 1) Full Power, Clean-Up & Climb straight ahead at MAX rate of climb. Vx - _____ / Vy - _____. 2) Turn to some particular heading 3) Level off at some altitude 4) Go to some fix and “hold”
0---------------------1---------------------2---------------------3---------------------4 get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
3) At altitude… “I SMELL SMOKE… I SEE FLAMES!!!”
0---------------------1---------------------2---------------------3---------------------4 get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
Here’s what should happen: Push the yoke aggressively forward, retarded the throttle, reached down switched the fuel valve to "closed," pulled the throttle to idle, the mixture to idle cut-off, and switched the ignition off. On the way
down, make a simulated "may-day" call, advising ATC of the fire, aircraft position, and the intention to land immediately!!!
Fire or Smoke - First Action Should be: Point the Airplane Downward!
6. Engine failure in IMC 0---------------------1----------------------2----------------------3----------------------4
get CFI dual below average average above average excellent
1. Advise ATC: so they can clear the airspace.
2. Achieve Best Glide Speed:
3. Hit the "Nearest" Button on Your GPS:
4. Point the Airplane in the Direction of the Nearest Airport:
5. Attempt an Engine Restart: only after heading for airport.
6. Circle over nearest airport: standard rate circling turn down. Monitor descent rate so as to reach the base key point 500’agl
Your goal is to make a controlled descent through the clouds to VFR conditions below.
FIRST AID
(Carol Jewett)
GET OUT: Get yourself and any passengers out of the airplane immediately. Don’t presume there won’t be a fire because you don’t see or smell fuel. Grab a first-aid or survival kit only if they are within easy reach – don’t waste time looking.
GET SAFE: Gather passengers at least 100 feet away from the wreckage. Wait at least 30 minutes before returning. Ensure the cockpit is well-ventilated before manipulating any electrical equipment, which may be uninsulated and create a spark.
GET TREATMENT: A first-aid kit is only as good as the person using it; you don’t have to be a medical professional to handle injuries and illnesses in a wilderness setting.
GET SHELTER: As soon as injuries are assessed and treated, get ready for the first night. Build a fire and gather items that can protect you from the
weather. (Don’t forget the airplane may be a great source of protection form the elements.)
GET WATER: You will need water before you need food. Assess your resources and remember you can survive for weeks without food, but you’ll last only a few days without water.
GET SEEN: Know how to use the signaling devices you carry in the plane, how to make them and how to attract passing planes and ground-rescue parties.
GET HOME: No one survives a crash uninjured. Even if you walk away without a scratch, there will always be some emotional trauma. Know what to expect in feelings and behaviors as well as physical symptoms in the coming weeks and months
TRIAGE & TREATMENT: 1. = Immediate 2.= Later 3.= Last
One of the most important triage technique is LOC (Level Of Consciousness). Is the person: alert and oriented to time and place; only responds to voice; only responds to pain; does not respond at all. Another technique is “Clearing” the spine.
Additional Information pages & other Rot’s EMERGENCY= PANICC P – Panic, DON’T – Stay CALM A – Aviate: Pitch for best glide N – Navigate: Find the best place to put down I – Investigate: Try to restart if time allows C – Communicate – 7700 / 121.5 C – Crash Prep – Shut everything off, ensure seat belts are on
and tight and open door.
Temperature Conversions
In the formulas below, / represents division, * represents multiplication, - subtraction, + addition and = is equal. Tc = (5/9)*(Tf-32); Tc = temperature in degrees Celsius, Tf = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
For example, suppose you have a Fahrenheit temperature of 98.6 degrees and you wanted to convert it into degrees on the Celsius scale. Using the above formula, you would first subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit temperature and get 66.6 as a result. Then you multiply 66.6 by five-ninths and get the converted value of 37 degrees Celsius. Below is the formula to convert a Celsius scale temperature into degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. Tf = (9/5)*Tc+32; Tc = temperature in degrees Celsius, Tf = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit Assume that you have a Celsius scale temperature of 100 degrees and you wish to convert it into degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. Using the stated formula, you first multiply the Celsius scale temperature reading by nine-fifths and get a result of 180. Then add 32 to 180 and get the final converted result of 212 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale.
