Political Organizations

anthropology’s interest in power and maintenance of order

►political organization refers to the way power is distributed and embedded in societies

►who has power►how does power differ from authority►how is power organized and

administered►How is order maintained►How is conflict organized

Political organizations and the Political organizations and the maintenance of ordermaintenance of order

►Social control needed for people to live Social control needed for people to live together together

► Joking, ridicule and derision often used to Joking, ridicule and derision often used to keep deviant behavior in check keep deviant behavior in check

►Song duels using derisive songs to solve Song duels using derisive songs to solve conflicts between individuals conflicts between individuals

►Ostracism - banning a person from a Ostracism - banning a person from a group group

► Judiciary systems Judiciary systems

Eric Wolf: 4 Modalities of Eric Wolf: 4 Modalities of PowerPower

► Potency, capability, charisma (individual)Potency, capability, charisma (individual)► Ability of person to impose its will in social Ability of person to impose its will in social

action upon anotheraction upon another► Tactical or organizational power -- The Tactical or organizational power -- The

instrumentalities through which individuals instrumentalities through which individuals or groups direct or circumscribe the actions or groups direct or circumscribe the actions of othersof others

► Structural power – power that organizes and Structural power – power that organizes and orchestrates the settings themselves & that orchestrates the settings themselves & that specifies the direction & distribution of specifies the direction & distribution of energy flowsenergy flows

distinction between power and authority

►power: ability to bring about results power may be informal and based on

force coercive power versus persuasive power Symbolic power based on positive

expectations of those who accede to it►authority is the socially recognized

right to exert power►legitimacy - the socially recognized

right to hold, use, and allocate power

political organizations:an early pre-occupation of

anthropologists

►British India and Africa: how are people ruled without a state

►Victorian Europe and the appearance of the modern nation-state

►idea of acephalous societies without heads

early evolutionary scheme matched with subsistence

strategies►band, tribe, chiefdom, state (Elman

Service) foragers, horticulturalists, agriculturalists,

industrialists

►different types of political organization related to subsistence strategy population density and heterogeneity degree of hierarchy and social stratification presence of bounded territory degree of formalization of rule

Band, Tribe, Chiefdom, StateBand, Tribe, Chiefdom, State

Band, Tribe, Chiefdom, StateBand, Tribe, Chiefdom, State

►sequence can be replaced with contrast between uncentralized and centralized political systems

►Replace evolutionary perspective with: ethnographic present historical perspective

Bands and Tribes:Uncentralized political systems►associated with:

subsistence level economies such as foraging

small, homogeneous populations little social stratification relatively autonomous groups often relatively mobile without strict

territorial boundaries formal leader or organization beyond

kinship rare

Chiefdom & State:Centralized political systems

► associated with: intensive agricultural or industrialization

► technology becomes more complicated► labour specialization increases

large, diverse population less mobility opportunity for control of resources appears appearance of coercive force

►Wolf’s 3rd modality

male leaders more frequent political authority is concentrated in a single

individual (chiefdoms) or a body of individuals (the state)

the band► small group of politically independent,

though related, households►all social relationships based on kinship► least complex form of political organization

perhaps the oldest form as well►associated with foraging forms of

subsistence►decisions made through consensus

disgruntled leave►no fixed leadership, only informal

recognition of prowess typically male, but females have power as well most successful hunter and most senior woman

The bandThe band

►Bands of generally less than 100 Bands of generally less than 100 people tied by kinship and marriage people tied by kinship and marriage

►Membership fluid Membership fluid ►Egalitarian with some gender and age Egalitarian with some gender and age

differences differences ►Conflict resolution by social means Conflict resolution by social means ►Prestige based on ability Prestige based on ability

The Tribe

►tribal system consists of separate bands or villages

►integrated through lineages, clans, age grades, or other associations cross-cutting kinship and territory less autonomy for greater security

►associated with farming or herding subsistence strategies greater food production

►greater population density

The tribeThe tribe►consists of one or more autonomous

communities which may then form alliances

►may range across a broad territory►social stratification related to kinship and

cross-cutting associations►needs for alliance

defense or raiding pooling of resources capitalize on a windfall often return to autonomous communities

The tribeThe tribe►no centralized leadership►typically someone respected for

wisdom or prowess – charisma & “big men” Wolf’s first modality

►group decisions by consensus leaders may influence through oratory decisions enforced through

►withdrawal of cooperation►gossip►criticism►beliefs that anti-social actions cause disease --

witchcraft

What is kinship?

