Political Leadership Political Leadership

Alistair ColeAlistair Cole

Political leadershipPolitical leadership A key distinguishing feature within the academic literature has A key distinguishing feature within the academic literature has

been between those advocating universal propositions about been between those advocating universal propositions about political leadership; and those concerned with a more limited, political leadership; and those concerned with a more limited, usually national, framework usually national, framework

Jean Blondel’s attempt to construct a universal model of Jean Blondel’s attempt to construct a universal model of political leadership proves the weaknesses of over-ambitious political leadership proves the weaknesses of over-ambitious definitions of leadership.definitions of leadership.

Blondel proposes a general model of political leadership Blondel proposes a general model of political leadership claimed to be valid for all polities. Little account of different claimed to be valid for all polities. Little account of different systemic contexts within which leadership is exercised; for systemic contexts within which leadership is exercised; for instance between liberal democratic, authoritarian, traditional instance between liberal democratic, authoritarian, traditional or military leaderships. Extensive coverage… but what really or military leaderships. Extensive coverage… but what really is being said?is being said?

DefinitionsDefinitions Blondel: leadership is ‘ability to make others do what they would not Blondel: leadership is ‘ability to make others do what they would not

otherwise do’. Classic face of power (Lukes). Leadership is exercise of otherwise do’. Classic face of power (Lukes). Leadership is exercise of coercive power. coercive power.

Elgie, 'political leadership is best understood as the control over the public Elgie, 'political leadership is best understood as the control over the public policy-making process by a particular institution'. This limits the study of policy-making process by a particular institution'. This limits the study of political leadership to one of interaction between formal institutions, and political leadership to one of interaction between formal institutions, and overlooks or underplays the mobilising aspect of individual political overlooks or underplays the mobilising aspect of individual political action. action.

Charismatic leadership (Weber). Leadership as mobilisationCharismatic leadership (Weber). Leadership as mobilisation Leader-follower relations ( Burns) Leadership relationalLeader-follower relations ( Burns) Leadership relational Symbolic leadership (Blondel)Symbolic leadership (Blondel) Psycho-biographies and socio-psychological studies define leadership in Psycho-biographies and socio-psychological studies define leadership in

terms of personal attributes of leaders, typically ‘authoritarian personality’.terms of personal attributes of leaders, typically ‘authoritarian personality’. Leadership can be all of these…a transversal concept which requires Leadership can be all of these…a transversal concept which requires

framework of analyses to allow operationalisation. framework of analyses to allow operationalisation.

Framework of analysis 1.Framework of analysis 1. Leadership is multidisciplinary. It has attracted work in the fields of Leadership is multidisciplinary. It has attracted work in the fields of

psychology, management studies, organisational theory, and history, as psychology, management studies, organisational theory, and history, as well as from political scientists.well as from political scientists.

Within the framework of political science, most attention has been centered Within the framework of political science, most attention has been centered upon:upon:

the institutional offices or positions occupied by leadersthe institutional offices or positions occupied by leaders the personality traits associated with leadership (what distinguishs leaders the personality traits associated with leadership (what distinguishs leaders

from routine office-holders, for instance)from routine office-holders, for instance) the political environment or settings within which political leaders operatethe political environment or settings within which political leaders operate Styles of leadership, both individual and collectiveStyles of leadership, both individual and collective Leadership as part of broader core executive studiesLeadership as part of broader core executive studies Most involve some combination of the personal qualities of leaders, their Most involve some combination of the personal qualities of leaders, their

positional strengths and weaknesses, and the wider environmental and positional strengths and weaknesses, and the wider environmental and cultural constraints and opportunities that help shape their political cultural constraints and opportunities that help shape their political leadership. Frameworks give rise to a number of questionsleadership. Frameworks give rise to a number of questions

Structure and AgencyStructure and Agency What is the interplay between What is the interplay between structure and agencystructure and agency? ? To what extent are political leaders bound by structural and To what extent are political leaders bound by structural and

political constraints; how far are they free agents, able to political constraints; how far are they free agents, able to determine leadership goals and policy outcomes? determine leadership goals and policy outcomes?

