1

YOUTH POLITICAL LEADERSHIP ACADEMY / YPLA

Topic: POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

By Tony NTARINDWA

November, 2011

2

POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

Introduction

We all see the world in different prisms, in a veil of theories, presumptions and

assumptions. In short no one sees it as it is. These assumptions are rooted in broad

creeds or traditions that are termed political ideologies. These ideologies usually end

in “…ism” hence also termed “…isms” such as liberalism, socialism, conservatism,

feminism, fascism, etc. Each of them constitutes a distinctive intellectual framework

or paradigm, and each offers its own account of political reality in other words its own

“world view.”

However there is deep disagreement both about the nature and the role of ideology.

By the end of this section, students should be able to;

Define ideology.

Explain the characteristic themes, theories and principles of each of the major

ideologies.

Analyse rival traditions or internal tensions that each ideology encompasses

Explain and discuss the rise and fall of ideologies.

Explain the link between ideologies and social movements

Has ideology come to an end? Could ideology come to an end?

Definition of Political Ideology

This term has been used for a long time at time pejoratively (negatively to criticise or

condemn others). It was coined by a French Philosopher Destutt de Tracy (1754-

1836) to refer to a new “science of ideas” (idea-ology), that set out to discover the

origins of conscious thought and ideas. He thought that it would eventually be a

science like other sciences such as biology and chemistry.

3

Later Karl Marx gave it another meaning; ideas of the “ruling class”, ideas that upheld

the class system and thus perpetuate exploitation. To him, ideology is false because it

promotes “false consciousness”. It mystifies the reality and confuses subordinate

classes by concealing from them the contradictions upon which all societies are based.

Thus the bourgeoisie ideology fosters false consciousness among the exploited

classes, the proletariat, preventing them from recognising the nature of their

exploitation. He believed his work to be the only scientific one. He asserted that a

clear distinction had to be made between science and ideology, between truth and

falsehood. To him ideology was false.

Liberals and conservatives too derided the term giving it alternative uses. Karl Popper

(1902-94). J. L. Talman and Hannah Arendt view ideology as an instrument of social

control and subordination. This meaning given to ideology arose from the emergence

of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes of the inter-war years, between Word war I

and II. The term is seen as a „closed system‟ of thought which by claiming a

monopoly of truth denies tolerating opposing ideas and rival beliefs. This was the

period of rising fascism and communism. Thus to them, liberalism based on the

commitment to individual freedoms and others such as conservatism and democratic

socialism were not seen as ideologies.

For Michael Oakeshot, another conservative, the world is simply too complicated to

comprehend in any form of ideology. It is beyond the capacity of the human mind. To

him ideologies are abstract systems of thought trying to explain what is inherently

incomprehensible. Human rationality is limited. More faith should be put in

pragmatism, tradition and history.

Thus a more inclusive definition, one that applies to all political tradition should be

sought since all the schools of thought have looked at ideology from a negative point.

The definition should be neutral. It must reject the notion that ideologies are good, or

bad, true or false, liberating or oppressive. Modern socio-scientific meaning of the

term treats ideology as action-oriented belief system, an interrelated set of ideas that

in some way guides or inspires political action.

4

Definitions

Ideology; From a socio-scientific view, a more or less coherent set of ideas for organized

political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify, or overthrow the existing system

of power relationships. All ideologies therefore a) provide an account of existing order, in form

of world view, b) provide a model of a desired future, a vision of the good society c) outline

how political change can and should be brought about. Ideologies are however not hermetically

sealed systems of thought: rather they are fluid sets of ideas that over-lap with one another at a

number of points. At a fundamental level, ideologies resemble political philosophies. They take

the form of broad political movements (Seliger, 1976 in Heywood, 43).

Pragmatism; A theory or practice that places primary emphasis on practical

circumstances and goals; it implies a distrust to abstract ideas (Heywood, 43).

Bourgeois ideology; A Marxist term denoting ideas and theories that serve the interests of the

bourgeois by distinguishing the contradictions of capitalist society (Heywood, 201).

Main Ideologies

The following are the main ideologies we shall deal with;

Liberalism and its strands

Conservatism and its strands

Socialism and its strands

Other ideologies to include;

o Fascism

o Anarchism

o Feminism

o Environmentalism

o Religious fundamentalism

Liberalism

This is the ideology of the industrialized West and is portrayed as a meta-ideology

that is capable of embracing a broad range of rival values and beliefs. Liberalism was

the product of the breakdown of feudalism and the growth in its place of a market or

capitalist society. Early liberalism reflected the aspirations of a rising industrial

middle class, and liberalism has been associated with capitalism ever since. In its

earliest form, liberalism was a political doctrine. It attacked absolutism and feudal

5

privilege, advocating constitutional and later representative government. By the early

19th

century, a new breed of liberal economic creed had developed advocating laissez

faire capitalism and condemned all forms of government intervention. This is what

may be referred to as classical liberalism. A form of social liberalism emerged in the

late 19th

century and onwards. This one looked favourably on welfare reform and

accepted some amount of economic intervention. This is characteristic of modern

liberalism, or 20th

century liberalism.