►A system of social ties deriving from the recognition of genealogical relations

►universally recognized►universally accorded social

importance

KIN TYPESKIN TYPES

►Consanguineals Consanguineals ►Affinals Affinals ►Fictive kinFictive kin►Lineals Lineals ►Collaterals Collaterals

Kinship DiagramKinship Diagram

The tribeThe tribe►leaders of localized descent groups or a

territorial group►authority is personal

not elected, no formal office status result of personal behavior

►status often achieved through exchange Gift exchange Redistribution – public exchange of scarce

resources Wolf’s 2nd modality

kinship and descentkinship and descent

►kinship as an idiomkinship as an idiom a way of expressing social relations and the a way of expressing social relations and the

exchanges, rights, and obligations impliedexchanges, rights, and obligations implied►selectiveselective

each system emphasizes different relationseach system emphasizes different relations►kinship principles define social groupskinship principles define social groups

produces forms of social stratificationproduces forms of social stratification► locate people within those groupslocate people within those groups►position people and groups in relation to position people and groups in relation to

one another both in space and timeone another both in space and time

kinship & political organization in tribes

►segmentary lineage system maximal lineage, major, minor, minimal

lingeage all segments equal and no leadership

above minimal or primary segments

►form alliances to face threats

Descent Systems►Rules that people in different cultures

use to:►determine parenthood ► identify ancestry►assign people to social categories,

groups, and roles on the basis of inherited status

► corporate = shares resources in commoncorporate = shares resources in common own propertyown property organize labour organize labour assign statusassign status regulate relations with other groupsregulate relations with other groups

► endures beyond individual membersendures beyond individual members

What is a descent group?

►A group of people who recognize descent from a real or mythical ancestor - a criterion of membership

►A publicly recognised social entity►everyone is unambiguously assigned to a

group►Obligations and roles keeps group

together►Citizenship derived from lineage

membership and legal status depends on it

►Political power and religious power derived from it

►A strong effective base for social relations

DESCENT TERMSDESCENT TERMS

►Unilineal Unilineal Matrilineal Matrilineal Patrilineal Patrilineal

►AmbilinealAmbilineal►Bilateral or Cognatic Bilateral or Cognatic

Structures of DescentStructures of Descent► lineageslineages (patri & matri) - common ancestor (patri & matri) - common ancestor► clanclan – several lineages common ancestor, – several lineages common ancestor,

usually large groups that are associated usually large groups that are associated with mythical ancestors with mythical ancestors

► phratryphratry - unilineal descent group composed - unilineal descent group composed of a number of supposedly related clansof a number of supposedly related clans

►moietiesmoieties - means half, when an entire - means half, when an entire society is divided into 2 unilineal descent society is divided into 2 unilineal descent groupsgroups

►many societies have 2 or more types of many societies have 2 or more types of descent groups in various combinationsdescent groups in various combinations

► some have lineages & clans, others may some have lineages & clans, others may have clans & phrateries but no lineageshave clans & phrateries but no lineages

Exogamy & EndogamyExogamy & Endogamy

► ExogamyExogamy – seeking people to have sexual – seeking people to have sexual relations outside one’s grouprelations outside one’s group Seeking others to become usSeeking others to become us

► EndogamyEndogamy – mating or marriage within a – mating or marriage within a group to which one belongsgroup to which one belongs Most societies are endogamous groupsMost societies are endogamous groups

► Exogamy links groups togetherExogamy links groups together► Endogamy keeps groups apartEndogamy keeps groups apart► Rules of endogamy help maintain social, Rules of endogamy help maintain social,

economic, & political distinctions & preserve economic, & political distinctions & preserve limitations to the access of wealth & limitations to the access of wealth & resourcesresources

Insiders & OutsidersInsiders & Outsiders

The Lineage: Descent Groups as The Lineage: Descent Groups as Political OrganizationPolitical Organization

Lineal Kin - ancestors or Lineal Kin - ancestors or descendantsdescendants

Collateral Kin - sibling branchesCollateral Kin - sibling branches

Patrilineage: Male EgoPatrilineage: Male Ego

Patrilineage: Female EgoPatrilineage: Female Ego

Matrilineal and Patrilineal KinMatrilineal and Patrilineal Kin

Tribe: segmentary lineage Tribe: segmentary lineage systemsystem

Tribes and LineagesTribes and Lineages

► maximal lineages (tribes) maximal lineages (tribes) ► major lineages (families) major lineages (families) ► minor lineages (fathers' houses) minor lineages (fathers' houses) ► minimal lineages (extended patrilocal minimal lineages (extended patrilocal

households)households)

““Headless” (uncentralized) Headless” (uncentralized) Political organizationPolitical organization

Segmentray lineage systemSegmentray lineage system

Kinship Centered Political Kinship Centered Political OrganizationOrganization

Us and ThemUs and Them►Bedouin proverb:

I against my brother; I and my brother against our cousin; I, my brother and our cousin against the neighbors; all of us against the foreigners