Are certain types of leader (for example the caretaker, the Are certain types of leader (for example the caretaker, the authoritarian, the visionary, or the coalition broker) suited to authoritarian, the visionary, or the coalition broker) suited to certain types of environmental setting? certain types of environmental setting?

Do particular psychological character traits (such as an Do particular psychological character traits (such as an authoritarian personality) predispose certain individuals for authoritarian personality) predispose certain individuals for political leadership?political leadership?

Leadership settings:Germany as a Leadership settings:Germany as a case studycase study

Appreciating leadership potential depends first and foremost upon understanding Appreciating leadership potential depends first and foremost upon understanding the structural bases of a given polity.the structural bases of a given polity.

The case of Germany illustrates this well .The domestic political setting within The case of Germany illustrates this well .The domestic political setting within which a German chancellor functions is far more restricted than that of his French which a German chancellor functions is far more restricted than that of his French or British counterparts. or British counterparts.

Post-war German political leadership has been built upon a political structure Post-war German political leadership has been built upon a political structure which embodies the diffusion of power across several interlocking institutions. which embodies the diffusion of power across several interlocking institutions.

The forces militating against strong leadership include: the compromises inherent The forces militating against strong leadership include: the compromises inherent in coalition management, the impact of factional politics within the governing in coalition management, the impact of factional politics within the governing coalition, the federal system, which vests a virtual veto power in the hands of state coalition, the federal system, which vests a virtual veto power in the hands of state governments and the second chamber; the prevalence of sectoral corporatism as a governments and the second chamber; the prevalence of sectoral corporatism as a model of state-group relations, and the impact of a particular institutional model of state-group relations, and the impact of a particular institutional framework designed to dissipate decision-making authority across separate, but framework designed to dissipate decision-making authority across separate, but interdependent institutions.interdependent institutions.

These constraints can also become opportunities for astute and skilful politicians, These constraints can also become opportunities for astute and skilful politicians, but leadership constrained by memory.but leadership constrained by memory.

Agency and individualsAgency and individuals Personal character traits are an important facet of an ability to exercise Personal character traits are an important facet of an ability to exercise

political leadership. political leadership. The leadership qualities of decisiveness, strength, resolution, risk-taking, The leadership qualities of decisiveness, strength, resolution, risk-taking,

vision and imagination are differentially distributed, irrespective of wider vision and imagination are differentially distributed, irrespective of wider structural circumstances.structural circumstances.

Different personal skills are appropriate to varying leadership styles and Different personal skills are appropriate to varying leadership styles and circumstances. Certain leaders appear to possess personal characteristics circumstances. Certain leaders appear to possess personal characteristics enabling them to leave their permanent imprint upon their offices. the enabling them to leave their permanent imprint upon their offices. the examples of Charles de Gaulle in France and Konrad Adenuaer in examples of Charles de Gaulle in France and Konrad Adenuaer in Germany were exemplary in this respect.Germany were exemplary in this respect.

As with the French presidency and de Gaulle, the character of the German As with the French presidency and de Gaulle, the character of the German Chancellorship owes a great deal to the legacy of the first Chancellor, Chancellorship owes a great deal to the legacy of the first Chancellor, Adenauer. Adenauer crafted the chancellorship into a powerful weapon of Adenauer. Adenauer crafted the chancellorship into a powerful weapon of executive leadership.executive leadership.

Leadership RolesLeadership Roles WhatWhat leadership roles leadership roles are performed? Successful political leadership in complex are performed? Successful political leadership in complex

liberal democracies depends upon the ability to perform different roles appropriate liberal democracies depends upon the ability to perform different roles appropriate to variable contexts.to variable contexts.

The qualities required of a party manager are not always the same as those for a The qualities required of a party manager are not always the same as those for a governmental coordinator; the skills required for domestic economic management governmental coordinator; the skills required for domestic economic management are distinct from those of the foreign policy suzerain.are distinct from those of the foreign policy suzerain.