Elements of Liberalism;

Individualism; Individualism is a core principle of liberal ideology.

This principle refers to the supreme importance of the human individual as

opposed to any social group or collective body. Human beings are seen first

and foremost as individuals. They are thus of equal moral worth and possess

separate and unique identities. The liberal gaol is to construct a society within

which individuals can develop and flourish each pursuing the “good” as he/she

defines it to the best of her/his abilities.

Freedom; Individual freedom or liberty is the core value of liberalism. It

is given priority over, say, equality, justice or authority. It arises from a belief

that in the individual and the desire to ensure that each person is able to act as

he or she pleases or chooses. Nevertheless, that freedom should be within the

limits of law as one‟s liberty may be a threat to the liberty of others, thus

liberty becoming licence.

Reason; the world has a rational structure, and that this can be

uncovered through the exercise of human reason and by critical enquiry.

Liberals place their faith in the ability of individuals to make wise judgements

on their own behalf, being, in most cases, the best judges of their own

interests. They also believe in progress and the capacity of human beings to

resolve their differences through debate and argument rather than bloodshed

and war.

Equality; individualism implies a belief in foundational equality: the

belief that individuals are born equal, at least in terms of moral worth. This is

reflected in a liberal commitment to equal rights and entitlements notably in

the form of legal equality (equality before the law) and political equality (one

6

person one vote or one vote one value). Because people do not possess the

same aptitudes and talent, liberals do not endorse social equality or equality of

outcomes. They rather subscribe to equality of opportunity or level playing

field that gives all individuals an equal chance to realise their unequal

potential. They support the principle of meritocracy (talent + hard work)

Toleration; Toleration means the willingness of people to allow others

think, speak, and act in ways of which they disapprove. To liberals therefore,

toleration is both a guarantee of individual liberty and a means of social

enrichment. They believe that pluralism, in the form of moral, cultural, and

political diversity, is positively healthy: it promotes debate and intellectual

progress by ensuring that all beliefs are tested in a free market of ideas. They

also believe that there is a balance or a natural harmony between rival views

and interests, and thus usually discount the idea of irreconcilable conflict.

Consent; Authority and social relationships should always be based on

consent or willing agreement. Government must therefore be based on the

“consent of the governed”. This doctrine encourages liberals to favour

representation and democracy.

Constitutionalism; Although liberals see government as a vital guarantee of

order and stability, they are aware of the danger that government may become

a tyranny against the individual as power tends to corrupt. “Power corrupts,

and absolute power corrupts absolutely” (Lord Acton). They thus believe in

limited government. This goal can be reached through the fragmentation of

government power, by creation of checks and balances among the various

institutions of government and through the establishment of a codified or

written constitution embodying a bill of rights that defines the relationship

between the state and the individual.

Classical Liberalism

This is characterized by its commitment to extreme individualism. Human beings are

seen as egoistical, self-seeking and largely self-reliant creatures. It is characterised by

the aspect and quality of atomism; the belief that society is made up of a collection of

largely self-sufficient individuals who owe little or nothing to one another. C.B.

Macpherson termed this “possessive individualism” meaning that they are taken to be

7

the proprietors of their own persons and capacities, owing nothing to society or to

other individuals. Classical liberalism is unsympathetic to all forms of state and

government intervention and is an advocate of laissez faire capitalism.

Modern Liberalism

Modern liberalism is characterized by more sympathetic attitude towards intervention.

The word liberal is invariably taken to imply big government (interventionist

government usually understood to imply economic management and social

regulation) rather than minimal government in the USA.

Modern liberalism arose out of the recognition that industrial capitalism had merely

generated new forms of injustice and left the mass of the population subject to the

vagaries of the market. Important thinkers on this include; J.S. Mill, T.H Green (1836-

82), L.T. Hobhouse (1864-1929), and J.A. Hobson (1858-1940). To them, freedom

does not simply mean being left alone, which might only mean freedom to starve.

Freedom is linked to personal development and the flourishing of the individual; the

ability of the individual to gain fulfilment and achieve self-realization.

This view provided a basis for social or welfare liberalism. This is characterized by

the recognition that state intervention, particularly in the form of social welfare, can

enlarge liberty by safeguarding individuals from the social evils that blight (inhibit or

make it difficult for) individual existence. These evils were identified as the “five

giants”; want, ignorance, idleness, squalor, and disease. Thus modern liberalism

advocates for some government intervention. However, there is some conditionality;

their concern is with the weak, vulnerable, and marginalized groups of society. Their

goal is to raise individuals to the point where they are able, once again, to take

responsibility for their circumstances and make their own moral choices.

Conservatism

Conservative ideas and doctrines first emerged in the late 18th

century and early 19th

century. They arose as a reaction to the pace of changes in Europe and in particular

economic and political changes ushered in by the French Revolution. By trying to

resist the pressures unleashed by the growth of liberalism, socialism and nationalism,

8

conservatism stood in defence of an increasingly embattled traditional social order.