Weight and balance terminology Arm (moment arm) — Horizontal distance in inches from the reference datum line to the CG of an item. The algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum and minus (-) if measured forward of the datum. CG — Point about which an aircraft would balance if it were possible to suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the aircraft or the theoretical point at which the entire weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. It may be expressed in inches from the reference datum or in percent of mean aerodynamic chord (MAC; see below). The latter method is used primarily for large or long-body aircraft. CG limits — Specified forward and aft or lateral points beyond which the CG must not be located during takeoff, flight, or landing. These limits are indicated on pertinent FAA aircraft type certificate data sheets, specifications, or weight-and-balance records and meet the requirements of the Federal Aviation Regulations. CG range — Distance between the forward and aft CG limits indicated on pertinent aircraft specifications. Datum (reference datum) — Imaginary vertical plane or line from which all measurements of arm are taken. The datum is
established by the manufacturer. Once the datum has been selected, all moment arms and the location of permissible CG range must be taken with reference to that point. Delta — Greek letter expressed by the symbol [delta]. It is used in weight-and-balance calculations, as well as in other forms of mathematics, to indicate a change in values; e.g., [delta]CG indicates a change (or movement) of the CG. Fuel load — Expendable part of the load of the aircraft. It includes only usable fuel, not fuel required to fill the lines or that which remains trapped in the tank sumps. LEMAC — Leading edge of the MAC (see below). Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) — Average distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing. The MAC is specified for the aircraft by determining the average chord of an imaginary wing that has the same aerodynamic characteristics as the actual wing. Moment — Product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm. Moments are expressed in pound-inches (lb-in) or inch-pounds (in-lb). Total moment is the weight of the aircraft multiplied by the distance between the datum and the CG. Moment index (or index) — Moment divided by a constant such as 100, 1,000, or 10,000. The purpose of using a moment index is to simplify weight-and-balance computations of large aircraft where heavy items and long arms result in large, unmanageable numbers. Reduction factor — Constant that, when divided into a moment, results in an index (see above). Standard weights — Established for numerous items involved in weight-and-balance computations. These weights are not to be used in lieu of available actual weights. Some of the standard weights are:
Passengers — adults, 170 lb*; children (age 2 through 12), 80 lb
*The FAA is considering raising this figure to reflect more adverse loading conditions. Station — Location in the aircraft that is identified by a number designating its distance in inches from the datum. The datum is, therefore, identified as station zero. The station and arm are
usually identical. An item located at station plus 50 would have an arm of 50 inches. Useful load — Weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers, baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is the empty weight subtracted from the maximum allowable takeoff weight. This term applies to general aviation aircraft only. Weight, basic operating — Weight of the aircraft, including the crew, ready for flight but without payload or fuel. This term applies to transport aircraft only. Weight, empty — Consists of the airframe, engine(s), and all items of operating equipment that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the aircraft. It includes optional and special equipment, fixed ballast, hydraulic fluid, and undrainable (residual) fuel and oil. When oil is used for propeller feathering, such oil is included as residual oil. Weight, maximum allowable zero fuel — Maximum weight authorized for the aircraft not including fuel load. Zero fuel weight for each particular flight is the operating weight plus the payload. Weight, maximum landing — Maximum weight at which the aircraft may normally be landed. The maximum landing weight may be limited to a lesser weight when runway length, atmospheric conditions, or other variables are adverse. Weight, maximum takeoff — Maximum allowable weight at the start of the takeoff run. Some aircraft are approved for loading to a greater weight (e.g., ramp weight or taxi weight; see below) only to allow for fuel burnoff during ground operations. The takeoff weight for a particular flight may be limited to a lesser weight when runway length, atmospheric conditions, or other variables are adverse. Weight, ramp or taxi — Maximum takeoff weight plus fuel to be burned during taxi and runup.
Airplanes are designed to withstand the limit-load factors shown in the following table. Limit loads should not be exceeded in flight.
Category of Aircraft Positive Limit Load
Normal (nonacrobatic) 3.8 times gross weight
Utility (normal operations and limited acrobatic maneuvers)
4.4 times gross weight
Acrobatic 6.0 times gross weight
Note: Negative limit-load factors are not less than minus 0.4 times the positive load factor for the Normal and Utility categories and not less than minus 0.5 times the positive load factor for the Acrobatic category.
Rules of Thumb The precise pilot does not fly by rules of thumb, axioms, or formulas, but there are times when knowledge of an approximate way to calculate things or knowledge of a simple rule can pay big dividends.
• The ability of the atmosphere to hold moisture doubles with each 11°-Celsius temperature rise.
• When the wind aloft is more southerly and stronger than forecast, it means that the weather may become worse than forecast — especially if the temperature aloft is warmer than forecast. Higher temperature means the atmosphere can hold more moisture. More southerly and stronger winds mean there is a stronger than forecast low or front or trough to the west, heading your way (Northern Hemisphere only).
• The standard temperature (ISA) is 15°C at sea level, and it decreases 2° for each 1,000 feet. To calculate standard at altitude, multiply the altitude (in thousands) by two and subtract that number from 15. At Flight Level 210, 15 - 42 = -27, which is the standard temperature at that altitude.