The extent to which individual political leaders are able to carry out particular roles The extent to which individual political leaders are able to carry out particular roles is predicated in part upon the nature of the office they occupy; Mitterrand and is predicated in part upon the nature of the office they occupy; Mitterrand and Thatcher performed foreign policy roles that were, arguably, not available to Thatcher performed foreign policy roles that were, arguably, not available to Chancellor Kohl in the 1980s, on account of the constrained leadership setting Chancellor Kohl in the 1980s, on account of the constrained leadership setting within which German chancellors then operated. The structure of the domestic within which German chancellors then operated. The structure of the domestic political system is one very important dimension of political leadership. political system is one very important dimension of political leadership.

But roles are not, literally, pre-given. But roles are not, literally, pre-given. To a degree, individuals can determine the To a degree, individuals can determine the roles they perform, or even invent new ones. Sarkozy is arguably crafting the roles they perform, or even invent new ones. Sarkozy is arguably crafting the French presidency into a new type of political officeFrench presidency into a new type of political office

Position: Presidential Leadership Position: Presidential Leadership The key principle of a pure presidential system (such as the US) is that one The key principle of a pure presidential system (such as the US) is that one

individual symbolises the political executive, and is ultimately responsible individual symbolises the political executive, and is ultimately responsible for the activities of the government: in the US, the President in theory for the activities of the government: in the US, the President in theory fulfils this function, although in practice it is impossible for the President fulfils this function, although in practice it is impossible for the President always to know what is going on in his name. always to know what is going on in his name.

The US President combines the functions of Head of State and Head of The US President combines the functions of Head of State and Head of Government. The President is elected - by electoral college - and is Government. The President is elected - by electoral college - and is responsible only to the people. responsible only to the people.

Thus, in pure presidential systems, governments are responsible to the Thus, in pure presidential systems, governments are responsible to the President alone, and can not be overturned by elected Parliaments. They President alone, and can not be overturned by elected Parliaments. They will, however, change with a change of presidential incumbent. will, however, change with a change of presidential incumbent.

In the US system, there is a separation of powers, with legislative, In the US system, there is a separation of powers, with legislative, executive and judicial branches of government separate from each other executive and judicial branches of government separate from each other and providing checks and balances on each other’s operation. and providing checks and balances on each other’s operation.

In most countries with powerful Presidents, however, there is no such In most countries with powerful Presidents, however, there is no such pattern of divided government – and the presidential form equates with a pattern of divided government – and the presidential form equates with a powerful form of unchecked – and often corrupt – executive power (the powerful form of unchecked – and often corrupt – executive power (the model in Africa, for example).model in Africa, for example).

Position:Parliamentary leadershipPosition:Parliamentary leadership

In parliamentary systems, by contrast, government is held to be a collective In parliamentary systems, by contrast, government is held to be a collective enterprise: responsibility for government decisions is invested in a enterprise: responsibility for government decisions is invested in a collective body known as a cabinet, or a Council of ministers. collective body known as a cabinet, or a Council of ministers.

The Prime minister is the foremost personality within Cabinet, but The Prime minister is the foremost personality within Cabinet, but decision-making is collective. The PM is not directly elected, and can be decision-making is collective. The PM is not directly elected, and can be overturned by a negative vote in an elected Parliament. In parliamentary overturned by a negative vote in an elected Parliament. In parliamentary systems, governments are held to be responsible to elected Assemblies, systems, governments are held to be responsible to elected Assemblies, themselves representative of the people.themselves representative of the people.

In a pure presidential system, such as the US, the executive is separate In a pure presidential system, such as the US, the executive is separate from the legislature: members of the US government can not be members from the legislature: members of the US government can not be members of Congress as well. In a parliamentary system, such as the UK, the of Congress as well. In a parliamentary system, such as the UK, the executive is drawn from the legislature: members of the government are executive is drawn from the legislature: members of the government are first elected as members of Parliament. In nearly all European states, there first elected as members of Parliament. In nearly all European states, there is a fusion of powers, rather than a strict separation. is a fusion of powers, rather than a strict separation.