Conservation meant retaining the status of the social order amidst rapid changes.

There were divisions among the conservatives; in Europe emerged autocratic and

reactionary conservatism characterised by the work of thinkers like by Joseph de

Maistre (1753-1821). It rejected out of hand any idea of reform. In UK and USA

emerged a more moderate form of conservatism. It was cautious and more flexible

and ultimately more successful. It was characterized by Edmond Burke‟s belief of

“change in order to conserve.” This stance enabled conservatives to embrace the

cause of social reform under the paternalistic banner of “One Nation”.

Elements of Conservatism;

Tradition; the „desire to conserve‟, is closely linked to the perceived

virtues of tradition, respect for established customs, and institutions that have

endured through time. Tradition has the virtue of promoting stability and

security, and giving a sense of social and historical belonging.

Pragmatism; they see the world as abstract and accept the limits of human

rationality. Faith is thus placed on experience, history, and above all,

pragmatism; the belief that action should be shaped by practical circumstances

and goals, ie, by „what works‟ rather than abstract principles and systems of

thought. Fear of change and experimentation.

Human imperfection; the attitude and view of human nature is broadly

pessimistic. In their view, human beings are limited, dependant, and security

seeking creatures, drawn to the familiar and the tried and tested, and needing

to live in stable and orderly communities. In addition, individuals are morally

corrupt: tainted by selfishness, greed, and the thirst for power. Hence need for

a strong state enforcement of strict laws, and stiff penalties

Organicism; conservatives see society as an organic whole, or living entity.

To them society is structured by natural necessity, with its various institutions,

or the fabric of society ie, families, local communities, the nation, etc… All

these contribute to the health and stability of society.

Hierarchy; to them, gradations of social position and status are natural and

inevitable in an organic society. These reflect the differing roles and

9

responsibilities of for example, employers and employees, teachers and pupils,

parents and children. In their view, Society is held together by mutual

obligations and reciprocal duties. Hierarchy does not lead to inequality and

conflict.

Authority; Conservatives hold that, to some degree, authority is always

exercised from above, providing leadership, guidance, and support for those

who lack the knowledge, experience, or education to act wisely in their own

interests. The idea behind authority is that it is a source of cohesion, giving

people a clear sense of who they are and what is expected of them. Freedom

must therefore coexist with responsibility; it therefore consists largely of

willing acceptance of obligations and duties.

Property; Conservatives see property as being vital because it gives

people security and a measure of independence from government, and it

encourages them to respect the law and property of others. Property is also

seen as an exteriorization of people‟s personalities, in that they see themselves

in what they own: their houses, their cars, etc. However, property ownership

involves duties as well as rights. At times we are merely custodians of

property that has either been inherited from the past generations or of value to

future ones.

Paternalistic Conservatism

This is an outgrowth of traditional conservatism. It is traced back to the writings of

the British philosopher, Benjamin Disraeli (1804-81). Paternalism draws upon a

combination of prudence and principle. Fearing that the UK would be divided into

two nations, the rich and the poor, Disraeli feared a widespread social revolution. He

thus appealed to the wealthy and well off to be mindful of the less privileged saying

that “reform from above” was preferable to a “revolution from below”. Paternalism is

characterised with the principles of organicism, hierarchy and duty. The fear of

revolution from below thus meant the need for duty and social obligation rooted in the

neo-feudal ideas such as noblesse oblige ( the obligations of the nobility; in general

terms, the responsibility to guide or protect those less fortunate or less privileged).

Duty in this sense is the price of privilege; the powerful and propertied inherit a

10

responsibility to look after the less well-off in the broader interest of social cohesion

and unity.

Paternal essentially means of, or relating to a father; like that of a father, received or inherited

from one‟s father; related through one‟s father.

Paternalism is a System under which an authority undertakes to supply the needs or regulate

conduct of those under its control in matters affecting them as individuals as well as in their

relations to authority and to each other.

The New Right

This is an ideological trend within conservatism that embraces a blend of market

individualism and social authoritarianism. Neo-liberalism is an updated version of

classical political economy, dedicated to market individualism and minimal statism.

Neo-liberalists believe that unregulated market capitalism will deliver efficiency,

growth and widespread prosperity. That the dead hand of the state saps initiative and

discourages enterprise; government, however well intentioned, invariably has a

damaging effect upon human affairs. The nanny state is seen to breed a culture of

dependence and to undermine freedom, which is understood as freedom of choice in

the market place. Faith is placed in self-help, individual responsibility, and

entrepreneurialism.

Nanny state; A state with extensive social responsibilities; the term implies that welfare

programmes are unwarranted and demeaning to the individual.

On the other hand, Neo-conservatism is an updated version of social conservatism

that emphasises the need to restore authority and return to traditional values especially

those linked to the family, religion, and the nation. Authority is seen as guaranteeing

social stability, on the basis that it generates discipline and respect, while shared

values and a common culture are believed to generate social cohesion and make

civilized existence possible. Neoconservatives also tend to view the emergence of

multicultural, multi-religious, societies with concern. That they are conflict ridden,

and inherently unstable.

