Poles

This article is about Poles as an ethnic or legal group.For the population of Poland, see Demographics ofPoland. For Polish nationality law or citizenship, seePolish nationality law. For Poles living abroad (Polonia),see Polish diaspora. For other uses, see Poles (disam-biguation).

The Poles (Polish: Polacy, pronounced [pɔˈlats͡ɨ]; singularmasculine: Polak, singular feminine: Polka) are a nationand West Slavic ethnic group native to Poland. The popu-lation of Poles in Poland is estimated at 37,310,000 out ofan overall population of 38,538,000 (based on the 2011census).[2] The preamble to the Constitution of the Re-public of Poland defines the Polish nation as comprisingall the citizens of Poland; ethnicity is a private matter ofeach citizen.Poland’s population inhabits several historic regions:Wielkopolska (“Greater Poland”), Małopolska (“LesserPoland”), Mazovia (in Polish, Mazowsze), Silesia (in Pol-ish, Śląsk), Pomerania (in Polish, Pomorze), Kujawy,Warmia, Mazury, and Podlasie.A wide-ranging Polish diaspora (the Polonia) existsthroughout Europe (Germany, France, the United King-dom, Russia, Belarus, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Latvia,Ukraine), the Americas (the United States, Canada,Brazil, Argentina) and in Australia. In 1960, Chicago,in the United States, had the world’s largest urban Pol-ish population after Warsaw.[33] Today the largest urbanconcentration of Poles is the Katowice urban agglomera-tion (the Silesian Metropolis) of 2.7 million inhabitants.Milwaukee, Wisconsin, hosts a Polish Fest; and Chicago,Illinois, “Polish Fest Chicago”.Over a thousand years ago, the Polans—an influen-tial tribe in Wielkopolska, inhabiting the areas aroundGiecz, Gniezno, and Poznań—succeeded in uniting var-ious Lechitic tribes under what became the Piast dy-nasty,[34] thereby creating the Polish state.Polish émigrés have included innumerable individuals inall walks of life who have enriched American society, notleast Generals Casimir Pulaski, Tadeusz Kosciuszko andWłodzimierz Krzyżanowski, and National Security Ad-visor Zbigniew Brzezinski.Poland was for centuries a refuge for many Jews fromall over Europe; a large number emigrated in the twenti-eth century to Israel. Several prominent Israeli statesmenwere born in Poland, including Israel’s founder DavidBen-Gurion, former President of Israel Shimon Peres,and Prime Ministers Yitzhak Shamir and Menachem Be-

gin.During Poland’s thousand-year history, her people havecontributed greatly to the fields of philosophy, mathemat-ics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, medicine,engineering, linguistics, the social sciences, law, litera-ture, the visual arts, music, and film, providing some ofthe world’s most notable thinkers, scientists, medical in-novators, inventors, social scientists, jurists, economists,politicians, writers, artists, composers, and filmmakers.As early as five centuries ago, Copernicus alone personi-fied many of these achievements.

1 Origins

The Slavic people have been in the territory of mod-ern Poland for over 1500 years. They organized intotribal units, of which the larger ones were later knownas the Polish tribes; the names of many tribes are foundon the list compiled by the anonymous Bavarian Geogra-pher in the 9th century.[35] In the 9th and 10th centuriesthe tribes gave rise to developed regions along the upperVistula (the Vistulans within the Great Moravian Empiresphere),[35] the Baltic Sea coast and in Greater Poland.The last tribal undertaking resulted in the 10th century ina lasting political structure and state, Poland, one of theWest Slavic nations.[36]

The concept which has become known as the PiastIdea, the chief propopent of which was Jan LudwikPopławski, is based on the statement that the Piast home-land was inhabited by so-called “native” aboriginal Slavsand Slavonic Poles since time immemorial and only laterwas “infiltrated” by “alien” Celts, Germans and others.After 1945 the so-called “autochthonous” or “aboriginal”school of Polish prehistory received official backing inPoland and a considerable degree of popular support. Ac-cording to this view, the Lusatian Culture which archaeol-ogists have identified between the Oder and the Vistula inthe early Iron Age, is said to be Slavonic; all non-Slavonictribes and peoples recorded in the area at various pointsin ancient times are dismissed as “migrants” and “visi-tors”. In contrast, the critics of this theory, such as MarijaGimbutas, regard it as an unproved hypotheses and forthem the date and origin of the westward migration ofthe Slavs is largely uncharted; the Slavonic connections ofthe Lusatian Culture are entirely imaginary; and the pres-ence of an ethnically mixed and constantly changing col-lection of peoples on the North European Plain is takenfor granted.[37]

1

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2 Statistics

Polish people are the sixth largest national group in theEuropean Union.[38] Estimates vary depending on source,though available data suggest a total number of around 60million people worldwide (with roughly 21 million livingoutside of Poland, many of whom are not of Polish eth-nicity, but Polish nationals).[11] There are almost 38 mil-lion Poles in Poland alone. There are also Polish minori-ties in the surrounding countries including Germany, andindigenous minorities in the Czech Republic, Lithuania,Ukraine, and Belarus. There are some smaller indige-nous minorities in nearby countries such as Moldova andLatvia. There is also a Polish minority in Russia which in-cludes indigenous Poles as well as those forcibly deportedduring and after World War II; the total number of Polesin what was the former Soviet Union is estimated at up to3 million.[39]

The map depicts countries by number of citizens who reportedPolish ancestry (based on sources in this article)PolandMore than 1 millionMore than 500 thousandMore than 100 thousand

The term "Polonia" is usually used in Poland to refer topeople of Polish origin who live outside Polish borders,officially estimated at around 10 to 20 million. There isa notable Polish diaspora in the United States, Canada,and Brazil. France has a historic relationship with Polandand has a relatively large Polish-descendant population.Poles have lived in France since the 18th century. In theearly 20th century, over a million Polish people settledin France, mostly during world wars, among them Polishémigrés fleeing either Nazi occupation or later Soviet rule.In the United States, a significant number of Polish im-migrants settled in Chicago, Ohio, Detroit, New YorkCity, Orlando, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, and New England.The highest concentration of Polish Americans in a singleNew England municipality is in New Britain, Connecti-cut. The majority of Polish Canadians have arrived inCanada since World War II. The number of Polish immi-grants increased between 1945 and 1970, and again af-ter the end of Communism in Poland in 1989. In Brazilthe majority of Polish immigrants settled in Paraná State.Smaller, but significant numbers settled in the states ofRio Grande do Sul, Espírito Santo and São Paulo (state).

The city of Curitiba has the second largest Polish diasporain the world (after Chicago) and Polish music, dishes andculture are quite common in the region.A recent large migration of Poles took place followingPoland’s accession to the European Union and openingof the EU’s labor market; with an approximate num-ber of 2 million primarily young Poles taking up jobsabroad.[40] It is estimated that over half a million Polishpeople have come to work in the United Kingdom fromPoland. Since 2011, Poles have been able to work freelythroughout the EU and not just in the United Kingdom,Ireland, Denmark and Sweden where they have had lim-ited rights since Poland’s EU accession in 2004. The Pol-ish community in Norway has increased substantially andhas grown to a total number of 120,000, making Polesthe largest immigrant group in Norway.