Semi-presidential systemSemi-presidential system The The semi-presidential systemsemi-presidential system combines features of the combines features of the

presidential and the parliamentary presidential and the parliamentary A semi-presidential system combines a directly elected A semi-presidential system combines a directly elected

President and a government responsible to parliament. President and a government responsible to parliament. Francois (2008): France’s semi-presidential system equates Francois (2008): France’s semi-presidential system equates

with the lack of political responsibility of the core executive with the lack of political responsibility of the core executive leader, the President, who is de facto unaccountable. leader, the President, who is de facto unaccountable.

Executive drawn in part only from elected Assembly. Rule of Executive drawn in part only from elected Assembly. Rule of incompatibility. Nomination by President of personalities who incompatibility. Nomination by President of personalities who have not been electedhave not been elected

A model that is not really for export? A model that is not really for export?

Political Leadership in comparative context (1) formal Political Leadership in comparative context (1) formal constitutional resourcesconstitutional resources

Proposition 1: formal constitutional powers are a Proposition 1: formal constitutional powers are a necessary, but not sufficient component of leadershipnecessary, but not sufficient component of leadership

the powers vested by the constitution on the core the powers vested by the constitution on the core executive leaderexecutive leader

Power of nominationPower of nomination Powers of selection and dismissal of ministersPowers of selection and dismissal of ministers Limits on terms in office?Limits on terms in office? Specific constitutional responsibilities, e.g. in defenceSpecific constitutional responsibilities, e.g. in defence Limitations to exercise of core executive authority? EG Limitations to exercise of core executive authority? EG

the guarantee of individual ministerial autonomy in the the guarantee of individual ministerial autonomy in the FRG. FRG.

Political Leadership in comparative context (2) role of Political Leadership in comparative context (2) role of party systemparty system

Proposition 2 .Role of party system in producing homogeneous versus Proposition 2 .Role of party system in producing homogeneous versus coalition governments. The strong prime minister at the head of a coalition governments. The strong prime minister at the head of a disciplined party majority is likely to exercise tighter control over disciplined party majority is likely to exercise tighter control over government than the broker-style leader of a coalition of five or so partiesgovernment than the broker-style leader of a coalition of five or so parties

The nature of the relationship between government and governing The nature of the relationship between government and governing party/coalition is vital. The colonisation of important ministries by a party/coalition is vital. The colonisation of important ministries by a coalition partner (e.g. Welfare by Social democrats in Germany) can coalition partner (e.g. Welfare by Social democrats in Germany) can frustrate the claim by the premier to exercise political leadership. Party frustrate the claim by the premier to exercise political leadership. Party political and organisational variables can conflictpolitical and organisational variables can conflict

Style of leadership likely to be strongly influenced by the party system. Style of leadership likely to be strongly influenced by the party system. Are brokerage skills rewarded, for example, or are is the relationship Are brokerage skills rewarded, for example, or are is the relationship framed in terms of providential leader and subordination? There are no framed in terms of providential leader and subordination? There are no absolute rules, but behavuoural observations.absolute rules, but behavuoural observations.

Political Leadership in Political Leadership in comparative context (3) comparative context (3) Nature of elective mandateNature of elective mandate

Proposition 3. Direct election and elective legitimacy. The core executive Proposition 3. Direct election and elective legitimacy. The core executive leader who has been directly elected (such as the French President) enjoys leader who has been directly elected (such as the French President) enjoys an additional elective legitimacy by comparison to parliamentary prime an additional elective legitimacy by comparison to parliamentary prime ministers. French President remains in office for the duration of a mandate ministers. French President remains in office for the duration of a mandate and can not be overturned by a party or parliamentary revolt, unlike in and can not be overturned by a party or parliamentary revolt, unlike in Germany, UK or Italy. Germany, UK or Italy.

On the other hand, direct presidential elections do not automatically invest On the other hand, direct presidential elections do not automatically invest officeholders with increased power, as the Portuguese or Finnish examples officeholders with increased power, as the Portuguese or Finnish examples demonstrate.demonstrate.

New democracies in central and eastern Europe tempted by institutional New democracies in central and eastern Europe tempted by institutional

design of the semi-presidential system, but in practice have evolved into design of the semi-presidential system, but in practice have evolved into parliamentary regimes. parliamentary regimes.