11

Socialism

Socialism did not shape up as a political creed until the early 19th

century. It

developed as a reaction against the emergence of industrial capitalism. It first

articulated the interests of artisans and craftsmen threatened by the spread of factory

production, but it was soon being linked to the growing industrial working class, the

“factory fodder” of early industrialization. In its earlier forms, it had a fundamentalist

view, utopian and revolutionary character. Its goal was to abolish a capitalist economy

based on market exchange, and replace it with a qualitatively different socialist

society, usually to be constructed on the principle of common ownership. The most

influential representative of this brand of socialism was Karl Marx whose ideas

formed the foundation of 20th

century communism.

From the 19th

century onwards, a reformist socialist tradition emerged that reflected

the gradual integration of the working classes into capitalist society through an

improvement in working conditions and wages and the growth of trade unions and

socialist political parties. This brand of socialism proclaimed the possibility of a

peaceful, gradual, and legal transition to socialism, brought about through the

adoption of the “parliamentary” road.

During much of the 20th

century the socialist movement was split into two rival

camps; Revolutionary socialists following the example of Lenin and Bolsheviks

calling themselves communists, and reformist socialists, who practiced a form of

constitutional politics embraced what came to be called social democracy. These

turned their backs upon fundamental principles such as common ownership and

central planning and recast socialism to welfare, redistribution, and economic

management. Both tendencies faced crises in the late 20th

century culminating in the

collapse of communism. Social democracy was hardly distinguishable from modern

liberalism.

Elements of Socialism;

Community; The core of socialism is the vision of human beings as social

creatures linked by the existence of a common humanity. “No man is an island

entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main” (John

Donne, a poet). This refers to the importance of the community, and it

12

highlights the degree to which individual identity is fashioned by social

interaction and membership of social groups and collective bodies.

Fraternity; Because human beings share a common humanity, they are bound

together by a sense of comradeship and fraternity. Hence preference to

cooperation over competition, and collectivism over individualism.

Social equality; Equality is the central value of socialism. It is portrayed as a

form of egalitarianism, the belief in the primacy of equality over other values.

Need; That material benefits should be distributed on the basis of need instead

of merit or work. Thus “from each according to his ability, to each according

to his need” (Marx).

Social Class; Associated with class politics. Socialists have tended to analyse

society in terms of the distribution of wealth and they have thus seen class as a

significant social cleavage. It has also been associated with the interests of an

oppressed and exploited working class, and it has regarded the working class

as an agent of change, even social revolution.

Common ownership; This is very controversial. Some see it as the end of it

while others see it as a means of generating broader equality. However, the

idea behind common ownership is that it tends to reduce inequality, while

private ownership promotes inequality. It harnesses material resources to the

common good, while private ownership promotes selfishness, acquisitiveness,

and social division.

Marxism

Marxism is a brand of socialism.

Elements of Marxism

Historical materialism; This is what was termed by Engels as “the material

conception of history”. It is the cornerstone of Marxism. It highlights the

importance of economic life and the conditions under which people produce

and reproduce their means of subsistence. Marx contended that, the economic

base consisting essentially of the mode of production, or economic system,

conditions or determines the ideological and political superstructure. This

13

suggests that social and historical development can be explained in terms of

economic and class factors.

Dialectical change; That the driving force of historical change was the

dialectic, a process of interaction between competing forces that results in a

higher stage of development. In its materialist version, this model implies that

historical change is a consequence of internal contradictions with a mode of

production reflected in class antagonism.

Alienation; It is the process whereby, under capitalism, labour is reduced to

being a mere commodity, and work becomes a depersonalised activity.

Workers are thus alienated from the product of their labour, from the process

of labour, from fellow workers, and ultimately, from themselves as creative

and social beings.

Class struggle; The central contradiction within a capitalist society arises from

the existence of private property. This creates a division between the

bourgeoisie or capitalist class, the owners of the means of production, and

the proletariat, who do not own property and thus subsist through selling their

labour. This bourgeoisie is a ruling class. It not only has economic power

through the ownership of wealth, but also exercises political power through

the agency of the state and possesses ideological power because its ideas are

the ruling ideas of the age.

Surplus value; Marx believed that all value derived from the labour expended

in the production of goods. Thus the quest for profit forces capitalist

enterprises to extract surplus value from their workers by paying less than

their labour. Capitalism is therefore inherently unstable, because the

proletariat cannot be permanently reconciled to exploitation and oppression.

Proletariat Revolution; Marx believed that capitalism was doomed and that the

proletariat was its grave digger. According to his analysis, capitalism would

pass through a series of increasingly serious crises of overproduction. This

would bring the proletariat to revolutionary class consciousness. He believed

that such a revolution was inevitable and predicted that it would occur through

a spontaneous uprising aimed at seizing control of the means of production.

However, in his later he speculated a peaceful transition to socialism.

