POLS4985Nation-building
Who am I?Dr. Gregory C. DixonSpecialty – International RelationsAreas of interest / research:
International InstitutionsConflict ManagementGlobalization and Global Governance
Office Hours and ContactOffice: Pafford 125Office Hours:
Before class (aprox 11:30 – class)After class (as needed)and by appointment
Email: [email protected]
Online Contenthttp://www.westga.edu/~gdixon
Under “current courses” pick POLS4506
CourseDenAll course informationElectronic Submission of Assignments
Learning OutcomesAnalyze the role of nation-building in the contemporary international system Assess the types of nation-building efforts undertaken by both the international community and by individual nationsAssess the minimum resource requirements for a providing the conditions for successful nation-buildingAppraise the challenges to nation-buildingAppraise conditions for success in nation-building effortsAssess the potential for nation building as part of an effort to reduce conflict in the world of the 21st century.
AssignmentsCommentary Papers (4) 25% each
Commentary Papers10 questions
You must answer 4 questionsYou may answer 5 and drop the lowest score
Answers should be 3 - 4 single spaced pages
Grading90% and up = A80 – 89% = B70 – 79% = C60 – 69% = D59% and below = F
No curves or mathematical adjustments will be applied to the grades
Assumption of AdulthoodAll students are assumed to be adultsYou are expected to familiarize yourself with the requirements of the course You are expected to meet the requirements of the courseIt is expected that you will do the required reading for the course. It is expected that you will complete all required assignments.
Class ParticipationDaily discussionDiscussion will be based on the discussion questions
Late or Missed AssignmentsLate assignments will suffer a penalty of one letter grade for each business day lateThe commentary papers are take-home, so extensions will be extremely rareAbsolutely no extensions will be given for the final commentary paper due date
Special NeedsStudents with special needs as identified by the University will be accommodated in accordance with University policy
AttendanceAttendance will not be taken and is not required as part of the course grade Attendance is vitalMissing lectures may significantly reduce their chances of passing the courseIt is the responsibility of the student to get the notes from that day of class from another student in the class
Acts of the GodsOn very rare occasions truly terrible things happenIf such an event happens, don't wait until the last day of the class to deal with it
Email Communication & PrivacyNothing related to grades, exams, or any other course information specific to a student will be discussed via regular email - period Grades and related information will only be discussed via one of these methods:
In person during office hours or after classVia the CourseDen email system
Classroom DecorumPlease arrive on timePlease turn off any device that makes noise Please do not read the newspaper, sleep, etc. during the class timeMutual respect and politeness is required in the classroom at all timesViolations of appropriate classroom decorum will result in penalties
Academic HonestyAll students are required to be aware of the University rules regarding academic honesty. Cheating, fabrication, and/or plagiarism of any kind will not be tolerated. Any student caught committing any violation of the Honor Code on any assignment will receive an F in the course and will be reported to the University for further action as per University policy The professor reserves the right to seek the harshest possible penalty for any and all violations regardless of the value of the individual assignment
Academic HonestyIf you are unsure as to what constitutes academic dishonesty, please consult the University of West Georgia Student HandbookIgnorance of the Code will not be accepted as an excuse for violations of itMany things which are perfectly acceptable in high school are considered cheating in collegeIf you have a question about cheating, ask, don’t just assume that you are ok
Nationbuilding
Basic Concepts and Frameworks
What is Nation-Building?The basic subject of the course sounds simpleNation + Building
Building the basic infrastructure of a functioning state
Problems of DefinitionThere are lots of terms used
Nation-buildingState-buildingStability OperationsEtc.
We will not split hairs in this course
Potential Nation-Building CasesCases where NB is a policy option
Post-conflictPost-disaster (natural or man-made)Failed statesFragile states
Each case offers challenges
Who Nation-Builds?Nation StatesIGO’sNGO’sMNC’sCoalitions of some or all of the above
NB Is Not NewPharonic Egypt used NB 5,000+ years agoThe US has engaged in NB efforts since the late 1800’s
NB Is Not MysteriousThe basics are widely knownWe will cover them in this classThe world community knows how to engage in successful NB efforts
The Structure of the CourseStart conceptual
Paris and SiskBroaden the model
Ghani and LockhartFrom theory to application
Dobbins, et al.
ChallengesApplying specific logic broadly
Can we apply ideas across models?How do the theories fit our cases?
Moving from theory to practiceIdeas are fun, but you need to make them work if they are to matter
There Is No RabbitAt the end of the class, there will be no resolution of your questionsYou will know more about the subjectYou will probably have more questions than when you startedBut it will be fun anyway…
What’s A Nation & Why Are We Building One?