Political Leadership in comparative context (4):Political Leadership in comparative context (4): Elections and government formationElections and government formation

Proposition 4 Elections and government formation.Proposition 4 Elections and government formation. The closer the link between electoral victory and government formation, the The closer the link between electoral victory and government formation, the

stronger the position of the office holder. stronger the position of the office holder. The strength of the British PM (and, for that matter, the German Chancellor) The strength of the British PM (and, for that matter, the German Chancellor)

usually relates to the fact that s/he has led the ruling party to a victorious general usually relates to the fact that s/he has led the ruling party to a victorious general election. election.

There is- usually - a strong relationship between general elections and government There is- usually - a strong relationship between general elections and government formation, even in case of the Grand coalition. formation, even in case of the Grand coalition.

In Italy, or France, this relationship is less apparent ‑ which limits the political In Italy, or France, this relationship is less apparent ‑ which limits the political prestige of the Prime ministerprestige of the Prime minister

Thus, Helmut Kohl, Margaret Thatcher or Tony Blair all led their parties to Thus, Helmut Kohl, Margaret Thatcher or Tony Blair all led their parties to successive electoral victories, thereby strengthening their leadership positions. successive electoral victories, thereby strengthening their leadership positions. Although Thatcher and Blair was eventually overturned by a party revolt, and Although Thatcher and Blair was eventually overturned by a party revolt, and Kohl’s leadership threatened to go the same way, there is no doubt that Kohl and Kohl’s leadership threatened to go the same way, there is no doubt that Kohl and Thatcher had more authority and power than a string of Italian premiers whose Thatcher had more authority and power than a string of Italian premiers whose occupancy of the premiership was decided by party committee in between election occupancy of the premiership was decided by party committee in between election periods. periods.

After all, who can remember Spaldolini in Italy?After all, who can remember Spaldolini in Italy?

Political Leadership in comparative context (5) Political Leadership in comparative context (5) longevity of officelongevity of office

longevity in office. This is a precondition to longevity in office. This is a precondition to exercising effective political leadership..exercising effective political leadership..

Learning leadership, exploiting opportunitiesLearning leadership, exploiting opportunities But experience also demonstrates that it is But experience also demonstrates that it is

extremely rare for any one leader to stay in extremely rare for any one leader to stay in office more than 10 years or so…The nature of office more than 10 years or so…The nature of obstacles in the democratic processobstacles in the democratic process

Political Leadership in comparative context (6): Political Leadership in comparative context (6): Relations within and beyond the core executiveRelations within and beyond the core executive

Political leadership is behavioural; in part a function of the relations of Political leadership is behavioural; in part a function of the relations of political leaders with other decision-making actors, both within and outside political leaders with other decision-making actors, both within and outside of the core executive.of the core executive.

Relations between Prime ministers, Finance ministers, spending ministries Relations between Prime ministers, Finance ministers, spending ministries often tense crystallises tensions at a macro level… duplicated by rivalries often tense crystallises tensions at a macro level… duplicated by rivalries between bureaucratic divisionsbetween bureaucratic divisions

Government = competition for scarce resources. Nature of bureaucratic Government = competition for scarce resources. Nature of bureaucratic resources, rules and regulation. Who has the best expertise? What rules resources, rules and regulation. Who has the best expertise? What rules govern access to these resources? How are promotions managed in the govern access to these resources? How are promotions managed in the civil service? What is role of political appointments – or spoils systemscivil service? What is role of political appointments – or spoils systems

Leadership is positional + relational… Powerful external relations can Leadership is positional + relational… Powerful external relations can strengthen a PMs internal standing. strengthen a PMs internal standing.

Political Leadership in comparative context (7) Political Leadership in comparative context (7) constraints and resourcesconstraints and resources

the existence or otherwise of institutional and the existence or otherwise of institutional and political counter-weights to strong leadership (such political counter-weights to strong leadership (such as constitutional courts, a written constitution, or a as constitutional courts, a written constitution, or a constraining party system). constraining party system).