3 Culture

Stańczyk at a Ball at Queen Bona’s Court, by Matejko, 1862

Main article: Culture of Poland

The culture of Poland has a history of 1000 years.[41]

Poland, located in Central Europe, developed a char-acter that was influenced by its geography at the con-fluence of fellow Central European cultures (German,Western Ukrainian, Czech and Austrian), Western Eu-ropean cultures (French and Dutch), Southern Europeancultures (Italian and Greek), Northern European cul-tures (Lithuanian, Swedish and Danish) and Eastern Eu-ropean cultures (East Ukrainian and Russian). Influ-ences were conveyed by immigrants (Jewish, Germanand Dutch), political alliances (with Lithuania, Hungary,Saxony, France and Sweden), conquests of the Polishstate (Ukraine, Belarus and Latvia) and conquerors ofthe Polish lands (the Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prus-sia and the Habsburg monarchy, later to be known as theAustrian Empire or Austria-Hungary).Over time, Polish culture has been greatly influencedby its ties with the Germanic, Latinate and other ethnic

3.2 Science and technology 3

groups and minorities living in Poland.[42] The people ofPoland have traditionally been seen as hospitable to artistsfrom abroad (especially Italy) and open to cultural andartistic trends popular in other European countries. Ow-ing to this central location, the Poles came very early intocontact with both civilizations – eastern and western, andas a result developed economically, culturally, and polit-ically. A German general Helmut Carl von Moltke, inhis Poland. A historical sketch (1885), stated that Polandprior to her partitions was “the most civilized country inEurope”.In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Polish focus on cul-tural advancement often took precedence over politicaland economic activity, experiencing severe crisis, espe-cially during World War II and in the following years.These factors have contributed to the versatile nature ofPolish art, with all its complex nuances.[42]

3.1 Language

Book of Henryków: the oldest known sentence written in Old Pol-ish (highlighted in red)

Main article: Polish language

The Polish language (Polish: język polski) is a West Slaviclanguage and the official language of Poland. Its writtenform uses the Polish alphabet, which is the Latin alphabetwith the addition of a few diacritic marks.Poland is the most linguistically homogeneous Europeancountry; nearly 97% of Poland’s citizens declare Polish astheir mother tongue. Elsewhere, ethnic Poles constitutelarge minorities in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine. Pol-ish is the most widely used minority language in Lithua-nia’s Vilnius County (26% of the population, according tothe 2001 census results) and is found elsewhere in south-eastern Lithuania. In Ukraine it is most common in thewestern Lviv and Volyn oblast (provinces), while in West-ern Belarus it is used by the significant Polish minority,especially in the Brest and Grodno regions and in areasalong the Lithuanian border.The geographical distribution of the Polish language wasgreatly affected by the border changes and populationtransfers that followed World War II. Poles settled inthe "Recovered Territories" in the west and north, whichhad previously been mostly German-speaking. SomePoles remained in the previously Polish-ruled territoriesin the east that were annexed by the USSR, resulting inthe present-day Polish-speaking minorities in Lithuania,Belarus, and Ukraine, although many Poles were expelled

or emigrated from those areas to areas within Poland’snew borders. Meanwhile, the flight and expulsion of Ger-mans, as well as the expulsion of Ukrainians and reset-tlement of Ukrainians within Poland, contributed to thecountry’s linguistic homogeneity.Polish-speakers use the language in a uniform mannerthroughout most of Poland, though numerous languagesand dialects coexist alongside the standard Polish lan-guage. The most common dialects in Poland are Silesian,spoken in Upper Silesia, and Kashubian, widely spokenin the north.

3.2 Science and technology

Marie Skłodowska Curie

Education has been of prime interest to Poland since theearly 12th century. The catalog of the library of theCathedral Chapter in Kraków dating from 1110 showsthat Polish scholars already then had access to literaturefrom all over Europe.In 1364 King Casimir III the Great founded the KrakówAcademy, which would become Jagiellonian University,one of the great universities of Europe.The list of early famous scientists in Poland beginswith the 13th-century Witelo and includes the polymathand astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who formulated amodel of the universe that placed the Sun rather than theEarth at its center; the publication of Copernicus’ bookDe revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutionsof the Celestial Spheres) just before his death in 1543 isconsidered a major event in the history of science, trig-

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Nicolaus Copernicus

Rudolf Stefan Weigl

gering the Copernican Revolution and making an impor-tant contribution to the Scientific Revolution.In 1773 King Stanisław August Poniatowski establishedthe Commission of National Education, the world’s firstministry of education.After the 1795 third partition of Poland, no free Polish

Edward Flatau

Hilary Koprowski

state existed. The 19th and 20th centuries saw many Pol-ish scientists working abroad. The greatest was MariaSkłodowska Curie (1867 – 1934), a physicist and chemist

3.3 Music 5

Benoit Mandelbrot

who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity andwas the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first per-son and only woman to win twice, the only person to wintwice in multiple sciences, and was part of the Curie fam-ily legacy of five Nobel Prizes. Another notable Polish ex-patriate scientist was Ignacy Domeyko (1802–89), a ge-ologist and mineralogist who lived and worked in SouthAmerica, in Chile.Kazimierz Funk (1884–1967), whose name is commonlyanglicized as “Casimir Funk”, was a Polish biochemist,generally credited with being among the first to formulate(in 1912) the concept of vitamins, which he called “vitalamines” or “vitamines”.In the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a worldcenter of mathematics. Outstanding Polish mathemati-cians formed the Lwów School of Mathematics (includ-ing Stefan Banach, Hugo Steinhaus, Stanisław Ulam) andWarsaw School of Mathematics (including Alfred Tarski,Kazimierz Kuratowski, Wacław Sierpiński). World WarII pushed many of them into exile; Benoît Mandelbrot'sfamily left Poland when he was still a child. An alumnusof the Warsaw School of Mathematics was Antoni Zyg-mund, a shaper of 20th-century mathematical analysis.Marian Rejewski (1905–80), a Polish mathematician, inDecember 1932 solved the plugboard-equipped Enigmamachine, the main cipher device used by Nazi Germany.The cryptologic successes of Rejewski and his mathe-matician colleagues Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski,

over six and a half years later, jump-started British read-ing of Enigma in the Second World War; the intelligenceso gained, code-named Ultra, contributed, perhaps deci-sively, to the defeat of Germany.[43]

Sir Józef Rotblat (1908–2005), a Polish physicist, aself-described “Pole with a British passport”,[44] was theonly physicist to leave the U.S. Manhattan Project ongrounds of conscience. His work on nuclear fallout wasa major contribution toward the ratification of the 1963Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. A signatory of theRussell–Einstein Manifesto, he was secretary-general ofthe Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairsfrom their founding until 1973. He shared, with the Pug-wash Conferences, the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize for effortstoward nuclear disarmament.[45][46][47][48][49]

Hilary Koprowski (1916 – 2013) was a Polish and Amer-ican virologist and immunologist, and the inventor of theworld’s first effective live polio vaccine. He authored orco-authored over 875 scientific papers and co-edited sev-eral scientific journals.Aleksander Wolszczan (born 1946), a Polish astronomer,is the co-discoverer of the first extrasolar planets andpulsar planets.Today Poland has over 100 institutions of post-secondaryeducation — technical, medical, economic, as well as 500universities — located in major cities such as Gdańsk,Kraków, Wrocław, Lublin, Łódź, Poznań, Rzeszów andWarsaw. They employ over 61,000 scientists and schol-ars. Another 300 research-and-development institutesare home to some 10,000 researchers. There are also anumber of smaller laboratories. Altogether, these insti-tutions support some 91,000 scientists and scholars.