14

Communism; Marx predicted that a proletariat revolution would usher in a

transitionary socialist period during which a dictatorship of the proletariat

would be required to contain a counter-revolution mounted by the disposed

bourgeoisie. However, as class antagonism faded, and fully communist society

came into existence, this proletariat state would wither away. A communist

state would be classless in the sense that wealth would be owned in common

by all, and the system of commodity production would be replaced by one of

production for use geared to the satisfaction of genuine human needs. With

this, the prehistory of man would soon come to an end, allowing human

beings for the first time to shape their own destinies and realise their full

potential, ie, “the free development of each, is the precondition for the free

development of all”.(Marx)

Orthodox Communism

This is also called Marxism-Leninism as experienced by the Soviet Union and due

to the contribution to the theory by the first two Soviet leaders , V.I. Lenin and

Joseph Stalin. Orthodox Marxism is Marxism modified by a set of Leninist

theories and doctrines. His central contribution was his theory of the revolutionary

or vanguard party. It reflects Lenin‟s fear that the proletariat, misled by bourgeois

ideas and beliefs, would not realise its revolutionary potential, because it could not

develop beyond trade union consciousness (a desire to improve working

conditions rather than to overthrow capitalism). A revolutionary party armed with

Marxism was therefore needed to serve as a vanguard of the working class. This

was to be not a mass party, but a tightly knit party of professional and dedicated

revolutionaries capable of exercising ideological leadership. Its organizational

principle was to be based on democratic centralism; a belief in freedom of

debate married to unity of action. Thus the dictatorship of the proletariat became a

dictatorship of the communist party (vanguard party) when the Bolsheviks seized

power in Russia in1917.

Economic Stalinism in late 1920s and 1930s brought about eradication of private

enterprise and collectivisation of agriculture. All resources were brought under the

control of the state and a system of central planning dominated by the State

Planning Committee (Gosplan) was established.

15

In the 1930s Stalin transformed the USSR into a personal dictatorship through a

series of purges that eradicated all forms of opposition and debate from the

communist party, the state bureaucracy, and the military. In effect he turned the

USSR into a totalitarian dictatorship, operating through systematic intimidation,

repression, and terror. The common features of orthodox Marxism are thus;

Leninist party‟s principles of hierarchical organization and discipline

Economic Stalinism of state collectivisation and central planning.

Modern Marxism or Neo-Marxism

In this version of Marxism, heavily influenced by Hegelian ideas, human beings

are seen as makers of history and not simply as puppets controlled by impersonal

material forces. By insisting that there is an interplay between economics and

politics, between the material circumstances of life and the capacity of the human

beings to shape their own destinies, western Marxists were able to break free from

the rigid “Base-superstructure” straight jacket. They are also called neo-Marxists;

an unwillingness to treat the class struggle as the beginning and end of social

analysis.

Social Democracy

Social democracy stands for a balance between the market and the state and a

balance between the individual and the community. There is a compromise

between an acceptance of capitalism as the only reliable mechanism for

generating wealth, and a desire to distribute wealth in accordance with moral,

rather than market principles. Thus the German Social Democratic (

Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands [SPD]) Party‟s slogan on abandoning

Marxism, “competition where possible, planning where necessary”.

The chief characteristic of the social democrats is the concern for the underdog in

society, the weak, and the vulnerable. It has been articulated on the basis of

principles of welfarism (from welfare), redistribution, and social justice. In the

period following the second world war, social democracy, in the form of

Keynesian social democracy, was seen as a clear desire to humanise capitalism

16

through state intervention. It was believed that Keynesian economic policies

would;

Secure full employment

A mixed economy would help government to regulate economic activity

Comprehensive welfare provision funded via progressive taxation would

narrow the gap between the rich and poor.

Third way

Third way as an ideology is imprecise and subject to various interpretations as it

draws from various ideological traditions including liberalism, one-nation

conservatism, and modernised social democracy. However, certain third way

characteristics can be identified;

Socialism, especially in its top-down form of state intervention is dead; A

general acceptance of globalization and the belief that capitalism has mutated

into a “knowledge economy”, which places a premium in I.C.T., individual

skills and both labour and business flexibility.

Government is recognized as having a vital economic and social role.

However, this role should be focused, concentrating on the promotion of

international competitiveness, by building up education and skills, and the

strengthening of communities and civil society to contain the pressure

generated by market capitalism.

Has broken with socialist egalitarianism which emphasises equality or

levelling, and embraces liberal ideas of equality of opportunity and

meritocracy. Third way endorses welfare reform and rejects neoliberal

emphasis on “standing on your own two feet” and the social-democratic

commitment to “cradle to grave” welfare, in favour of “help people to help

themselves”, or as Clinton put it, giving people “a hand up, not a hand out”.

This has led to the support of what has been termed “workfare state” denoting

that government‟s support in benefits or education to enable people seek work

and become self reliant.