The role of Assemblies and – especially – The role of Assemblies and – especially – constitutional courts is critical importance hereconstitutional courts is critical importance here

The rise of the EU regulatory state and the legal order The rise of the EU regulatory state and the legal order basis of the European Union and the ECJ, has basis of the European Union and the ECJ, has provided a powerful check on unbridled executive provided a powerful check on unbridled executive authority.authority.

Germany 1.Germany 1. German ChancellorsGerman Chancellors have generally proved strong leaders have generally proved strong leaders In Germany the post-war period has seen the emergence of a strong In Germany the post-war period has seen the emergence of a strong

political office in the form of the Chancellor. It was believed by the allies political office in the form of the Chancellor. It was believed by the allies that the absense of strong, institutionalised leadership had been partly that the absense of strong, institutionalised leadership had been partly responsible for the rise of Nazism. For this reason, it was important to responsible for the rise of Nazism. For this reason, it was important to strengthen the Chancellor at the expense of the President‑ whose capacity strengthen the Chancellor at the expense of the President‑ whose capacity for intrigue had to be broken. The pre‑eminence of the Chancellor was for intrigue had to be broken. The pre‑eminence of the Chancellor was recognised in the Basic Law (Guideline principles) strengthened by the recognised in the Basic Law (Guideline principles) strengthened by the following provisionsfollowing provisions

1.1. He can not be dismissed by the President of the Republic (unlike He can not be dismissed by the President of the Republic (unlike in France)in France)

2.2. he can only be dismissed by the Bundestag in the event of a vote he can only be dismissed by the Bundestag in the event of a vote of ‘constructive no confidence’ being passed against him. This involves an of ‘constructive no confidence’ being passed against him. This involves an absolute majority against the incumbent chancellor in the Bundestag ‑ an absolute majority against the incumbent chancellor in the Bundestag ‑ an unlikely occurrence except for a shift in policy alliances. The CVNC has unlikely occurrence except for a shift in policy alliances. The CVNC has been a German constitutional export: Spain and Poland have followed suit. been a German constitutional export: Spain and Poland have followed suit.

Germany 2.Germany 2. The German Chancellor who has led his party/ coalition to The German Chancellor who has led his party/ coalition to

victory in an election finds himself in a strong position: victory in an election finds himself in a strong position: relatively disciplined party support; focus of media attention relatively disciplined party support; focus of media attention during elections.during elections.

This position reinforced by the Convention that he should be This position reinforced by the Convention that he should be appointed for the duration of a legislature. The only exceptions appointed for the duration of a legislature. The only exceptions to this rule have been Adenauer's retirement in 1963, and the to this rule have been Adenauer's retirement in 1963, and the resignations of Brandt, Schmidt in mid‑office and Schroder’s resignations of Brandt, Schmidt in mid‑office and Schroder’s 2005 dissolution.2005 dissolution.

Between 1949 and 2007, Germany had shown more stability Between 1949 and 2007, Germany had shown more stability of personnel than in any other of the countries considered: it of personnel than in any other of the countries considered: it has had only 8 Chancellors during this period (Adenauer, has had only 8 Chancellors during this period (Adenauer, Erhard, Kiesinger, Brandt, Schmidt, Kohl, GS and AM). Erhard, Kiesinger, Brandt, Schmidt, Kohl, GS and AM).

Constraints on a German ChancellorConstraints on a German Chancellor

According to the principle of According to the principle of RessortprinzipRessortprinzip, enshrined in the Basic law, , enshrined in the Basic law, each Minister is responsible for running his own department, and the each Minister is responsible for running his own department, and the Chancellor can not order a Minister to run department in a different way Chancellor can not order a Minister to run department in a different way (unlike in the UK, eg). (unlike in the UK, eg).

The existence of coalition partners constrains the Chancellor, to the extent The existence of coalition partners constrains the Chancellor, to the extent that bargains must be struck which other leaders might dispense with. that bargains must be struck which other leaders might dispense with.

And fixed-term parliaments effectively make it extremely difficult for And fixed-term parliaments effectively make it extremely difficult for Chancellors to dissolve the Bundedstag, in order to seek general elections Chancellors to dissolve the Bundedstag, in order to seek general elections at favourable moments: this is one of the reasons which makes the British at favourable moments: this is one of the reasons which makes the British and French leaders so powerful.and French leaders so powerful.