• If the winds aloft velocity is 10 percent of the true airspeed, there will be 4° of drift if it is 45° off the
• The air is conditionally unstable if the temperature drops more than 2° per 1,000 feet on ascent.
• When the surface wind shifts to the north or northeast after passage of a cold front, that front may well be back as a warm front in a day or so.
• A VOR course deviation indicator reflects 10° off course when full scale in either direction. One degree equals 1 mile when the aircraft is 60 miles from the station, so if you are 60 miles out with a full scale, you are 10 miles off course. If 30 miles out and a half scale (5°), you would be 2.5 miles off course.
• Performance speeds — such as maneuvering, approach, and climb speeds — are often given in the POH only for operations at gross weight. To calculate speeds for lighter weights, decrease the speed by half the percentage of the weight decrease. For example, flying a 3,000-pound-gross airplane at 2,400 pounds, a 20-percent reduction in weight, reduce the applicable speeds by 10 percent to hold the margins the same as at gross.
• How long to get there? If the groundspeed is 150 knots, multiply the distance by four and drop the last zero: 20 miles × 4 = 80. It will take eight minutes at 150. For 100, multiply by six for 120, minus the zero for 12 minutes. For 120, just divide by two; 180 means dividing by three.
• Specific fuel consumption is the measure of how many pounds of fuel an engine burns per hour to make 1 horsepower. Properly leaned, the most efficient engines are about 0.4, with a good average being 0.42 or 0.43. Turbocharged engines wander up to 0.45 or 0.475. Say you have a 200-hp engine that is fairly efficient at 0.42, and you are flying along burning 12 gallons an hour and want to calculate the amount of horsepower being used. Twelve gallons is 72 pph ÷ 0.42 = 171.4 hp, or almost 86-percent power. Going the other way, 75 percent is 150 hp × 0.42 for 63 pph.
• To make an approximate calculation of the bases of fair-weather cumulus, divide the temperature/dew-point
spread by four: 84/60 would mean the cloud bases would be somewhere around 6,000 feet.
• Winds aloft velocity almost always increases in a frontal zone. This is seldom reflected in forecasts, and depending on the strength of the front, you'll likely see an increase over the forecast value from about 200 miles ahead of the front to 200 miles behind the front.
• Best Rate-of-climb: to maintain during climb, reduce the sea-level best-rate indicated airspeed by 1% per thousand feet. This value is about 1 knot per thousand for most light airplanes through medium twins. (The Axioms of Flight)
In a normally aspirated airplane, add about 3 pounds per cylinder to total fuel burn for the extra amount required to take off and climb to cruise. For start and taxi fuel, the time has to be known. A ballpark figure for idling fuel flow is from 15 to 20 pph, depending on the engine.
Descent
3 Degree Glide Slope Descent Rate Add a zero to your indicated speed, divide by two. This should keep you stabilized on the approach. Ex: 150 knots on the GS. 150(0) / 2 = 750fpm descent. 120(0) / 2 =600fpm descent, etc. Double the DME for a 1000' ft per minute drop rate at 200 kts IAS. That would tell you how far out you should start the descent. Ex. I'm at FL230, cruising at 200 KIAS. I know I want to be down to what ever the IAF alt is (say 4000') before I get there, maybe 3-5 miles. Based on 1000 ft/min descent rate, if I start the descent when I am FL alt minus the alt of the IAF that gives me 19k to loose. This means if I start with 38 DME and add a fudge factor of about 6-8 then I will hit a point before the IAF at the alt I need. This is not an Exact science as under FL180 you have to change to the local alt setting. But, it does work and it usually has you down with plenty of time to spare The distance to descend at 500 ft per minute. Equals 2 times the ground speed in miles-per-minute times the altitude to lose in thousands of feet. Ex. If ground speed in the descent is 155kts/180mph(3 miles-per-minute) and you must descend 8000ft, you must begin you descent 48 miles from the point at which you must be at the lower altitude. 2 times your 3 miles per minute ground speed equals 6 times 8 (your altitude to be lost in thousands) equals 48 miles.
Distance To Descend Take your altitude and multiply it by 3. That equals your distance in miles to begin your descent. 2. Now take half your ground speed. This is your rate of descent in hundreds of feet.
Ex. If you are flying at 12000ft at a ground speed of 150kts and you need to descend to 2000ft, the difference is 10000ft. Multiply 10*3=30 miles out you must begin your descent. Half your ground speed is 75, add a zero, and 750 ft per minute is your rate of descent.