The Nation-State in the 21st Century
The Nation-StateCombination of two concepts
Nation• A group of people with a shared identity
State• A geographic space ruled by a central
governing authority
Nation-State CharacteristicsGeographically fixed locationRecognized governmentSovereigntyMonopoly on the use of force within boundariesPopulation is made up of people with a “national identity”
SovereigntyNo outside authority can force a state to actA foundation of international law
Enshrined in the UN Charter
Reality CheckMost states loosely fit the definitionMany nation-states do not fully fit the description
Identity conflict is a leading cause of civil warSecessionist movements are commonSome nations lack effective government
Building A Nation-StateNB seeks to construct functioning nation-states Functioning does not equal perfect
Central ProblemsHow can an outside power build a truly sovereign state?And why would they?
A Second Reality CheckThe world is complicatedThere are many actors in the NB processThese actors interact with one anotherTheir interactions affect the outcomeNot everyone likes order
Herding CatsIntervenors are not unitary
Policy makersPolicy implementersPolitical supporters in the homelandVarious interest groups
Herding CatsStates targeted for NB are not unitaryAll actors seek advantage
Local elites use the intervenor to their advantageIntervenor ignorance makes it worseNot all actors want effective government• Conflict can be beneficial• Sides may prefer conflict to peace
Spoiler AlertSpoilers may seek to foil NB efforts
Groups want a better dealGroups fear marginalization in new orderGroups fear prosecution or worse in new orderPower may be lost in a new system
The ProblemBuilding a nation-state requires support from many actorsSome will never accept the new order
Good Enough SolutionsYou will never get perfection
It’s the real worldYour perfection is not everyone’s perfection
You need to settle for “good enough”
Good enough governance to keep people content to support the new order
What Is Good Enough?Physical securityFoodBasic stability / predictabilityRule of lawThe right economic directionHope
Getting to Good EnoughLocal leadersLocal institutionsLocal participationLocal economic development
All of which will be built by outsiders
Nobody Likes An Outsider
The problem of external intervenors
The “Other” ProblemHumans separate “in” and “out” groupsWe do not easily trust those who are from the out groupThis is a factor of biology
NB Requires Outside InterventionThe intervenor will always be an outsiderThis will generate tension and make the job harder
Difficulty FactorThe degree of difficulty for the intervenor varies
Nature of intervention effortHistoric contextCultural contextVarious other identity factors
Uncontrollable ElementsHistoryIdentityGeography
Controllable ElementsResourcesCommunicationPreparation
Control What Can Be ControlledEffective preparation can mitigate the problems of being an outsiderTransparency can make a significant impact
Local KnowledgeSuccessful NB efforts requires local knowledge
Knowing the contextSpeaking the languageKnowing who matters
Local knowledge can be developed or rented
Renting has risks
Gaining SupportThere is a window of 12 – 18 months to build goodwillEffective early action helps overcome the outsider problemCompetence goes a long wayRespecting local issues goes a long way
Local TalentFind and recruit local talent“the native face” problemIntercultural problems must be overcomeBalance of external plan and local inputIncorporation of key groups
TransitionPlanned transfer from outsider to localsThis is very hard to manageHard to balance
Outsider imposes a system that must become entrenchedLocals must be given enough power to promote acceptanceLocals may not like the new system
BalanceYou cannot eliminate the outsider problemYou can reduce its impact with good planningThe trick is to balance a wide range of elements in a very complex process
Safety First
Establish security or go home
SecurityBasic safety from harm is a necessary foundationNB must provide security in order to be successfulThis is the foundation on which the rest of the NB actions are built
Components of SecurityPeacekeeping / Peace enforcementLaw enforcement / civil orderCreation or reform of local security institutions
Training of militaryTraining of law enforcementProvision of basic security during training
PeacekeepingThe sides in a conflict have made peaceNB effort is in support of this peaceMost or all sides have ceased fightingThis makes it easier to accomplish
Can reform rather than create institutionsFewer troops are needed
Peace EnforcementYou are imposing peace in the NB effortMost or all sides are still fightingSecurity is harder to achieve
NB must create the local forcesNB must create security institutionsThis requires many more soldiers
TimingSecurity cannot waitIt must be established immediately in order to be effectiveDelay give opponents time to organizeDelay undermines credibility
Force Size and CompositionYou need enough people or you will failIf you do not have the personnel you cannot provide the services
NumbersSoldiers per 1,000 inhabitants:
Peacetime, stable state: .5Peacekeeping: 2Peace enforcement: 13
Afghanistan: 24,000,000 people in 2001
312,000 minimum force for peace enforcement