17

Other Ideological Traditions

Fascism

Fascism is an interwar and 20th century phenomenon. It is a product of two

developments that characterized that period; war and revolution. The two principal

manifestations of fascism were Mussolini‟s Fascist dictatorship in Italy (1922-1943)

and Hitler‟s Nazi dictatorship in Germany (1933-1945). Forms of neo-fascism and

neo-Nazism have also resurfaced in the final years of the 20th

century that took

advantage of the combination of economic crisis and political instability that followed

the collapse of communism. (See also Jean Marie le Pen in France)

In many respects, fascism constituted a revolt against the ideas and values that had

dominated European political and ideological thought of the previous years since the

French Revolution. Values such as rationalism, progress, freedom, and equality were

overturned and replaced by, struggle, leadership, power, heroism and war. Thus

fascism has an anti-character (or oppositional character). It is mainly defined by what

it opposes; anti-capitalism, anti-liberalism, anti-individualism, anti-communism, etc.

It emphasises an organically unified national community or extreme nationalism,

reflected in the belief in “Strength through unity”. The individual is nothing, and

individual identity must be absorbed entirely into that of the community or social

group. The fascist ideal is that of the “new man”, a hero, motivated by duty, honour

and self sacrifice, prepared to dedicate his life to the glory of his nation or race and to

give unquestioning obedience to a supreme leader (Fuhrer in the case of Germany).

In short, fascism is an ideology characterised by a belief in anti-rationalism, struggle,

charismatic leadership, elitism, and extreme nationalism; Fascism with a capital letter

„F‟ as opposed to fascism refers to specifically to the Mussolini regime in Italy.

Not all fascists think alike. Italian fascism was an extreme form of statism (too much

state as opposed to less state and more decentralization and distribution of power and

responsibilities/devolution). This was based on unquestioning respect and absolute

loyalty towards a „totalitarian state‟. As the Fascist philosopher, Gentile (1875-1944)

put it, “everything for the state; nothing against the state; nothing outside the state”.

18

German National Socialism (Nazism) on the other hand, was constructed on the basis

of racialism/ racism ( racial prejudice or discrimination; a belief that race is the

primary determinant of human traits and capabilities, and that racial differences

produce an inherent superiority of a particular race). It had two core theories;

Aryanism and anti-Semitism. Aryanism was a belief that the German people

constitute a “master race” and are destined for world domination.

Virulent anti-Semitism on the other hand was portrayed the Jews as inherently evil

and aimed at their extermination ( eradication or annihilation). This was expressed as

“The Final Solution”.

Hitler‟s Nazi party thus advanced National Socialism (Nazism) characterized by

totalitarian terror, genocidal anti-Semitism, and expansionist racism. As a party, it

was neither democratic, nor did it advance democracy as one of its ideals.

Definitions

Statism; (Étatisme), is the belief that state intervention is the most appropriate means of

resolving political problems or bringing about economic or social development. This view is

underpinned by a deep and perhaps, unquestioning faith in the state as a mechanism through

which collective action can be organized and common goals can be achieved. The state is thus

seen as an ethical ideal (Hegel), or public interest.

Statism is most clearly reflected in policies that regulate and control economic life. These range

from selective nationalization and economic management (dirigisme), to corporatism (in both

liberal and fascist forms), and Soviet-style state collectivization (Heywood, 98).

Corporatism; In its broad sense, corporatism is a means of incorporating organized

interests into the processes of government. There are two faces of corporatism. First,

authoritarian corporatism is an ideology or economic form closely associated with Italian

Fascism. It was characterized by the political intimidation of industry and the destruction of

independent trade unions. Second, liberal corporatism (societal corporatism or neo-corporatism)

refers to the tendency found in mature democracies for organized interests to be granted

privileged and institutional access to policy formulation. The mechanism through which this is

achieved vary considerably as does the degree of group integration. In contrast with its

authoritarian variant, liberal corporatism strengthens groups in relation to government, not the

other way round Heywood, 275).

Anti-Semitism; Semites are by tradition the descendants of Shem, son of Noah. They

include most of the peoples of the Middle East. Anti-Semitism is prejudice or hatred towards

19

Jews. In its earliest systematic form, anti-Semitism had a religious character. It reflected the

hostility of the Christians towards the Jews, based on the alleged complicity of the Jews in the

murder of Jesus and their refusal to acknowledge him as the son of God. Economic anti-

Semitism developed from the Middle Ages onwards, and expressed distaste for Jews in their

capacity as money lenders and traders. Jews were thus excluded from membership of craft

guilds and prevented from owning land. The 19th

century saw the birth of racial anti-Semitism

in the work of Wagner and H S Chamberlain (1855-1929), which condemned the Jewish

peoples as fundamentally evil and destructive. These ideas provided the ideological basis for

German Nazism and found their most grotesque expression in the Holocaust (Heywood, 117).

Anarchism

Anarchists (anarchy; without rule) challenge the conventional belief that law,

government, and the state are either wholesome or indispensable. They believe that

political authority in all its forms and especially in the form of the state , is both evil

and unnecessary. They prefer a stateless society in which individuals manage their

own affairs through voluntary agreement and cooperation. This theory has been

developed on the basis of two rival traditions; liberal individualism and socialist

communitarianism. Anarchism is thus a form of ultra-liberalism, and ultra-socialism,

an intersection point of liberalism and socialism.