Ground Speed
High Speed Aircraft - Ground Speed For relatively high speed aircraft- say 250 kts or better the quickest way of calculating Ground Speed using the DME (without G/S readout) is to note the distance traveled in 36 seconds. 36 seconds = 1% of one hour Thus if you travel 3.25 nm your Ground Speed is 325 Kts- voila!! Ground Speed 1. To find ground speed note the time required to fly a published distance. 2. Pick a number that when multiplied by the flight time yields approximately 60. 3. To get that ground speed, multiply that number by the distance. Ex.15 minutes is required to fly 30nm (15*4=60)Ground speed equals 120kts. (4*30=120)
Wind Components/Correction
Wind Correction Angle 1. To determine the wind correction angle you must know the crosswind component at that altitude. 2. Divide the crosswind component by your True Airspeed in miles per minute, which will yield the wind correction angle. Ex. If the crosswind component is 14kts and the True Airspeed is 2 miles per minute (120kts),the wind correction angle is 7 degrees (14/2=7 degrees)
Wind Components 1. The 45 degree multiplier is 0.7 for headwind, tailwind & crosswind components. 2. And, for every 15 degree variation in wind direction from the 45 degree position, the 0.7 multiplier is adjusted by 0.2 Ex. Your heading is 090 and the wind is 165 degrees at 14kts. The wind is 75 degrees off the nose. (165-90=75) The headwind multiplier is 0.3, So your Headwind Component is 4kts (14*0.3=4kts) The crosswind multiplier is 1.0, So your Crosswind Component is 14 kts (14*1.0=14kts)
Bank Angles
Leading a Heading 1/2 Standard Rate = 1/3 your bank angle Standard Rate = 1/2 your bank angle Bank Angle for standard rate turns 1. If indicated airspeed is in MPH, divide airspeed by 10 and add 5 for standard rate turn. Ex. IAS is 110mph, divide by 10 equals 11, plus 5 equals 16 degrees (110/10=11+5=16 degrees) bank angle for a standard rate turn. 2. If indicated airspeed is in knots, divide airspeed by 10 and add 50% of that value. Ex. IAS is 100kts divided by 10 equals 10 plus 5 (50% of 10) equals 15 degrees (100/10=10+5 (50% of 10) =15 degrees) bank angle for a standard rate turn.
True Airspeeds
True Airspeed Calculation Divide your indicated altitude by 1000, multiply this figure by 5, and add this number to your indicated airspeed. Ex: 30000/1000= 30*5= 150+280= 430 is your TAS. True Airspeed (TAS) To find True Airspeed increase your indicated airspeed by 2% per thousand feet of altitude. Ex. If your indicated airspeed at 8000ft is 120kts, add 16% (2*8=16%) to your indicated airspeed. Your True Airspeed is 139kts
Fuel Flow/Management
Pounds of Fuel vs. Gallons For every 100 pounds of fuel there is 15 gal. Ex. So if you need 1000 pounds of fuel that equates into 150 gallons. Simple and Fast Way To Determine Fuel Burn: 1. Set the indEx of the rotating bezel (or a marker on the planes clock) of that fancy pilot watch you bought to the minute hand at takeoff. 2. Figure out how many gallons you burn in a unit of time. Example: an old Stinson burns a gallon every five minutes. 3. Now just count off the units. The bezel on my watch is graduated in 5 minute increments. 15 minutes would be 3 units and three gallons. Simple, just count off from the index one, two three...three gallons! You'll always know how much fuel you've burned and consequently how much is left. Try it! Fast and easy. Convert Pounds of Fuel to Gallons Take the amount of pounds needed, drop the last zero, divide that new number by 2 and add it to the new number. That is the same amount in gallons!! Ex. Say 400 pounds is needed. Drop the last zero = 40. Then divide by 2 which = 20. Add 40 and 20 to get 60 gallons of fuel Fuel Flow If your airplane has a fuel flow gauge multiply that number by 3 to get gallons per hour. Ex. If your fuel flow is 2.3 per engine. Then, you are burning 69 gallons per hour per engine. (2.3*3=69 gals)
Horsepower
Horse-Power At Altitude For Turbo-Prop To find out what amount of horse-power you are producing at certain altitudes, use this formula. HP=RPM times Torque times .00019 Ex. Assume 1900 on the rpm and 9's on the torque. Hp will equal 325. (1900*900*.00019=325)
Pressure Altitude
Pressure Altitude For Performance Charts To find pressure altitude for use on performance charts take standard pressure (29.92), subtract the current pressure setting , multiply that number by 1000, and add the elevation and to equal your pressure altitude. Ex. Current pressure altitude is 28.92 and the elevation is 1200ft msl. 29.92 (Standard pressure) - 28.92 (current pressure) = 1.00 * 1000 + 1200 = 2200 This is your new pressure altitude.