The Footprint ProblemYou need enough troops to do the jobA strong presence of outsider troops can lead to resentmentNB efforts must have enough troops, but they must tread carefully
Force CompositionSoldiers EngineersTrainers (military, police, judiciary, etc.)Bureaucrats / administratorsCommunity relations personnel
Duration ProblemLocal forces need to be trained rapidlyIneffective local forces feed problemsThe longer the transition to local policing takes, the more likely resistance will grow
The Security ProblemCosts are high, so military forces are likely to be under-resourcedThis potentially undermines missions before they startMost militaries are not intended to be police forces
It’s the Economy, Stupid
The political economy of NB
MarketsThe market always functions
Exchange takes placePeople make moneyPeople lose money
Markets adaptConditions create incentives for action or inaction
Complex Influence of MarketsEconomic conditions in the NB target stateEconomic conditions in the intervenorGlobal market conditionsEach of these is constantly changing
Target StatePre-NB economic foundations
Natural resourcesWorkforce compositionSize of populationGeographic locationReason NB is necessary
This provides the starting point
The IntervenorSize of economyDiversity of economyWorkforce compositionDistance from NB targetEconomic interest in NB target
Global EconomyNB target place in global economy
FoundationPotential
Intervenor place in global economyOverall market conditions
The Status Quo AnteConditions when NB starts matter
State of economic infrastructureSize and scope of informal economyIntegration of armed groups into economic activityEconomic history / tradition
Immediate ProblemsJobs, Jobs, JobsEconomic stabilityEconomic growthEconomic development
The Peril of Great ExpectationsTime to get economy working is greater than the golden windowMarkets must shift to the new realityThis takes timeTransition costs are high
Someone must pay them
DependenceShort-term support by intervenor can easily lead to dependenceNB requires massive intervention through central planningCentral planning is not good at economic growthThe balance is hard to strike
Basic Conditions for SuccessCivil orderRule of lawFinancial / banking systemReasonable security of infrastructure
Road, rail, and water transportElectricity
The Perverse Incentive ProblemFailed states are profitable for the fewThese few often have trouble in the transition
Skill set is wrong for stable economySocial conditioning may also be wrong
These groups have an economic incentive to undermine NB efforts
Development ChallengeOutside actors have a poor success rate in economic developmentNB requires the hope of economic progress to succeedNB efforts can also lead to dependenceMistakes will shift the market in unwanted directions
What Works?No simple solutionsDepends on the conditions in each caseAll NB efforts must craft economic plans based on the specific conditions of the target
Designing Institutions
Who, what, where, when, and how
What Is Mean By Institutions?The basic structure of the new governmentElectoral rules and basic delineation of core functions (executive, legislative, etc.)Organization of bureaucratic responsibility
Why Democracy?We like democracy
The people will have a significant say in governmentDemocracies are less war-proneDemocracies have better economic growth over timeWe assume everyone wants to be like the West if only given the chance
Designing A ConstitutionLots of kinds of democracies to choose fromThe constitution should fit two key elements:
The nature of the state it will governThe goals of the intervenor
Majoritarian or Consensus?Majoritarian: Whoever has 50% + 1 wins
DecisiveFocusedRisks majority tyrannyNo incentive for small groups to support it
Majoritarian or Consensus?Consensus: very large coalitions needed to rule
InclusiveTend to respect minority rightsSlow to actCan be frustrating to watch in action
Presidential or Parliamentary?Presidential
Separation of powersFocus popular attention on one personPotential for divided government
ParliamentaryUnity of executive and legislative powersFocus is on party leaders
Electoral SystemsPlurality
Most votes winsMay or may not need 50% + 1Fixed terms
Electoral SystemsProportional Representation
Parties get seats based on votesCoalitions are often needed to ruleTerm of office can end with “no confidence” vote
Centrality vs. FederalismCentrality
Focus of governing is in central governmentNational government dominates
FederalismRegions have varying degree of flexibility in governingBalance between central and local power
No Easy SolutionAll these elements and more are combined to make a constitutionThese elements set how a country is ruledAll have consequencesAll require a choice by the intervenor
The Dependency Problem
Leaving without things falling apart afterwards
The Nation-builder’s CurseYou have to remake a state that can stand on its ownThen you must leave it alone
Its like being a parent, only worse
The Dependence ProblemThe NB effort builds a nation that depends on the intervenor to workThe intervenor leaves and the state failsIn the worst case, the intervenor can’t leave without rapid return to fightingDependence is very hard to avoid
The Basic ProblemIntervenor must do a lot early on
This distorts local conditionsLocals must gradually take control
How?When?What if they fail at first?Who decides what failure is?
Assessing the Dependence RiskHow much do you have to build?