3.3 Music

Main article: Music of Poland

The origin of Polish music can be traced as far back as the13th century, from which manuscripts have been found inStary Sącz, containing polyphonic compositions relatedto the Parisian Notre Dame School. Other early compo-sitions, such as the melody of Bogurodzica, may also dateback to this period. The first known notable composer,however, Mikołaj z Radomia, lived in the 15th century.During the 16th century, mostly two musical groups—both based in Kraków and belonging to the King andArchbishop of Wawel—led the rapid innovation of Pol-ish music. Composers writing during this period includeWacław z Szamotuł, Mikołaj Zieleński, and MikołajGomółka. Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian wholived in Kraków from about the age of five, became oneof the most famous lutenists at the court of SigismundIII, and not only imported some of the musical stylesfrom southern Europe, but blended them with native folkmusic.[50]

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3.3.1 17th and 18th centuries

Michał Kleofas Ogiński

Stanisław Moniuszko

In the last years of the 16th century and the first part of the17th century, a number of Italian musicians were guestsat the royal courts of King Sigismund III Vasa and his son

Władysław IV. These included Luca Marenzio, GiovanniFrancesco Anerio, and Marco Scacchi. Polish composersfrom this period focused on baroque religious music,concertos for voices, instruments, and basso continuo, atradition that continued into the 18th century. The best-remembered composer of this period is Adam Jarzęb-ski, known for his instrumental works such as Chromat-ica, Tamburetta, Sentinella, Bentrovata, and Nova Casa.Other composers include Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki,Franciszek Lilius, Bartłomiej Pękiel, Stanisław SylwesterSzarzyński and Marcin Mielczewski.In addition, a tradition of operatic production began inWarsaw in 1628, with a performance of Galatea (com-poser uncertain), the first Italian opera produced out-side Italy. Shortly after this performance, the court pro-duced Francesca Caccini's opera La liberazione di Rug-giero dall'isola d’Alcina, which she had written for PrinceWładysław three years earlier when he was in Italy. An-other first, this is the earliest surviving opera written bya woman. When Władysław became king (as WładysławIV) he oversaw the production of at least ten operas dur-ing the late 1630s and 1640s, making Warsaw a cen-ter of the art. The composers of these operas are notknown: they may have been Poles working under MarcoScacchi[51] in the royal chapel, or they may have beenamong the Italians imported by Władysław.The late 17th and 18th century saw a decline of Poland,which also hindered the development of music. Somecomposers attempted to create a Polish opera (such asJan Stefani and Maciej Kamieński), others imitated for-eign composers such as Haydn and Mozart.The most important development in this time, how-ever, was the polonaise, perhaps the first distinctivelyPolish art music. Polonaises for piano were and re-main popular, such as those by Michał Kleofas Ogiński,Karol Kurpiński, Juliusz Zarębski, Henryk Wieniawski,Mieczysław Karłowicz, Józef Elsner, and, most famously,Fryderyk Chopin. Chopin remains very well known, andis regarded for composing a wide variety of works, in-cluding mazurkas, nocturnes, waltzes and concertos, andusing traditional Polish elements in his pieces. The sameperiod saw Stanisław Moniuszko, the leading individ-ual in the successful development of Polish opera, stillrenowned for operas like Halka and The Haunted Manor.

3.3.2 Traditional music

Polish folk music was collected in the 19th century byOskar Kolberg, as part of a wave of Polish national re-vival.[52] With the coming of the world wars and then theCommunist state, folk traditions were oppressed or sub-sumed into state-approved folk ensembles.[53] The mostfamous of the state ensembles are Mazowsze and Śląsk,both of which still perform. Though these bands had aregional touch to their output, the overall sound was ahomogenized mixture of Polish styles. There were more

3.4 Literature 7

Oskar Kolberg

Frédéric Chopin

authentic state-supported groups, such as Słowianki, butthe Communist sanitized image of folk music made thewhole field seem unhip to young audiences, and many tra-ditions dwindled rapidly.Polish dance music, especially the mazurka andpolonaise, were popularized by Frédéric Chopin, andthey soon spread across Europe and elsewhere.[53] These

are triple time dances, while five-beat forms are morecommon in the northeast and duple-time dances likethe krakowiak come from the south. The polonaisecomes from the French word for Polish to identify itsorigin among the Polish aristocracy and nobility, whohad adapted the dance from a slower walking dancecalled chodzony.[53] The polonaise then re-entered thelower-class musical life, and became an integral part ofPolish music.

3.4 Literature

Main article: Polish literature

Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. MostPolish literature has been written in the Polish language,though other languages, used in Poland over the centuries,have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, includ-ing Latin, Yiddish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, Belarusian,German and Esperanto.

3.4.1 Middle Ages

Jan Długosz

Almost nothing remains of Polish literature prior to thecountry’s Christianization in 966. Poland’s pagan inhab-itants certainly possessed an oral literature extending toSlavic songs, legends and beliefs, but early Christian writ-ers did not deem it worthy of mention in the obligatoryLatin, and so it has perished.[54]

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The first recorded sentence in the Polish language reads:"Day ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai" (“Let me grind, andyou take a rest”) — a paraphrase of the Latin "Sine, utego etiam molam." The work, in which this phrase ap-peared, reflects the culture of early Poland. The sentencewas written within the Latin language chronicle Liberfundationis from between 1269 and 1273, a history ofthe Cistercian monastery in Henryków, Silesia. It wasrecorded by an abbot known simply as Piotr (Peter), re-ferring to an event almost a hundred years earlier. Thesentence was supposedly uttered by a Bohemian settler,Bogwal (“Bogwalus Boemus”), a subject of Bolesław theTall, expressing compassion for his own wife who “veryoften stood grinding by the quern-stone.”[55] Most no-table early medieval Polish works in Latin and the OldPolish language include the oldest extant manuscript offine prose in the Polish language entitled the Holy CrossSermons, as well as the earliest Polish-language Bible ofQueen Zofia and theChronicle of Janko of Czarnków fromthe 14th century, not to mention the Puławy Psalter.[54]

In the early 1470s, one of the first printing houses inPoland was set up by Kasper Straube in Kraków (see:spread of the printing press). In 1475 Kasper Elyanof Glogau (Głogów) set up a printing shop in Breslau(Wrocław), Silesia. Twenty years later, the first Cyrillicprinting house was founded at Kraków by Schweipolt Fiolfor Eastern Orthodox Church hierarchs. The most no-table texts produced in that period include Saint Florian’sBreviary, printed partially in Polish in the late 14th cen-tury; Statua synodalia Wratislaviensia (1475): a printedcollection of Polish and Latin prayers; as well as Jan Dłu-gosz's Chronicle from the 15th century and his Catalogusarchiepiscoporum Gnesnensium.[54]