Temperature Conversions
Temperature Conversion Number 2 Another alternative to the above temperature conversion is to 1) Double the number 2) Deduct 10% and 3) Add 32 to get the Fahrenheit figure. Ex. We have a current temperature of 35 degrees Celsius. Double it which equals 70, deduct 10% (7) equaling 63, and add 32, which equals 95 degrees Fahrenheit Temperature Conversion To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, you must multiply the current temperature by 9, divide that number by 5, and add 32. Ex. We have a current temperature of 35 degrees Celsius. Multiplied by 9 it equals 315, divided b y 5 equals 63, and add 32, which equals 95 degrees Fahrenheit
Climb Gradient/Climb Rate
Convert Climb Gradient To Climb Rate To convert the climb gradient to the climb rate in hundreds of feet, divide your current ground speed by 60 and multiply by climb gradient. Ex. If you are required to gain 200 ft per nautical mile and you have a 150kt ground speed, your rate of climb in hundreds of feet is 500. (150/60=2.5*200=500)
Instrument Flight
Reciprocal Heading If known heading is 0 -180, add 200 and subtract 20. If known heading is 181 - 360, subtract 200 and add 20. This is easier and quicker than trying to add or subtract 180. Ex: Reciprocal of 120 is
120 + 200 = 320, 320 - 20 =300. Ex: Reciprocal of 210 is 210 - 200 = 10, 10 + 20 = 30. Northerly Turning Error: Another easy way to remember this compass tendency is: ANDS. Accelerate - North, Decelerate - South. VOR orientation When using a second VOR for cross radials, "Same side, not yet arrived" Ex., If the CDI is on same side of VOR head as the VOR is from your course, you have not yet arrived at the cross radial fix. Conversely, if the VOR is say, to the left of your course, and the needle is to the right, you have passed the fix Partial Panel Remember that if doing partial panel , that you have the other instruments, such as the obs on NAV 1 to help you visualize your position or heading. If every 30degress takes 10 seconds, then anytime you have the big numbers on the DG, such as 030, 060, 090, the time in between each will be 10 seconds. In order to also help you, if you think that you have to turn to a heading that is LOWER usually turn LEFT. I know that this does not work if you are on a NW heading and have to go to a north east heading, but use common sense. Instrument Landing Check C ompass L ights I dentify F laps F uel Use this on my procedure turn outbound in lieu with of the gump check. Check heading, runway lights, landing lights, frequency, approach flaps, check fullest tank.
IFR approach or hold. Time, turn, throttles, twist, track, talk Time: start timing as required Turn: start turning to the desired course Throttles: set as applicable, precision approach, holding, etc Twist: re-set the HSI inbound course window if required Track: fly the airplane and track the inbound course Talk: tell the controller if you need to. Calculating VDP VDP - A point along a straight-in approach at which a 3 degree slope to the runway can not be maintained resulting in a, missed approach, circle to land, or unsafe maneuver. VDP’s are for straight in approaches and are simply used for a reference. it will indicate to you that a 3 degree descent path to the runway will not be obtainable from that position without an evasive maneuver There are three ways to calculate VDP: 1. They are published on the approach plate. 2. By DME - 300ft per nautical mile (from end of the runway) Ex. Say the MDA = 600 and the runway is 1 DME from the fix VOR, LOC, NDB, ETC) Your VDP = 3 DME 600/300 = 2 DME plus the 1 DME = 3 DME 3. Take 10% HAT off your time. Ex. Say the published HAT is 800ft and the time for that approach is 5:20 Your VDP will be at 4:00 along the approach. 10% of 800 = 80 seconds, subtract that from 5:20 and you get 4:00 Drift Correction 300 divided by TAS) X (Crosswind divided by 5) =
correction in degrees Ex. TAS 150, Crosswind=10 300/150=2 Times (10x5) 50 =100...drop the “0” 10 degrees correction Altitude Deviation Correction 2 X deviation in feet = VSI indication back to altitude Partial Panel Compass Flying "OSUN" used for partial panel compass flying. O vershoot S outh U ndershoot N orth Remember that the magnetic compass lags from the North and leads to the south. How much you over or under shoot your desired heading depends on the degrees latitude that you are flying. Overshoot the South heading by the required degrees and Undershoot the North heading by the required degrees. Ex.1 Suppose you are flying in Kansas (approximately 30 degrees latitude) and your heading is 090 degrees and you want to turn to a North heading. Because of the lags to the North you should roll out of your turn when your com pass reads 330 (360- 30=330 degrees) if your turn is to the right and 030 (360+30=030 degrees) if your turn is to the left. Ex.2 Suppose you are still flying in Kansas and your heading is still 090 and you want to make a turn to a south heading. Because the compass leads to the South you should roll out of your turn when your compass reads 210 (180+30=210 degrees) if the turn is to the right and 150 (180-30=150 degrees) if your turn is to the left Cue Words To Remember Reporting Points Harry Maintains That Little Cats Don't Ever Vacuum Willows.