Liberal case against the state; This is based on individualism and the desire to

maximize liberty and choice. Individual anarchists believed that free and rational

human beings would be able to manage their affairs peacefully and spontaneously,

government being merely a form of unwanted coercion (William Dodwin, 1756-

1836). Modern individualists argue for anarchocapitalism; an extreme case of free-

market economics to explain how society, like markets, would be regulated without

the state.

Socialist case against the state; This school draws from socialist concepts and

ideas such as community, cooperation, equality, and common ownership.

Collectivist anarchists stress the human capacity for social solidarity that arises from

our sociable, gregarious (liking for companionship, sociability), and essentially

cooperative natures. Mutualism (advanced by Pierre-Joseph Poudhon 1809-65) is a

belief that small communities of artisans, peasants, craftsmen, could manage their

lives using a system of fair and equitable exchange, avoiding the injustices of

exploitation of capitalism. Anarcho-communism (advanced by Russian Peter

20

Kropotkin 1842-1921) is a system whose central principles are common ownership,

decentralization, and self–management.

Feminism

Though feminist aspirations have been expressed for a long time, dating back to

ancient China, they have not been developed into a precise political theory until the

publication of Mary Wollstonecraft‟s A Vindication of the Rights of Women ([1759-

1797]). Feminists ideas reached a wider audience after the emergence of the

women‟s suffrage (the right to vote or the freedom to exercise that right) movement

in the 1840s and 1850s. This was the period called the “First Wave” Feminism.

In the 1960s a new radical women‟s movement emerged. This is the period called

“Second Wave Feminism” spearheaded by the Women‟s Liberation Movement

(WLM). It was both radical and revolutionary. Though feminist theories are diverse,

the unifying feature or common denominator is a common desire to enhance,

through whatever means, the social role of women. This is premised on the

understanding that;

Society is characterized by sexual or gender inequality

The structure of male power and dominance can and should be overturned.

There are three contrasting feminist traditions;

o Liberal feminists (Wollstonecraft and Betty Friedan) understand

female subordination in terms of unequal distribution of rights and

opportunities in society. This “equal rights feminism” is essentially

reformist agitating for the reform of the public sphere, enhancing the

legal and political status of women, improving their education and

career prospects, but less concerned with the reordering of “private”

or domestic life.

o Socialist feminists highlight the links between female subordination

and the capitalist mode of production. That women are confined to a

family or domestic life where they relieve male workers of the burden

of domestic labour, rear and help educate the next generation of

capitalist workers, and act as a reserve army of labour.

21

o Radical feminists believe that gender divisions are the most

fundamental and politically significant cleavages in society. That all

societies are characterized by patriarchy, the institution whereby, half

of the population which is female is controlled by the other half

which is male. Radical feminists proclaim the need for a revolution

that will restructure personal, domestic, and family life. Their

characteristic slogan is “The personal is the political!”. In its extreme

sense, radical feminism portray men as the enemy and proclaim the

need for women to withdraw from male society, a stand expressed in

the form of political lesbianism.

Definition

Patriarchy; Rule by the father, the domination of the husband-father within the family and the

domination of his wife and his children (in its literal and narrow form). However, the term is

used in its more general sense of rule by men, drawing attention to the totality of oppression and

exploitation to which women are subject. The use of the term patriarchy thus implies that the

system of male power in society at large both reflects and stems from the dominance of the

father in the family. Patriarchy is a key concept in radical feminist analysis, in that it emphasizes

that gender inequality is systemic, institutionalized, and pervasive. Socialist feminists, in

contrast, highlight links between gender inequality and private property, seeing patriarchy and

capitalism as parallel systems of domination.

Environmentalism

Though currently associated with the emergence of ecological or Green movement

of the 20th

century, environmentalism can be traced back to the 19th

century revolt

against industrialization. Environmentalism reflects concern about the damage done

to the natural world by the increasing pace of economic development exacerbated by

new technologies and their consequences such as

Nuclear technology

Acid rain

Ozone depletion

Global warming etc.

It also reflects concern about the anxiety the declining quality of human existence

and ultimately the survival of the human species. This is expressed usually in the

conventional ideologies such as

22

Eco-socialism; links environmental destruction to capitalism‟s

rapacious desire for profit

Eco-conservatism; links the cause of conservation to the desire to preserve

traditional values and established institutions.

Eco-feminism; explains the cause of environmental destruction to be

found in the system of male power and domination; that men are less

sensitive than women to natural processes and the natural world.

What differentiates environmentalism from other ideologies is that it offers an

alternative to the anthropocentric or human centred stance adopted by all other

ideologies; it does not see the natural world as a convenient resource available to

satisfy human needs. It develops an eco-centric world view that portrays the human

species as merely part of nature.