As measured by this checklist, in their domestic settings German As measured by this checklist, in their domestic settings German Chancellors occupy a median position amongst west European leaders. In Chancellors occupy a median position amongst west European leaders. In practice, there is no real equivalent in Germany of the French or British practice, there is no real equivalent in Germany of the French or British ministerial reshuffle: traditions of ministerial autonomy and of coalition ministerial reshuffle: traditions of ministerial autonomy and of coalition capture of particular portfolios are far too strong for this.capture of particular portfolios are far too strong for this.

ItalyItaly ItalyItaly During the first Italian Republic, the Italian premier generally had only a During the first Italian Republic, the Italian premier generally had only a

minor role to play, but the office strengthened under Berlusconi and Prodi.minor role to play, but the office strengthened under Berlusconi and Prodi. Until 1994, Italian governments lasted for less than one year on average. Ministers Until 1994, Italian governments lasted for less than one year on average. Ministers

were imposed upon an Italian premier by considerations of party and factional were imposed upon an Italian premier by considerations of party and factional balance within the ruling coalition. balance within the ruling coalition.

The means at the disposal of an Italian premier for co-ordinating governmental The means at the disposal of an Italian premier for co-ordinating governmental action were derisory, despite a large bureaucratic apparatus under direct control of action were derisory, despite a large bureaucratic apparatus under direct control of the premier. the premier.

Italian premiers were so weak because they presided over coalition governments, Italian premiers were so weak because they presided over coalition governments, navigated between divided political parties, were responsible to a parliament navigated between divided political parties, were responsible to a parliament determined to assert its control, and in general did not benefit from a strong determined to assert its control, and in general did not benefit from a strong relationship between election results and government formation. relationship between election results and government formation.

The post-1994 Italian regime has gone some way to rebalancing this, with the The post-1994 Italian regime has gone some way to rebalancing this, with the governments of Prodi and Berlusconi creating a bipolar competition assisted by the governments of Prodi and Berlusconi creating a bipolar competition assisted by the majoritarian electoral system and providing stronger, though deeply contested and majoritarian electoral system and providing stronger, though deeply contested and still coalition-dependent leadership. still coalition-dependent leadership.

Extent of the role of institutional engineering in creating political outcomes. Extent of the role of institutional engineering in creating political outcomes.

Britain 1.Britain 1. UKUK The British Premier, by any standards, occupies a key leadership The British Premier, by any standards, occupies a key leadership

position within the family of west European nations.position within the family of west European nations. British prime ministers have often appeared in a stronger leadership British prime ministers have often appeared in a stronger leadership

position than their European counterparts. There is a close linkage position than their European counterparts. There is a close linkage between the leadership of an electorally majoritarian political party and the between the leadership of an electorally majoritarian political party and the exercise of the office of Prime minister.exercise of the office of Prime minister.

Election campaigns are centred around the personalities of rival party Election campaigns are centred around the personalities of rival party leaders, as much as the policies espoused by their parties; the success of leaders, as much as the policies espoused by their parties; the success of Tony Blair in 1997 was testament to this. There is also a close relationship Tony Blair in 1997 was testament to this. There is also a close relationship between electoral success and government formation. Strengthened by the between electoral success and government formation. Strengthened by the majoritarian effects of the first-past-the post electoral system, elections majoritarian effects of the first-past-the post electoral system, elections tend to produce single party majorities. tend to produce single party majorities.

Successful Prime ministers have usually been able to rely on disciplined Successful Prime ministers have usually been able to rely on disciplined party support. But Thatcher, Major, Blair all constrained by their parties. party support. But Thatcher, Major, Blair all constrained by their parties.

Britain 2.Britain 2. Unlike their German, Italian and French counterparts, they have not been Unlike their German, Italian and French counterparts, they have not been

tightly constrained by a written constitution outlining their powers and tightly constrained by a written constitution outlining their powers and responsibilities; indeed, the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty removes responsibilities; indeed, the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty removes most checks and balances on a British premier’s use of executive authority, most checks and balances on a British premier’s use of executive authority, on condition that a parliamentary majority is retained. on condition that a parliamentary majority is retained.