H. holding entry M. missed approaches T. TAS changes by 5% or 10 knots L. loss of navigation equipment, VOR / DME etc. C. compulsory reporting points D. deviating for weather E. ETA changes V. vacating altitude W. when unable to climb or descend 500 feet per minute Items Needed For Instrument Flight According to FAR 91.205. GRAB CARD Generator Radio Attitude indicator Ball Clock Altimeter with pressure window Rate of turn Direction indicator
Airworthiness
Items Needed for Day/Night VFR Flights Day VFR A FAST MOOSE; MAT A- airspeed indicator F- fuel gauges A- altimeter S- seat belt/shoulder harness T- tachometer M- magnetic compass O- oil pressure gauge O- oil temp gauge S- safety gear (flares, flotation device) E- ELT MAT M- manifold pressure A- anti-collision lights T- transition light NIGHT VFR: ASLAP A- anti-collision lights S- spares fuses (3) L- Landing light when for hire A- adequate source of electrical power P- position lighting
Miscellaneous Rules of Thumb
The Nautical Thumb For the average person, the distance from the tip of your thumb to your knuckle is equal to approximately 10 nautical miles
on the Sectional Chart scale. This makes it fast and easy to estimate distances on the sectional chart, especially during diversions to an alternate airport. To "calibrate" your thumb, just bend your thumb and place it on a standard 10nm class C airspace on your sectional chart. It should fit almost perfectly between the center of the airport to the 10nm ring! Course Reversal Add 2 subtract 2 or subtract 2 add 2 for course reversal. Ex: If you are on a heading of 060 you +2 & -2 = 240 Ex: If you are on a heading of 340 you -2 & +2 = 160 A little common sense and it always works. Gumps For Low-Wing Aircraft: BCGUMPS: Boost pump on; Carb heat off; Gas on fullest tank (no both position in a PIPER); Undercarriage - gear down and locked; Mixture – Rich; Props - High RPM; Seat Belts Fastened ATC Speed Reductions In a turboprop a/c a quick rule of thumb for a speed reduction is take the airspeed subtract 100 from it divided by two and add five. that will give you your torque setting in percent. Ex: 180 kias. 180-100=80 80/2=40 add 5= 45% torque 210 kias. 210-100+110 110/2=55 add 5= 60% torque 1 In 60 Rule For every 1 degree displacement equals 1 nm in 60 nm. Ex.If heading is altered 5 degrees to the left: In 60 nm you will be 5 nm left of track. In 30 nm you will be 2.5 nm left of track. Shut Down Checklist "Remember to shut everything down"
(R-E-M-M-M ber) Radios; Electrical; Mixture; Master; Mags Diversion-Figuring out time to new destination. A quick way to figure out how long it will take to get back on course or to a new destination when diverting is: Ex. Take 2/3 and multiply it by the distance to be traveled. 2 - X 15(miles) = 2 X 15 = 30/3 = 10 minutes. 3 This would work with the slow airplanes like a 150 or Cherokee 140.For faster aircraft all you would have to do is work out a different factor. Quick Shutdown Checklist S - Switches (all electrics) L - Lean I - Ignition (magnetos) M - Master Switch Weather Radar Normal Operating Weather Radar should be able to ground paint (Dist.) : Square root of your AGL Altitude Anatomy of a Radio Call: Who they are, Who you are, Where you are, and What you want Weight & Balance WAM: W eight x A rm = M oment Estimating Cloud Bases: Temp. minus dew point divided by 4 and
multiply by 1000' Ex. 72-52=20 20/4=5 5x1,000=5,000' bases = 5,000' agl during instability and warmer part of day Compass errors on an east-west heading ANDS: Accelerate North error Decelerate South Course Heading True Virgins Make Dull Company for figuring course Heading (True course +/- variation = magnetic, +/- deviation= Course heading.) Ex. 240 + 7 degrees equals 247 magnetic + 3 degrees deviation = 250 for a course heading
The Startle Factor
1. Environmental: Turbulence, CAT, mountain wave, windshear, thunderstorms, microbursts, wake turbulence and airplane icing.
2. System anomalies: Flight instruments, autoflight systems, and flight control anomalies.
3. Pilot-Induced: Instrument cross-check, inattention and distraction from primary cockpit duties, vertigo or special disorientation, and improper use of airplane automation.
Required Pilot Actions Following Aircraft Upset
4. Recognize and confirm: Determine aircraft bank and pitch attitude. Cross check instruments to confirm.
5. Auto-Pilot: Disengage the auto-pilot. 6. LEVEL the WINGS: Referencing the turn
coordinator, apply rudder opposite to the turn (step on the high wing)
7. Establish level pitch attitude: Re-establish level flight to prevent stall or over-speeding the aircraft.
Note: Failure to apply these corrective measures on a timely basis can result in the aircraft entering an unrecoverable attitude.