There are many environmentalist schools some of whom prefer to call it ecologism;

One of the most influential theories is the Gaia hypothesis, advanced by

Lovelock (1979) which portrays planet Earth as a living organism that is

primarily with its own survival.

Eastern religions based ideologies which emphasize the oneness of life. Eg

Taoism, Zen Buddhism

“Shallow” ecologists, or “Light Greens”; that an appeal to self interest

and common sense will persuade people to adopt ecologically sound policies

and lifestyles.

“Deep” ecologists or “Dark Greens”; insist that nothing short of a

fundamental reordering of political priorities, and a willingness to place the

interests of the ecosystem before those of other species will ultimately secure

planetary and human survival.

Members of all these strands are to be found in the anti-party Green parties that have

sprung in several European countries such Germany, Austria, and elsewhere in recent

years.

23

Definition

Ecology, ecologism (from the Greek, oikos and logos, and meaning “study of the home”) is the

study of the relationship between living organisms and their environment. It thus draws

attention to the network of relationships that sustain all forms of life and highlights the

interconnectedness of nature. Ecologism is a political doctrine or ideology that is constructed on

the basis of ecological assumptions, notably about the essential link between humankind and the

natural world; humans are part of nature, not its masters. Ecologism is distinguished from

environmentalism in that the former implies the adoption of a bio-centric or eco-centric

perspective while the latter is concerned with protecting nature, ultimately for human benefit.

Anthropocentric; The belief that human needs and interests are of overriding moral and

philosophical importance; the opposite of eco-centrism (Heywood, 62).

Religious Fundamentalism

Religion and politics have always over-lapped. Ethical socialism has always been

associated with Christian socialism and Islamic socialism. Protestantism is also

associated with classical liberalism. However, religious fundamentalism is different.

Religious fundamentalism views politics as being secondary to the revealed truth of

religious doctrine. Political and social life should be organized on the basis of what

are seen as essential or original religious principles, commonly supported by a

belief in the literal truth of sacred texts.

Definition;

Fundamentalism; (from the Latin fundamentum, meaning base) is a style of thought in

which certain principles are recognized as essential truths that have unchangeable and

overriding authority, regardless of their content. Substantive fundamentalisms therefore have

little or nothing in common, except that their supporters tend to evince an earnestness or fervour

born out of doctrinal certainty. Although it is usually associated with religion, and the literal

truth of sacred texts, fundamentalism can be found in political creeds. Even liberal scepticism

can be said to incorporate the fundamental belief that all theories should be doubted (except for

itself). Although the term is often used pejoratively, to imply inflexibility, dogmatism and

authoritarianism, fundamentalism may give expression to selfishness and a devotion to principle

(Heywood, 63).

24

Future of Ideology

Debate about the end of ideology has taken a number of forms. In the early post-

Second-World-War period, it was linked to the declining appeal of fascism and

communism and the view that economic issues had displaced ideological ones. The

“End of History” thesis suggests that liberal democracy has triumphed worldwide.

Conventional ideologies of both left and right have become increasingly redundant

in a society characterized by globalization, the decline of tradition, and the

expansion of social reflexivity. Postmodernism implies that conventional ideologies

are irrelevant, as they were intrinsically a product of an earlier period of

modernization.

Definition

Social Reflexivity; Interaction between people who enjoy a high level of autonomy within

a context of reciprocity and independence.

References

Arblaster, A. (1984) The Rise and Decline of Western Liberalism. Oxford: Basil

Blackwell

Bryson, V. (1992) Feminist Political Thought: An Introduction. Basingstoke:

MacMillan.

Dobson, A. (1990) Green Political Thought. London: Roughtledge.

Giddens A. (ed.) (2001) The Global Third Way Debate. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Hague Rod and Martin Harrop (2001) Comparative Politics and Government:

An Introduction, (5th ed.). Palgrave Foundation: Basingstoke and New York.

Hays R. Allen (2001) Who Speaks for the Poor? National Interest and Social Policy.

Garland Press.

Heywood Andrew (2002) Politics, (2nd

ed.). Palgrave Foundation, Basingstoke and

New York.

______ (1997) Political Ideologies: An Introduction (2nd

ed.). Palgrave Foundation,

Basingstoke and New York.

Keylor R. William (1996) The Twentieth Century World: An International History.

New York: University of Oxford Press.

25

Lacqueur, W. (ed.) (1979) Fascism: A Reader’s Guide. Harmondsworth: Penguin;

Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Lindblom Charles (1977) Politics and Markets: The World’s Political Economic

Systems. Basic Books.

Marshall, P. (1991) Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London:

Harper Collins.

Marty, M. E. and R.S. Appleby (1993) Fundamentalism and the State: Remaking

Politics, Economics and Militance. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

McLellan, D. Ideology (1986) Milton Keynes Open University Press ; Minneapolis;

University of Minnesota.

O‟Sullivan, N. (1976) Conservatism . London: Dent.

Williamson, P. (1985) Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion. London.:

MacMillan.

Wright A. (1987) Socialisms: Theories and Practices. Oxford; oxford University

Press.