British premiers have powerful sources of patronage at their disposal; each British premiers have powerful sources of patronage at their disposal; each recent incumbent has made regular use of their freedom to hire and fire recent incumbent has made regular use of their freedom to hire and fire ministerial colleagues. At the height of her activism in July 1989, for ministerial colleagues. At the height of her activism in July 1989, for instance, Mrs Thatcher replaced or reshuffled 12 out of 21 Cabinet instance, Mrs Thatcher replaced or reshuffled 12 out of 21 Cabinet ministers. ministers.

The departure of Margaret Thatcher in 1990 or Blair in 2007 also revealed The departure of Margaret Thatcher in 1990 or Blair in 2007 also revealed the limits to prime ministerial power in Britain, however; a disillusioned the limits to prime ministerial power in Britain, however; a disillusioned party will not tolerate a leader with whom it has lost faith, even when this party will not tolerate a leader with whom it has lost faith, even when this is an incumbent prime minister.is an incumbent prime minister.

While ministerial autonomy is less manifest than in the German case, any While ministerial autonomy is less manifest than in the German case, any British Prime minister must be careful not to ride roughshod over powerful British Prime minister must be careful not to ride roughshod over powerful ministers. An embattled premier such as Blair could not afford to lose ministers. An embattled premier such as Blair could not afford to lose senior ministerial colleagues; hence the effectiveness of the Chancellor of senior ministerial colleagues; hence the effectiveness of the Chancellor of the Exchequer Clarke…the Exchequer Clarke…

FranceFrance FranceFrance Along with the British premier, the French President is a serious contender Along with the British premier, the French President is a serious contender

for the key executive office in western Europe.for the key executive office in western Europe. The President is directly elected for a five year period: direct election confers a The President is directly elected for a five year period: direct election confers a

status on the French President which his colleagues find difficult to match. status on the French President which his colleagues find difficult to match. Until the Until the quinquennatquinquennat reforms of 2000, the presidential term of office was longer reforms of 2000, the presidential term of office was longer

than that of any of his counterparts. Whatever the French constitution says, French than that of any of his counterparts. Whatever the French constitution says, French Presidents have enjoyed considerable freedom of manoeuvre in selecting and Presidents have enjoyed considerable freedom of manoeuvre in selecting and dismissing prime ministers and ministers; and in personalising control over core dismissing prime ministers and ministers; and in personalising control over core policy choices. policy choices.

French Presidents dispose of powerful sources of political patronage, and most French Presidents dispose of powerful sources of political patronage, and most Presidents have been backed by solid parliamentary majorities. Presidents have been backed by solid parliamentary majorities.

In instances of In instances of cohabitationcohabitation (1986-88, 1993-95; 1997-) the prime minister has (1986-88, 1993-95; 1997-) the prime minister has become the chief executive leader, with uncontested control over domestic policy, become the chief executive leader, with uncontested control over domestic policy, but having to contend with continuing presidential involvement in the but having to contend with continuing presidential involvement in the ‘presidential’ sector of foreign affairs, defence and European integration. ‘presidential’ sector of foreign affairs, defence and European integration.

As in the other systems surveyed, individual ministers can occupy pivotal positions, As in the other systems surveyed, individual ministers can occupy pivotal positions, but they are less secure in their tenure than in Germany but they are less secure in their tenure than in Germany

Poland and Czech RepublicPoland and Czech Republic

Czech Republic and Poland. Czech Republic and Poland. In both cases, In both cases, early transition saw the development of strong early transition saw the development of strong Presidents.. but , faced with the accession Presidents.. but , faced with the accession process and problems of political majroty process and problems of political majroty building, Prime ministers, at the head of building, Prime ministers, at the head of shifting party coalitions, have emerged as shifting party coalitions, have emerged as much stronger figures, with the corresponding much stronger figures, with the corresponding decline of the Presidency. decline of the Presidency.