Quote:” There are Rules and there are Laws. The rules are made by men who think that they know better how to fly your airplane than you do. Laws (of Physics) were made by the Great One. You can, and sometimes should suspend the Rules but you can never suspend the Laws” Airplane Compass turns: 1st – When on an easterly or westerly heading and the aircraft is accelerated the compass will show a false turn towards the north. If the aircraft is decelerated the compass will show a false turn towards the south., hence: “ANDS” – Accelerate North, Decelerate South… 2nd – when on a northerly heading and a turn towards the east or west is made the compass will lag behind the actual heading the aircraft is flying through. RoT – for aircraft making this turn, a lead rollout heading of approximately five degrees before the compass shows east or west should be used. 3rd – when on a southerly heading and a turn towards the east or west is made the compass will lead the actual heading the aircraft is flying through. RoT - for aircraft making this turn, a rollout heading of approximately ten degrees early before the compass shows east or west should be used. The lead or lag roll out heading when making turns to other directions other than east or west is computed using the line of latitude and the bank angle the aircraft is using to make a standard rate turn. In order to calculate bank angle for a standard rate turn, knowledge of airspeed must be know. RoT- using airspeed requires that the first number of the airspeed be dropped then add five. For example, if the airspeed is 90 knots, drop the zero and ass five. The bank angle in this example would be (9 + 5 = 14) 14 degrees. Or if the airspeed is 122 knots, drop the 2 and add 5 = 17 degrees. The line of latitude is the maximum lead or lag a compass will have. For example… an airplane flying at 45 degrees north latitude making a turn to north from east or west maintaining a standard rate turn, a pilot would need to roll out of the turn when the compass was 45 degrees plus one half of the bank angle before north. (From east to north at 90 knots: 0+45+7=52) A pilot would begin to roll out to straight flight and on a heading of north when 52 degrees was read from the compass. (From west to north at 90 knots 360 – 45 – 7 = 308) A pilot would begin to roll the aircraft out of the bank at 308 degrees from the compass to fly on a north heading. Making a turn towards south from west, the pilot would have to roll the aircraft out of the turn
when the compass was 45 degrees minus half the bank angle. (From west to south at 90 knots: 180 = 45 – 7 = 218) (From east to south: 180 – 45 + 7 = 142) E6-B FLIGHT COMPUTER
Time, Speed & Distance: 1. Set Rate Arrow to speed in knots 2. Distance to be traveled. (Speed & Distance are always on the outer
scale. 3. Directly opposite distance on inner scale to find Time En Route.
Solve for Distance if Fuel Endurance is known: (4.5 hours endurance, GS = 125 kts) 1. Set Rate Arrow at 125 on outer scale. 2. find 4:30 on inner scale 3. The value on the outer scale is slightly more than 55. 4 hrs x 125 kts = 500 miles, so
the outer scale is read as 500, not 50 or 5000, which makes each large calibration mark worth 10 nm. The answer is 564 nm.
Solve for Unknown Speed, time & distance are known. The Rate Arrow represents the answer. Ie. – you have flown between 2 known ground reference points 26 NM apart and checked the time between them to be: 13 minutes.
1. Set 13 minutes on the middle scale opposite to 26 on outer scale. 2. The Rate Arrow points to the ground speed: 120 knots
Fuel Consumption Problems: these problems use the same numbers used above, only the names change.
Assume POH shows fuel consumption of 8.4 gpr at a given power setting; usable fuel capacity is 64 gals, how many hours endurance do you have in the tanks?
1. Line up Rate Arrow (“something per hour”) with 8.4 on outer scale. 2. Find 64 on outer scale… and opposite 64 on the inner scale is fuel endurance in hours: 7:37
endurance
Average Fuel Consumption: Ex: 32 gallons to fly 4:20… 1. Set 4:20 on inner scale opposite of 32 on the outer scale. 2. The Rate Arrow indicates the average fuel burn rate of 7.4 gph.
Conversions: Nautical to Statute Miles: Outer scale has NAUT and STAT on it by the 70.
1. Set the NAUT arrow on value, and read converted value under STAT.
Nautical or Statute to Kilometers: 1. Set value to convert under NAUT or STAT and read the KM reading (just past the 12)
U.S. Gallons to Imperial Gallons: 1. Line up the U.S. GAL arrow on the middle scale opposite the IMP. GAL arrow on the outer
scale. 2. Find value on the middle scale, say 64… 3. Read 53.2 Imperial gallons on the outer scale. Because Imperial gallons are larger than U.S.
gallons, the number of U.S. gallons will always be larger.