3.4.2 Renaissance

With the advent of the Renaissance, the Polish languagewas finally accepted on an equal footing with Latin. Pol-ish culture and art flourished under Jagiellonian rule,and many foreign poets and writers settled in Poland,bringing with them new literary trends. Such writersincluded Kallimach (Filippo Buonaccorsi) and ConradCeltis. Many Polish writers studied abroad, and at theKraków Academy, which became a melting pot for newideas and currents. In 1488 the world’s first writers’club, called Sodalitas Litterarum Vistulana was foundedin Kraków. Notable members included Conrad Celtes,Albert Brudzewski, Filip Callimachus and LaurentiusCorvinus.[54]

3.4.3 Baroque

The literature in the period of Polish Baroque[56] (be-tween 1620 and 1764) was significantly influenced bythe great popularization of Jesuit high schools, whichoffered education based on Latin classics as part of apreparation for a political career. The studies of poetry

Jan Kochanowski

Jan Andrzej Morsztyn

required the practical knowledge of writing both Latinand Polish poems, which radically increased the num-ber of poets and versifiers countrywide. On the soil ofhumanistic education some exceptional writers grew aswell: Piotr Kochanowski (1566–1620) gave his trans-lation of Torquato Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered; MaciejKazimierz Sarbiewski, a poet laureate, became knownamong European nations as Horatius christianus (Chris-

3.4 Literature 9

tian Horace) for his Latin writings; Jan Andrzej Morsz-tyn (1621–1693), an epicurean courtier and diplomat, ex-tolled in his sophisticated poems the valors of earthly de-lights; and Wacław Potocki (1621–1696), the most pro-ductive writer of the Polish Baroque, unified the typicalopinions of Polish szlachta with some deeper reflectionsand existential experiences. Notable Polish writers andpoets active in this period include:

3.4.4 Enlightenment

Ignacy Krasicki

The period of Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and peaked in the second half of the 18th centuryduring the reign of Poland’s last king, Stanisław AugustPoniatowski.[58] It went into sharp decline with the Thirdand final Partition of Poland (1795), followed by polit-ical, cultural and economic destruction of the country,and leading to the Great Emigration of Polish elites. TheEnlightenment ended around 1822, and was replaced byPolish Romanticism at home and abroad.[54]

One of the leading Polish Enlightenment poets was IgnacyKrasicki (1735–1801), known locally as “the Prince ofPoets” and Poland’s La Fontaine, author of the first Pol-ish novel called The Adventures of Mr. Nicholas Wis-dom (Mikołaja Doświadczyńskiego przypadki); he wasalso a playwright, journalist, encyclopedist and translatorfrom French and Greek. Another prominent writer ofthe period was Jan Potocki (1761–1815), a Polish noble-man, Egyptologist, linguist, and adventurer, whose travelmemoirs made him legendary in his homeland. OutsidePoland he is known chiefly for his novel, The Manuscript

Found in Saragossa, which has drawn comparisons tosuch celebrated works as the Decameron and the ArabianNights.

3.4.5 Romanticism

Adam Mickiewicz

Due to partitions carried out by the neighboring empires– which ended the existence of the sovereign Polish statein 1795 – Polish Romanticism, unlike Romanticism else-where in Europe, was largely a movement for indepen-dence against the foreign occupation, and expressed theideals and the traditional way of life of the Polish peo-ple. The period of Romanticism in Poland ended with theTsarist suppression of the January 1863 Uprising, markedby public executions by the Russians and deportations toSiberia.[59]

The literature of Polish Romanticism falls into two dis-tinct periods, both defined by insurgencies: the firstaround 1820–1830, ending with the November Upris-ing of 1830; and the second between 1830–1864, giv-ing birth to Polish Positivism. In the first period, Pol-ish Romantics were heavily influenced by other Euro-pean Romantics - Their art featured emotionalism andimagination, folklore, country life, as well as the prop-agation of the ideals of independence. The most famouswriters of the period were: Adam Mickiewicz, SewerynGoszczyński, Tomasz Zan and Maurycy Mochnacki. Inthe second period (after the January Uprising), many Pol-ish Romantics worked abroad, often banished from the

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Zygmunt Krasiński

Polish soil by the occupying power. Their work becamedominated by the ideals of freedom and the struggle forregaining their country’s lost sovereignty. Elements ofmysticism became more prominent. Also in that pe-riod, the idea of the poeta-wieszcz (nation’s bard) devel-oped. The wieszcz functioned as spiritual leader to thesuppressed people. The most notable poet among theleading bards of Romanticism, so recognized in both pe-riods, was Adam Mickiewicz. Other two national poetswere: Juliusz Słowacki and Zygmunt Krasiński. Polishwriters and poets of the Romantic period include:

3.4.6 Positivism

In the aftermath of the failed January Uprising againstthe Russian occupation, the new period of Polish Posi-tivism began to advocate skepticism and the exercise ofreason. Questions addressed by the “Positivist” writersrevolved around the so-called “organic work,” which in-cluded the establishment of equal rights for all membersof society; the assimilation of Poland’s Jewish minority;and the defense of the Polish population in the German-ruled part of Poland againstKulturkampf and their violentdisplacement. The writers were poised to educate thepublic about constructive patriotism, which would enablePolish society to function as a fully integrated social or-ganism, regardless of external circumstances.[60] The pe-riod lasted until the turn of the 20th century and the ad-vent of the Young Poland movement.

Bolesław Prus

Reymont

3.4.7 Young Poland (1890-1918)

The modernist period known as the Young Poland move-ment in visual arts, literature and music, came into be-

11

Jan Brzechwa

ing around 1890, and concluded with the Poland’s returnto independence (1918). The period was based on twoconcepts. Its early stage was characterized by a strongaesthetic opposition to the ideals of its own predecessor(promoting organic work in the face of foreign occupa-tion). Artists following this early philosophy of YoungPoland believed in decadence, symbolism, conflict be-tween human values and civilization, and the existenceof art for art’s sake. Prominent authors who followed thistrend included Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer, StanisławPrzybyszewski and Jan Kasprowicz.

3.4.8 Interbellum and the return to independence(1918-1939)

Literature of the Second Polish Republic (1918-1939)encompasses a short, though exceptionally dynamic pe-riod in Polish literary consciousness. The socio-politicalreality has changed radically with Poland’s return to in-dependence. In large part, derivative of these changeswas the collective and unobstructed development of pro-grams for artists and writers. New avant-garde trendshad emerged. The period, spanning just twenty years,was full of notable individualities who saw themselves asexponents of changing European civilization, includingTuwim, Witkacy, Gombrowicz, Miłosz, Dąbrowska andNałkowska (PAL).