►based on complementary or balanced opposition

Sodalities Sodalities

►Organizations that cross-cut kin ties Organizations that cross-cut kin ties ►Often based on common age Often based on common age ►Creates non-kin linkages and a sense of Creates non-kin linkages and a sense of

ethnic identity ethnic identity ►May be confined to one settlement or be May be confined to one settlement or be

pantribal (include several settlements) pantribal (include several settlements) ►Pantribal sodalities can mobilize people Pantribal sodalities can mobilize people

for cooperative endeavors (hunting, for cooperative endeavors (hunting, warfare) warfare)

chiefdom

►a regional polity in which one or more local groups are organized under a single ruling individual – the chief – who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people

The ChiefThe Chief

►Divine king – macrocosm and microcosmDivine king – macrocosm and microcosm►status determined by closeness to chief►office of chief often hereditary

passing to son or to sister’s son►also based on talents►often conceived as a semi-sacred position

►may amass personal wealth to add to power

Nana Osei Tutu IIThe King of AshantiPhoto credit: G. F. Kojo ArthurCentre for Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Copyright© PT Sangga Sarana Persada, 1997-2000Designed by Sangga Web Team

chiefdomchiefdom

►a true authority figure with a formal office► can distribute resources

associated with redistributive economies chief controls surpluses and labour may collect taxes or tribute may recruit labour for community projects

► irrigation, a temple, a palace can conscript for military

► recognized hierarchy linked to chief► tend to be unstable ►may form confederacies

Iroquois League of Five Nation, Algonquin Confederacy

chiefdomchiefdom

► Rank societyRank society►do not have unequal access to economic

resources or to power, but they do contain social groups having unequal access to prestige

►unequal access to prestige often reflected in position of chief to which only some members of a specified group in the society can succeed

►Ascribed status

Band & tribe vs. chiefdomBand & tribe vs. chiefdom

►in band and tribal societies competitive displays & conspicuous consumption by individuals disappears & anyone foolish enough to boast how great he is gets accused of witchcraft & is stoned to death

►reciprocity predominates, not redistribution

the state►the most formal of political

organizations and is one of the hallmarks of civilization

►political power is centralized in a government which may LEGITIMATELY use force to regulate the affairs of its citizens

►Weber’s monopoly on the legitimate use of force

The state: The state: associated with --

►increased food production (agriculture and industry)

►irrigation and transformation of landscape

►increased population►fixed territory►developed market system►appearance of cities developed urban

sector

The state: The state: associated with --

►appearance of bureaucracy►military►usually an official religion►delegation of authority to maintain

order within and without its borders

►right to control information►authority is formal and impersonal

Holding office and the person

The state: The state: associated with --

►differentiation in population appears – social stratification

►appearance of ethnicity►permanent, heritable inequality

slaves, castes and classes

►social conflict increases

original states appeared 5000 years ago

►primary states are agricultural►theories about their formation►military needs, irrigation needs,

environmental conditions

why the state? from band to state

►more wealth►more people►more sedentism►more inequality and ranking► less reliance on kinship►more internal and external conflict► increased power and responsibility to leaders► increased burden to citizens to support

political organization► increased use of formal, legal structures for

adjudication

The Nation (-State)►modern nation-state a more recent

phenomenon most have appeared since the end of WWII

► communities of people who see themselves as “one people” on the basis of common ancestry, history, society, institutions, ideology, language, territory, and (often) religion

►anthropology questions this reality while recognizing the power of the idea

►differences are suppressed in modern nation-states

NATION & NATIONALITY

►nation was once a term that referred to tribe, indigenous people, or ethnic group - collectivity sharing single language, religion, history, territory, ancestry, kinship (Herder & volk)

►nation comes to mean the state = a country

►a sociopolitical form, the modern state composed of diverse ethnic groups

Nation as “Imagined Nation as “Imagined Community”Community”

►"it is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion" (Anderson p.15)

imagined communityimagined community

►A community that “imagines” itselfA community that “imagines” itself No possibility of face-to-face No possibility of face-to-face

communicationcommunication Moments of simultaneityMoments of simultaneity Language & “print capitalism”Language & “print capitalism” Monuments and memorialsMonuments and memorials

►Anthropology questions this reality while recognizing the power of the idea Differences are marked and suppressed in

modern nation-states A form of amnesia?