Quantity / Weight Conversions: Aviation gas = 6 lb per U.S. gallon. Weight per gallon can be determined by lining the U.S. GAL arrow on the idle scale with the FUEL LBS arrow on the outer scale. Fuel gallons are read on the middle scale and fuel weight on the outer scale.
Oil weight, Imperial Gallon weight is determined the same way… by lining up arrows… Also, you can convert US gallons, pounds to kilograms or feet to meters by aligning the appropriate arrows on the middle and outer scales.
Altitude & Speed Correction Windows
True Airspeed and Density Altitude: Note outer scale is marked TAS (true airspeed) and the middle scale is marked CAS (calibrated airspeed) The POH contains a conversion table that allows you to convert indicated airspeed to CAS. The difference is greatest at low speeds and becomesnegligible at cruise speeds. To determine true sirspeed you must first know the pressure altitude. Set your altimeter to 29.92 and read the altitude indicated; that is the pressure altitude. Note the outside air temperature and convert it to Celsius using the conversion scale at the bottom of the E6-B
1. Set the pressure altitude in the window opposite the outside air temp in Celsius. 2. Without moving the computer’s scales, read the true airspeed on the outer scale oppositre CAS
on the middle scale. 3. Read the density altitude over the arrow in the DENSITY ALTITUDE window.
Mach Number to True Airspeed: rotate inner dial until you see the Mach No. Index inside the airspeed correction window on the inner dial. Line up the true or outside air temperature (do not use Indicated Air Temperature) opposite this Mach No. Index. Mach Number on the inner scale reads opposite True Airspeed (kts) on the outer scale.
True Altitude: 1. Determine pressure altitude by setting 29.92 momentarily on the altimeter. 2. Set pressure altitude next to outside air temperature in the altitude correction window. 3. Subtrack station altitude from indicated/calibrated altitude to determine calibrated altitude
AGL. 4. Find calibrated altitude AGL on the middle scale and read the correction to station altitude on
the outer scale. 5. Add the correction to station altitude to get true altitude MSL.
Feet Per Mile vs. Feet Per Minute 1. Set the Rate Arrow on ground speed… ie: 90kts 2. Find Feet per mile on middle ring… ie: 300’ per mile. 3. Climb rate in fpm is found on the outer ring opposite the feet per mile value… ie: 450fpm.
Off Course Problems Ex: after flying 125 miles, you are 8 miles off course… 1st step:
1. Set 125 on the middle scale to line up with 8 on the outer scale. 2. Read approximately 3.8 degrees at the Rate Arrow
2nd step: On middle scale, set distance remaining opposite of the distance off course; read additional degrees of heading change opposite of the Rate Arrow. Add the two answers and apply the result to your heading. Ex: 235 miles left to go
1. Set 235 on the middle scale opposite 8 on the outer scale. 2. Read 2.4 degrees at the Rate Arrow 3. Change course 6 degrees (3.8 + 2.4) toward the course line and, if the wind doesn’t change,
you will join the original course line as you approach the destination.
The WIND side of the Slide… Ex: a course laid out and measured to be 90 degrees true. Winds aloft forecast calls for wind at chosen altitude to be 230 at 18kts, and the performance data for the A/C says that you can expect a true airspeed of 125 kts at that altitude.
1. Set 230 at the TRUE INDEX 2. Using any convenient starting point, measure 18 units up from the grommet towards the
TRUE INDEX and make a dot at 18 units. 3. Rotate the disk to bring 090 to the TRUE INDEX. 4. Move the slide until the wind dot falls on the arc for 125 kts. 5. Read the ground speed of 138 kts under the grommet; the fact that the wind dot is below the
grommet indicates a tailwind. 6. The wind dot is 5 degrees to the right, indicating that a true heading should be 095. Now all
you have to do is apply local magnetic variation to derive magnetic heading. Note: If the upper winds forecast applies to you entire trip, simply use the wind dot in this matter with the true course for each leg.
Determining WINDS IN FLIGHT (GS, true heading, true course, and true airspeed needed)
EX: True course is 180; true heading 160, GS 120kts, Ture airspeed at altitude 140kts.
1. Set 180 at TRUE INDES 2. Move slide until grommet falls over the line marked 120. The true heading is 20 less than the
true course, which means that you have a 20 left wind correction angle. 3. With the grommet on the 120-knot ground speed line, find the point on the slide where the 20
degree left wind correction angle crosses the line marked 140 and make a pencil mark. 4. Rotate the disk until the pencil mark is on the centerline between the grommet and the TRUE
INDEX. 5. Determine the wind velocity by counting the lines between the grommet and the pencil mark. 6. Read the true wind correction under the true index. You should have a wind direction of 104
degrees and a wind speed of 50 kts. NOTE: If you have a GPS, the direct track readout is used instead of true heading. Correct for variation, because the direct track information is magnetic.