3.4.9 1945 to 1956

Much of Polish literature written during the Occupationof Poland appeared in print only after the conclussion ofWorld War II, including books by Nałkowska, Rudnicki,Borowski and others.[61] The Soviet takeover of the coun-try did not discourage Émigrés and exiles from returning,especially before the advent of Stalinism. Indeed, manywriters attempted to recreate the Polish literary scene, of-ten with a touch of nostalgia for the prewar reality, in-cluding Jerzy Andrzejewski, author of Ashes and Dia-monds, describing the political and moral dilemmas as-sociated with the Anti-communist resistance in Poland.His novel was adapted into film a decade later by Wajda.The new emerging prose writers such as Stanisław Dy-gat and Stefan Kisielewski approached the catastrophe ofwar from their own perspective. Kazimierz Wyka coineda term “borderline novel” for documentary fiction.[61]

4 Poles in cinema and theatre

Pola Negri

At present, the Polish theatre actor possibly best-knownoutside the country is Andrzej Seweryn, who in the years1984–1988 was a member of the international groupformed by Peter Brook to work on the staging of theMahabharata, and since 1993 has been linked with theComédie Française. The most revered actor of the sec-ond half of the twentieth century in Poland is generallyconsidered to be Tadeusz Łomnicki, who died in 1992 ofa heart attack while rehearsing King Lear.During the second half of the nineties, there appeared in

12 5 RELIGION

Bella Darvi

Ross Martin

Polish dramatic theatre a new generation of young direc-tors, who have attempted to create productions relevant tothe experience and problems of a thirty-something gener-ation brought up surrounded by mass culture, habituatedto a fast-moving lifestyle, but at the same time ever morelost in the world of consumer capitalism. There is no strictdivision in Poland between theatre and film directors and

Ingrid Pitt

actors, therefore many stage artists are known to theatregoers from films of Andrzej Wajda, for example: Woj-ciech Pszoniak, Daniel Olbrychski, Krystyna Janda, JerzyRadziwiłowicz, and from films of Krzysztof Kieślowski.Notable actors from Poland include Jerzy Stuhr, JanuszGajos, Jerzy Skolimowski and Michał Żebrowski. Pol-ish actors and actresses that achieved great success over-seas, mostly in Hollywood, include Bella Darvi, Pola Ne-gri, Ross Martin, Ingrid Pitt, Ned Glass, Lee Strasberg,Izabella Scorupco, Paul Wesley and John Bluthal.Notable Hollywood American actors and actresses ofPolish descent may include David Arquette, Caroll Baker(born Karolina Piekarski), Christine Baranski, KristenBell, Maria Bello, Jack Benny, Charles Bronson, MayimBialik, Cate Blanchett, Alex Borstein, David Burtka,Steve Carell, Anna Chlumsky, Jennifer Connelly, JesseEisenberg, Estelle Getty, Scarlett Johansson, Harvey Kei-tel, John Krasinski, Lisa Kudrow, Ben Stiller, CaroleLandis, Téa Leoni, Paul Newman, Eli Wallach, JaredPadalecki, Gwyneth Paltrow, Robert Prosky, MaggieQ, William Shatner, Sarah Silverman, Leelee Sobieski,Loretta Swit and others.[62]

5 Religion

Main article: Religion in PolandMost Poles adhere to the Christian faith, the majority be-longing to the Roman Catholic Church.[63] The remainingreligious part of the population consists mainly of EasternOrthodox, Jehovah’s Witnesses, various Protestant de-

13

The reception of Jews by King Casimir III the Great

nominations and Judaism.[64] Roman Catholics live allover the country, while Orthodox Christians can be foundmostly in north-east, in the area of Białystok, and Protes-tants (mainly Lutherans) in Cieszyn Silesia and Warmia-Masuria. A growing Jewish population exists in majorcities, especially in Warsaw, Kraków and Wrocław. Overtwo million Jews of Polish ancestry reside in the UnitedStates, Brazil, and Israel.According to Poland’s Constitution freedom of religion isensured to everyone. It also allows for national and ethnicminorities to have the right to establish educational andcultural institutions, institutions designed to protect reli-gious identity, as well as to participate in the resolutionof matters connected with their cultural identity.Religious organizations in the Republic of Poland canregister their institution with the Ministry of Interior andAdministration creating a record of churches and otherreligious organizations who operate under separate Pol-ish laws. This registration is not necessary; however, it isbeneficial when it comes to serving the freedom of reli-gious practice laws.The Slavic Rodzimowiercy groups, registered with thePolish authorities in 1995, are the Native Polish Church(Rodzimy Kościół Polski) which represents a pagan tradi-tion that goes back to Władysław Kołodziej’s 1921 HolyCircle of Worshipper of Światowid (Święte Koło Czci-cieli Światowida), and the Polish Slavic Church (PolskiKościół Słowiański),[65] There’s also the Native Faith As-sociation (Zrzeszenie Rodzimej Wiary, ZRW), and theAssociation for Tradition and Culture Niklot (founded in1998).See also: Roman Catholicism in Poland, Polish NationalCatholic Church, Polish Orthodox Church, PolishLutheran Church, Pentecostal Church in Poland, BaptistUnion of Poland and Polish Reformed Church

6 Exonyms

See also: Lechites

Among the exonyms not native to the Polish peopleor language are: лях (lyakh) used in East Slavic lan-guages. Today, the word Lachy is used in Belorussian,Ukrainian (now considered offensive and is replaced bythe neutral поляк - polyak) and Russian as synonyms for“Poles”. The foreign exonyms include also: LithuanianLenkai, Hungarian Lengyelek, Turkish Leh, Armenian:Լեհաստան Lehastan; Persian: .Lahestān لهستان

7 See also

• Polonization

• Karta Polaka

• Polish nationality law

• Demographics of Poland

• List of Poles

• List of Polish Jews

• Name of Poland (etymology of the demonym)

• Pole, Hungarian, two good friends

• Poles in Germany

• Poles in Lithuania

• Poles in Romania

• Poles in the former Soviet Union

• Poles in the United Kingdom

• Polish Americans

• Polish Argentine

• Polish Australians

• Polish Brazilians

• Polish British

• Polish Canadians

• Polish minority in the Czech Republic

• Polish minority in France

• Polish minority in Spain

• Polish Venezuelan

• Sons of Poland

14 8 REFERENCES

8 References[1] Główny Urząd Statystyczny (January 2013). Ludność.

Stan i struktura demograficzno-społeczna (PDF). Naro-dowy Spis Powszechny Ludności i Mieszkań 2011 (in Pol-ish) (Główny Urząd Statystyczny). p. 51. Retrieved23 February 2015. W dniu 31 marca 2011 r. ludnośćPolski liczyła 38 511,8 tys. osób zaliczanych do kate-gorii faktycznych mieszkańców kraju. Od ostatniego spisupowszechnego, tj. od dnia 20 maja 2002 r. liczba ludnościzwiększyła się o 282 tys. osób, tj. o 0,7%.

[2] Central Statistical Office (January 2013). “The national-ethnic affiliation in the population – The results of the cen-sus of population and housing in 2011” (PDF) (in Polish).p. 1. Retrieved 6 March 2013.

[3] p. 5

[4] Stowarzyszenie Wspólnota Polska

[5] (German) Erstmals mehr als 16 Millionen Menschen mitMigrationshintergrund in Deutschland Statistisches Bun-desamt Deutschland (German text about migrants in Ger-many)

[6] (Polish) Raport o sytuacji Polonii i Polaków za granicą2009. Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych 2009. p. 177,ISBN 978-83-89607-81-2

[7] “ynet כלכלה - מוורשה הסבתא בזכות פולני ."דרכון ynet.Retrieved 18 March 2015.

[8] “Ethnic Origin (264), Single and Multiple Ethnic OriginResponses (3), Generation Status (4), Age Groups (10)and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households ofCanada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Ar-eas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National House-hold Survey”.