The Nation, Social Structure & The Nation, Social Structure & National IdentityNational Identity

►based upon sentiments of prestige extend deep into the masses of political

structures (located in the field of politics)►groups who hold the power to steer

common conduct within a polity will most strongly instill themselves with

this ideal fervor of power prestige►Those who think of themselves as

being specific partners of a specific culture diffused among members of the polity

The State, The Nation, and Ethnicity

►181 states but 5000 nations?► idea that nation and state coincide is rare►The appearance of ethnicity and the rise of

the nation-state► (Nash) nation-state responsible for the rise

and definition of social entities called ethnic groups - last 500 years grew out of the wreck of empires, breakups of

civilizations - disruptions of mechanic societies within borders of nation-state - social and

cultural diversity

Political Organization and Political Organization and EthnicityEthnicity

►ethnicity is founded upon structural inequities among dissimilar groups into a single political entity

►based on cultural differences & similarities perceived as shared

►identification with & feeling a part of an ethnic group & exclusion from certain other groups because of this affiliation

Assimilation & Nation Assimilation & Nation BuildingBuilding

► increase in shared characteristics among increase in shared characteristics among social groups and an increasing social social groups and an increasing social homogeneity are a key to nation building homogeneity are a key to nation building

►erasure of differences (in ethnicity, erasure of differences (in ethnicity, cognitive orientations, patterns of social cognitive orientations, patterns of social interactions, etc.) for the creation of a interactions, etc.) for the creation of a cohesive, productive, just and affluent cohesive, productive, just and affluent societysociety

►various communication media assume an various communication media assume an important role in providing information important role in providing information that facilitates key transformations in that facilitates key transformations in individuals and communitiesindividuals and communities

Pluri-Ethnic StatesPluri-Ethnic States►Pluralist model treats groups as permanent and

enduring Group rights

►Cosmopolitan model that accepts shifting boundaries, multiple affiliations, hybrid identities Individual rights

►Accommodation of immigrant ethnicity►Minority nationalism – nations within

(indigenous peoples and Québécois) Stateless nations, ethnic nationalism vs. indigenous

groups►Nations within – groups that formed complete

and functioning societies on their historic homeland before being incorporated into a larger state

►Typically been involuntary – colonization, conquest, etc.

Ethnic ConflictEthnic Conflict

► AssimilationAssimilation

► ApartheidApartheid

►Diaspora Diaspora

► EthnocideEthnocide

►GenocideGenocide

indigeneityindigeneity

►Nations within – groups that formed complete and functioning societies on their historic homeland before being incorporated into a larger state

►Typically been involuntary – colonization, conquest, etc.

► Indigenous groups around the worldIndigenous groups around the world Drive for recognition of rightsDrive for recognition of rights Sovereignty and self-governanceSovereignty and self-governance

Anthropology of WarAnthropology of War

► The materialist/ecological school The materialist/ecological school causes of pre-state warfare are to be found largely causes of pre-state warfare are to be found largely

in the material foundations of the cultural systemin the material foundations of the cultural system

► The biocultural schoolThe biocultural school causes of warfare are ultimately to be found in a causes of warfare are ultimately to be found in a

combination of ecological and biological elementscombination of ecological and biological elements

► The historical school The historical school war is to be found in the specific historical context war is to be found in the specific historical context

of the events in question and the personal of the events in question and the personal motivations of the people involved in those events motivations of the people involved in those events

Anthropology of ViolenceAnthropology of Violence

► The seventeenth century philosopher Thomas The seventeenth century philosopher Thomas Hobbes -- violence is in the heart of all humans Hobbes -- violence is in the heart of all humans Society as the alternative to violence Society as the alternative to violence

► violence is an extremely wide and diverse violence is an extremely wide and diverse phenomenonphenomenon

► insight in extremely specific, small-scale insight in extremely specific, small-scale situations of the infliction, experience and situations of the infliction, experience and justification of violence (in families, villages, justification of violence (in families, villages, neighbourhoods, gangs, combat groups, neighbourhoods, gangs, combat groups, committees, presidential advisory groups); andcommittees, presidential advisory groups); and

► insight in the extremely general questions insight in the extremely general questions concerning humankind as a whole: what is it, in concerning humankind as a whole: what is it, in the make-up of humans that makes us violent the make-up of humans that makes us violent animals given to intra-species aggression? animals given to intra-species aggression?

ViolenceViolence

► Violence, its forms and controls, is Violence, its forms and controls, is fundamental to human social existence and is fundamental to human social existence and is central to theories regarding the nature of central to theories regarding the nature of society. society.

► Violence as cultural expression and/or Violence as cultural expression and/or performanceperformance ScriptedScripted

► From anthropology of identity (pol. org.) to From anthropology of identity (pol. org.) to experience, emotive forces, bodily practicesexperience, emotive forces, bodily practices

► A discursive practice with rituals and symbolsA discursive practice with rituals and symbols► Violence as cultural practiceViolence as cultural practice

Not just instrumentalNot just instrumental► A way of affirming and subverting “culture”A way of affirming and subverting “culture”