[9] Polish minority in France

[10] Wspólnota Polska. “Stowarzyszenie Wspólnota Polska”.Retrieved 14 November 2014.

[11] “Polish diaspora in numbers” (in Polish). association “Pol-ish Community”. Retrieved 21 November 2013.

[12] British Office for National Statistics, Population by Coun-try of Birth & Nationality, Jan 2009 to Dec 2009 withimmigrants for 2012^ Please note: The British Office for National Statisticsrecorded the number of Poles who have travelled to theUK in 2006 at over 2,000,000; they are not to be mistakenfor permanent residents.

[13] “Clarín.com - La ampliación de la Unión Europea habilitaa 600 mil argentinos para ser comunitarios”. Retrieved 14November 2014.

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[15] 2006 Census Community Profile Series : Australia

[16] “Ukrainian Census 2001”. Retrieved 14 November 2014.

[17] Census 2011 Results

[18] "- 120.000 polakker i Norge”. Aftenposten. Retrieved 18March 2015.

[19] “ISTAT” (PDF). Retrieved 18 March 2015.

[20] “Befolkning efter födelseland och ursprungsland 31 de-cember 2012” (in Swedish). Statistics Sweden. 31 De-cember 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2013.

[21] Instituto Nacional de Estadística Population Figures at 1January 2014 – Migration Statistics 2013

[22] PDF

[23] Czech Republic National Census 2001 (PDF)

[24] “On key provisional results of Population and HousingCensus 2011”. Retrieved 14 November 2014.

[25] “Statistics Denmark:FOLK1: Population at the first dayof the quarter by sex, age, ancestry, country of origin andcitizenship”. Statistics Denmark. Retrieved 26 September2014.

[26] Kazakhstan National Census 2009

[27] Wspólnota Polska. “Stowarzyszenie Wspólnota Polska”.Retrieved 14 November 2014.

[28] “Ante la crisis, Europa y el mundo miran a Latinoamérica”(in Spanish). Acercando Naciones. 2012.

[29] Mannfjöldi eftir fæðingarlandi 1981-2008: Pólland

[30] Joshua Project. “Country - Venezuela :: Joshua Project”.Retrieved 14 November 2014.

[31] Erwin Dopf. “Migraciones europeas minoritarias”. Re-trieved 14 November 2014.

[32] http://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/nepsz2011/nepsz_orsz_2011.pdf 2011 Census of Hungary

[33] “Sections of North Milwaukee Avenue are Main Streetfor Chicago’s huge Polish population (the second-largesturban concentration after Warsaw’s)": Laura Tibert,Chicago for Dummies, 2007. p. 125; “DID YOUKNOW? Chicago, with nearly a million residents of Pol-ish extraction, is often cited as the world’s second-largestPolish city after Warsaw.": Neil Wilson, Tom Parkinson,Richard Watkins, Poland, 2005, p. 33; “In 1960, Chicagoclaimed 700,000 residents of Polish descent, making it theAmerican city with the largest Polish community and, af-ter Warsaw, the second largest aggregation of urban Polesin the world.": James O. Lugo, Gerald L. Hershey,Humandevelopment, 1979

[34] Gerard Labuda. Fragmenty dziejów Słowiańszczyzny za-chodniej, t.1-2 p.72 2002; Henryk Łowmiański. PoczątkiPolski: z dziejów Słowian w I tysiącleciu n.e, t. 5 p.472;Stanisław Henryk Badeni, 1923. p. 270

[35] Davies 2005a, p. xxvii.

[36] Derwich & Żurek 2002, pp. 122–143.

[37] Norman Davies Poland’s Multicultural Heritage

[38] NationMaster.com 2003-2008. People Statistics: Popula-tion (most recent) by country. Retrieved 2008-01-25.

15

[39] Gil Loescher, Beyond Charity: International Cooperationand the Global Refugee Crisis, published by the Universityof Oxford Press US, 1993, 1996. ISBN 0-19-510294-0.Retrieved 12-12-2007.

[40] http://wiadomosci.onet.pl/swiat/sueddeutsche-zeitung-polska-przezywa-najwieksza-fale-emigracji-od-100-lat/yrtt0“Sueddeutsche Zeitung": Polska przeżywa najwięk-szą falę emigracji od 100 lat

[41] Adam Zamoyski, The Polish Way: A Thousand Year His-tory of the Poles and Their Culture. Published 1993, Hip-pocrene Books, Poland, ISBN 0-7818-0200-8

[42] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland, 2002–2007, ANOVERVIEW OF POLISH CULTURE. Access date 12-13-2007.

[43] Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhowercalled Ultra “decisive” to Allied victory. F.W. Winter-botham, The Ultra Secret, New York, Harper & Row,1974, ISBN 0-06-014678-8, pp. 16–17. For a fuller dis-cussion, see "Ultra".

[44] “Kalendarium wydarzeĹ - Kalendarium - Polska.pl”.Retrieved 18 March 2015.

[45] Landau, S. (1996) Profile: Joseph Rotblat – From FissionResearch to a Prize for Peace, Scientific American 274(1),38-39.

[46] Poles’s publications indexed by the Scopus bibliographicdatabase, a service provided by Elsevier.

[47] Holdren, J. P. (2005). “RETROSPECTIVE: JosephRotblat (1908-2005)". Science 310 (5748): 633.doi:10.1126/science.1121081. PMID 16254178.

[48] “Joseph Rotblat BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs Cast-away 1998-11-08”. BBC. Archived from the original on2013-12-17.

[49] “Rotblat, Sir Joseph (1908–2005)". The Oxford Dic-tionary of National Biography. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/96004.

[50] “The Music Courts of the Polish Vasas” (PDF). www.semper.pl. p. 244. Retrieved 2009-05-13.

[51] “Marco Scacchi”. Retrieved 14 November 2014.

[52] Broughton 2000, p. 219.

[53] Ibidem, p. 219.

[54] Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature. GoogleBooks preview. University of California Press, Berkeley,1983. ISBN 0-520-04477-0. Retrieved October 18,2011.

[55] Mikoś, Michael J. (1999). “MIDDLE AGES LITERARYBACKGROUND”. Staropolska on-line. Retrieved 2008-09-25.

[56] Stanisław Barańczak, Baroque in Polish poetry of the 17thcentury. Instytut Książki, Poland. Retrieved September17, 2011.

[57] Karol Badecki, “Pisma Jana Dzwonowskiego (1608-1625).” Wydawnictwa Akademii Umiejętności wKrakowie. Biblioteka Pisarzów Polskich. Kraków.Nakładem Akademii Umiejętności. 1910. 119s. (Polish)

[58] Jacek Adamczyk, book review: Regina Libertas: Libertyin Polish Eighteenth-Century Political Thought, by AnnaGrześkowiak-Krwawicz. Instytut Książki, Poland. Re-trieved September 17, 2011.

[59] “The Russian government in Poland : with a narrative ofthe Polish Insurrection of 1863”. Internet Archive. Re-trieved 18 March 2015.

[60] Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature, p. 284.

[61] Jean Albert Bédé, William Benbow Edgerton, Columbiadictionary of modern European literature. Page 632.Columbia University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-231-03717-1

[62] “IMDb: Actors and Actresses of Polish Descent - a list bycomicman117”. IMDb. Retrieved 18 March 2015.

[63] “The World Factbook”. Retrieved 14 November 2014.

[64] (Polish) Kościoły i związki wyznaniowe w Polsce. Re-trieved on June 17, 2008.

[65] Simpson, Scott (2000). Native Faith: Polish Neo-Paganism At the Brink of the 21st Century

9 External links• Polish Americans

16 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text• Poles Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poles?oldid=676831982 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, The Anome, Space Cadet, D, Zocky,

MartinHarper, Ahoerstemeier, Med, Ruhrjung, Chelman, Joy, Raul654, Robbot, Altenmann, Romanm, Chris Roy, Pingveno, Halibutt,Radomil, Dina, Lysy, Centrx, DocWatson42, Philwelch, Ausir, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Ijon-Tichy, Kpalion, Matthead, Manuel Anastá-cio, Geni, Antandrus, Piotrus, Emax, Mzajac, Irpen, Sarcelles, Surfingslovak, Trevor MacInnis, Mike Rosoft, Bourquie, EugeneZelenko,Diagonalfish, Rich Farmbrough, UCZK, Bender235, Kwamikagami, Art LaPella, Guettarda, Bobo192, Ency, Kaganer, Darwinek, Espoo,Ranveig, Stephen G. 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10.2 Images• File:1908-kl-t-zamenhof.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/1908-kl-t-zamenhof.jpg License: Public

domain Contributors: The Congressional Book of the 4th World Esperanto Congress in Dresden (from the UEA archive). Original artist: ?• File:2007.09.16._Hilary_Koprowski_by_Kubik_01.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/2007.09.16.

_Hilary_Koprowski_by_Kubik_01.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: own work, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:KmariusOriginal artist: Mariusz Kubik, http://www.mariuszkubik.pl

• File:2007.09.19._Hilary_Koprowski_by_Kubik_05.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/2007.09.19._Hilary_Koprowski_by_Kubik_05.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: own work, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:KmariusOriginal artist: Mariusz Kubik, http://www.mariuszkubik.pl

10.2 Images 17

• File:2008.04.22._Andrzej_Wajda_by_Kubik_02.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/2008.04.22._Andrzej_Wajda_by_Kubik_02.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: own work, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:KmariusOriginal artist: Mariusz Kubik, http://www.mariuszkubik.pl

• File:Adam_Mickiewicz_według_dagerotypu_paryskiego_z_1842_roku.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Adam_Mickiewicz_wed%C5%82ug_dagerotypu_paryskiego_z_1842_roku.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:książka pt. Adam Mickiewicz - wybór pism, wyd. Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa 1952 Original artist: książka nie podaje / nieznany

• File:Aleksander_Wolszczan_(2007).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Aleksander_Wolszczan_%282007%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from pl.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Masur usingCommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Jacek 767 at pl.wikipedia

• File:BellaDarvi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bf/BellaDarvi.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:[1] Original artist: ?

• File:Benoit_Mandelbrot,_TED_2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Benoit_Mandelbrot%2C_TED_2010.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/4770047266/ Original artist: Steve Jurvetson

• File:Book_of_Henryków.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w.PNG Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: http://digital.fides.org.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=744&dirids=1 Original artist: Anonymous

• File:Bronislawmalinowski.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Bronislawmalinowski.jpg License: Norestrictions Contributors: Bronislaw Malinowski, c1930 Original artist: Library of the London School of Economics and Political Science

• File:Casimir_Funk_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Casimir_Funk_01.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: scanned from Wielka Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN, Warsaw, Poland, 1964, vol. 4, page 55 Original artist: Unknownphotographer

• File:Chopin,_by_Wodzinska.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Chopin%2C_by_Wodzinska.JPGLicense: Public domain Contributors: Own work copied by Nihil novi Original artist: Maria Wodzińska

• File:Chopin_Prelude_Op_28_N_15_Giorgi_Latsabidze_performs.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Chopin_Prelude_Op_28_N_15_Giorgi_Latsabidze_performs.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist:Frédéric Chopin

• File:Chrobry1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Chrobry1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Edward_Flatau.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Edward_Flatau.jpg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Eugène_Delacroix_-_Frédéric_Chopin_-_WGA06194.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin_-_WGA06194.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/d/delacroi/3/313delac.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20'srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60'/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/d/delacroi/3/313delac.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Eugène Delacroix

• File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: (Vector graphics byDbenbenn)

• File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp

• File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public domainContributors: http://www.tnpa.by/ViewFileText.php?UrlRid=52178&UrlOnd=%D1%D2%C1%20911-2008 Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svgLicense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden

• File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-inal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

18 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domainContributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)

• File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public do-main Contributors:

• Flags of the World – Hungary Original artist: SKopp• File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public domainContributors: Islandic National Flag Original artist: Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Zscout370 and others

• File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public domainContributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Origi-nal artist: “The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel” of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) providesthe official specification for the design of the Israeli flag.

• File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -xfi-

• File:Flag_of_Latvia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg License: Public domainContributors: Drawn by SKopp Original artist: Latvija

• File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuffKopp

• File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn

• File:Flag_of_Paraguay.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg License: CC0 Con-tributors: This file is from the Open Clip Art Library, which released it explicitly into the public domain (see here). Original artist: Republicadel Paraguay

• File:Flag_of_Peru.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Peru Original artist: David Benbennick

• File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Per specifications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National flag Original artist: Flag de-sign by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users

• File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domainContributors: ДСТУ 4512:2006 - Державний прапор України. Загальні технічні умови

SVG: 2010

Original artist: України• File:Flag_of_Venezuela.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg License: Public do-

main Contributors: official websites Original artist: Zscout370• File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.

svg License: Public domain Contributors:

• -xfi-'s file• -xfi-'s code• Zirland’s codes of colors

Original artist:(of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-.

• File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Frederic_Chopin_-_Opus_10_-_Twelve_Grand_Etudes_-_c_minor.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Frederic_Chopin_-_Opus_10_-_Twelve_Grand_Etudes_-_c_minor.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: ChopinÉtudes, Book 1 at the Al Goldstein collection in the Pandora Music repository at ibiblio.org. Original artist: Martha Goldstein

10.2 Images 19

• File:Gerson_Reception_of_the_Jews.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Gerson_Reception_of_the_Jews.png License: Public domain Contributors: cyfrowe.mnw.art.pl Original artist: Wojciech Gerson

• File:Giorgi_Latsabidze_Plays_Mazurka.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Giorgi_Latsabidze_Plays_Mazurka.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: Uploaded by Lucca Reti from own recording Original artist: Music by FredericChopin; performance by Giorgi Latsabidze; recording by Lucca Reti

• File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg, which is public domain. Original artist: User:Eubulides

• File:Henryk_Sienkiewicz.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Henryk_Sienkiewicz.PNG License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.desa.art.pl/index.php?pozycja=9842 Original artist: Kazimierz Mordasewicz

• File:Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski.PNG Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: http://audiovis.nac.gov.pl/obraz/132524/99451abf4e6bc31451ac2c45200951c8/ Original artist:Anonymous

• File:Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Ignacy_Krasicki_111.PNG License:Public domain Contributors: Stanisław August, ostatni król Polski. Polityk, mecenas, reformator 1764 - 1795, Warszawa 2011 Originalartist: Per Krafft the Elder

• File:Ignacy_Lukasiewicz.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Ignacy_Lukasiewicz.jpg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: przeniesiony z http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ignacy_Lukasiewicz.jpg Original artist: Andrzej Grabowski(1833-1886)

• File:Ingridd_Pitt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d5/Ingridd_Pitt.jpg License: PD-Pre1978 Contributors:ebay Original artist:Movie studio

• File:Irena_Sendlerowa_1942.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Irena_Sendlerowa_1942.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Teresa Prekerowa “Konspiracyjna Rada Pomocy Żydom w Warszawie 1942-1945"( The underground Councilto Aid Jews in Warsaw 1942-1945) Warszawa 1982 ISBN 83-06-00622-4. Immediate source: Irena Sendler 1943 (2) online. Originalartist: Unknown

• File:Jan_Brzechwa_20-16.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Jan_Brzechwa_20-16.jpg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: Narodowe Archiwum Cyfrowe, Sygnatura: 20-16 Original artist: Władysław Miernicki

• File:Jan_Długosz.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Jan_D%C5%82ugosz.PNG License: Public do-main Contributors: http://www.artinfo.pl/?lng=1&lngcode=pl&pid=catalogs&sp=auction&page=2&sobj=1&st=future&st2=future&sl=20&sdisp=1&sartist=radzikowski&obiekt_szukaj=szukaj Original artist: Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski

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• File:JohannesPaul2-portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/JohannesPaul2-portrait.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States - Photographic Portfolio-−1993 Vol. II http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/pubpaps/1993portv2.html Original artist: Uncredited; retouch of Image:JohannesPaulII.jpg

• File:Joseph_Conrad.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Joseph_Conrad.PNG License: Public domainContributors: http://www.npg.org.uk/whatson/display/joseph-conrad.php Original artist: George Charles Beresford

• File:Jozef_Pilsudski1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Jozef_Pilsudski1.jpg License: Public domainContributors:

• file Original artist: Witold Pikiel• File:Kraków,_Tumba_króla_Kazimierza_III_Wielkiego_-_fotopolska.eu_(164075).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/

wikipedia/commons/1/17/Krak%C3%B3w%2C_Tumba_kr%C3%B3la_Kazimierza_III_Wielkiego_-_fotopolska.eu_%28164075%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Fotopolska.eu Original artist: Julo

• File:Lech_Walesa_-_2009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Lech_Walesa_-_2009.jpg License: CCBY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: MEDEF

• File:MR_1932_small.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/MR_1932_small.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5Contributors: Rejewski’s daughter’s private archive Original artist: Unknown

• File:Malczewski_Self-portrait_with_a_palette.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Malczewski_Self-portrait_with_a_palette.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: cyfrowe.mnw.art.pl Original artist: Jacek Malczewski

• File:Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Christie’s, [1] Original artist: Unknown

• File:Matejko_Stańczyk.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Matejko_Sta%C5%84czyk.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: cyfrowe.mnw.art.pl Original artist: Jan Matejko

• File:Michał_Kleafas_Aginski._Міхал_Клеафас_Агінскі_(J._Alaškievič,_XIX).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Micha%C5%82_Kleafas_Aginski._%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%90%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%28J._Ala%C5%A1kievi%C4%8D%2C_XIX%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Nacionalinis M.K. Čiurlionio dailės muziejus.VM-546: MS-822. Original artist: Józef Oleszkiewicz

• File:Muriel-Nguyen-Xuan-Chopin-valse-opus64-1.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Muriel-Nguyen-Xuan-Chopin-valse-opus64-1.ogg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Frédéric Chopin

20 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm Original artist: Unknown

• File:OskarKolberg(photo).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/OskarKolberg%28photo%29.png Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Encyklopedia.interia.pl: Oskar Kolberg rescaled and cleaned-up in Photoshop Original artist: Unknown

• File:Pola_publicilty_portrait_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Pola_publicilty_portrait_5.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Collection of Mariusz Kotowski Original artist: Andrew L. Stone Productions/United Artists

• File:Poles_by_country.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Poles_by_country.png License: CC0 Con-tributors: Own work Original artist: Ernio48

• File:Polonezz.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Polonezz.ogg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:No machine readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine readable authorprovided. Sk444~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Prus_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Boles%C5%82aw_Prus_%28ca._1905%29.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Wilhelm Feldman, Wspolczesna literatura polska 1880-1904 (Contemporary Polish Literature, 1880-1904), published 1905. Original artist: Wilhelm Feldman (1868-1919).

• File:Ross_Martin_1967.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Ross_Martin_1967.JPG License: Publicdomain Contributors: eBay item Original artist: Arnold Carr, public relations, Los Angeles

• File:Scheffer_Zygmunt_Krasiński.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Scheffer_Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.wilanow-palac.art.pl Original artist: Ary Scheffer

• File:Schweikart_Tadeusz_Kościuszko.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Schweikart_Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.wilanow-palac.art.pl Original artist: Karl Gottlieb Schweikart

• File:Slavic_europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Slavic_europe.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-tributors: self-made - based upon: Image:Slavic europe.png Original artist: CrazyPhunk

• File:St_Lem_resize.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/St_Lem_resize.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Stanislaw Lem 2.jpg Original artist: Courtesy of Lem’s secretary, Wojciech Zemek. Resize and digital processing by Masur.

• File:Stanisław_Staszic.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic.PNG License:Public domain Contributors: http://multipanorama.pl/main.php?muid=0&mid=624&kid=0&oid=1&cid=3c16043bdf4315 Original artist:Franciszek Sobolewski

• File:Stanisłaŭ_Maniuška._Станіслаў_Манюшка_(T._Maleszewski,_1865).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Stanis%C5%82a%C5%AD_Maniu%C5%A1ka._%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%9E_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8E%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0_%28T._Maleszewski%2C_1865%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Museum in Warsaw (MNW) <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Institution:National_Museum,_Warsaw' title='Link back to Institution infobox template'><img alt='Link back to Institution infobox tem-plate' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png' width='15'height='15' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/23px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x,https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/30px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='600'data-file-height='600' /></a> <a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q153306' title='wikidata:Q153306'><img alt='wikidata:Q153306'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'data-file-height='590' /></a> Original artist: Tytus Maleszewski

• File:Weigl-Lwow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Weigl-Lwow.jpg License: ? Contributors:Profesor Rudolf Weigl at the National Museum of Przemyśl Land (Muzeum Narodowe Ziemi Przemyskiej) reproduced by StanisławKosiedowski from the originals. Original artist: ?

• File:Wieniawski_Henryk_3.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Wieniawski_Henryk_3.png License:Public domain Contributors: Dieses Bild der ist Teil der Porträtsammlung Friedrich Nicolas Manskopf der Universitätsbibliothek der JohannWolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main.Original artist: Fritz Luckhardt

• File:Wladyslaw_Reymont_1924.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Wladyslaw_Reymont_1924.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1924/reymont-autobio.html Original artist:Nobel Foundation

• File:عالم_الرياضيات_البولندى_ستيفان_بناخ.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%89_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AE.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hussein abdulhakim

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