Solid past institutions makes it easier• Better foundation on which to build• Trained locals to turn to• Institutions can be reformed
Weak past institutions makes it harder• You must build from scratch• You must train technocrats
The Skill DeficitRunning a country is hardYou need the right skills
ManagerialEngineeringEtc.
These can be hard to find
Brain Drain ProblemThe best and brightest have the easiest time leaving
Globalization means they can find work elsewhereSafety and security may make them reluctant to return
This will apply even after NB efforts are underway
Material DependenceInfrastructure development is expensiveRequires a tax base and effective collection mechanism
Both are likely to be missing when NB startsBoth take time to put in place
Local resources may or may not be readily available
Material DependenceIntervenor will foot the bill early onMay require many years of bankrolling the effort
Infrastructure is expensiveSome projects are long-term
Organizational DependenceIntervenor will control the country
SecurityGovernancePotentially even through control of the legal system
This can lead to the institutionalization of dependence
Freedom to Fail (Again)Ultimately power must transition to the local peopleThis means the power to make real decisions, and suffer consequencesThe potential is there for a return to failure
Perverse IncentivesLocal elites may profit from intervenor’s governanceThey may not want power to return to the localsThey have an incentive to prevent the transition
Dependence is TrickyManaging the dependence problem is hard to doThe intervenor must balance many different elements at onceThe intervenor must be willing to risk exit
Its Not All About Conflict
The problem of state failure
Fragility and FailureMany states do not fit the normal nation-state model
The rule of law is weakThe writ of government does not runInstitutions do not provide “good enough” governance
The Turbulence ProblemGlobalization binds us together in a global systemEvents far away send ripples out that can affect usThere are millions of these events every dayThe result is a “turbulence” in the international system
Turbulence and the StateStates must deal with pressure from two levels:
DomesticSystemic
The pressure from both directions is constantSome states break under the pressure
State FragilityStates whose institutions are under stressStates that are losing the ability to function
Source: http://www.systemicpeace.org/polity/polity4.htm
State FailureThe state ceases to function
Civil warCollapse
Who Cares?We do – state failure affects usFragile states generate more turbulenceFailed states generate lots of turbulence
Strong domestic institutions reduce conflict
Absorb and resolve domestic conflictsGenerate coherent policy outcomes
Strong domestic institutions prevent international conflict
Fragile institutions cannot manage domestic conflictsA spillover effect emerges
Domestic conflict bubbles outInternational system feels the impact
Failed institutions permit all manner of problems to cross bordersCreate significant disruptions in the international systemDefy easy solutions
Rational Self-InterestState failure has a wide impactEffective nation-building can reduce this impace
What Makes A Failed State?
Defining state capacity and governance in the 21st Century
Understanding GovernanceGovernance = the ability of the state to manage its internal affairsThis is a key role of state institutionsBut this can be defined many ways
Economic growthRule of lawEtc.
The “Sovereignty Gap”We assume states are sovereign in many ways
International lawDiplomacy
Roughly 1 in 6 states is not“extreme” or “high” fragility
The “Sovereignty Gap”Our language and assumptions do not reflect reality
Post WWII ParadigmThere is a global governance architecture to tackle the sovereignty gap
Decolonization was going to create thisUS planned for it in post WWII planningIMF, IBRD, UN, GATT
Structural FunctionalismTheory of Development
Build the right institutional structure and all will be wellUniversal incentives existInstitutions will drive these
At their core, all states are the same
One size fits all
State-Building in DecolonizationHelp states set up institutionsProvide development assistanceThe rest takes care of itself
This has a mixed record of success
Post-Cold War ChangesShift away from the development models of the 1950’sShift to more “holistic” approach
Multifaceted programsEmphasis on implementation, not just institutionsRecognition of failure of one size fits all
NB In ContextNB fits this broader effortThe idea is to construct the institutions of the state in a more general sense
Building GovernanceWe agree governance is necessaryThe details are subject to debate
No agreed “best” system of governanceNo single “best” system is possible
This is an ongoing debate
What To Build?Not all agree on the extend of NB efforts
MinimalistMaximalist
What are the essential functions of the state?
The Global Governance Dimension
International capacity for NB
Basic Challenges for GGSovereigntyCooperationCoordinationResource AllocationInformationCapacity Building
Global Governance ArchitectureThe mechanisms to provide governance beyond the nation state
Formal: IGO’s, treaties, etc.Informal: NGO’s, cultural ties, etc.
IGO’sSolve a coordination problem
Fixed institutions for making collective decisionsFacilitate collective action
Solve a cooperation problemInformation sharingEducation
GlobalCover the whole worldLarge membershipMore resourcesMore calls on resources
UN, IMF, World Bank, WTO, etc.
RegionalLocal knowledgeBuild local consensusGreater legitimacyFewer resourcesCredibilityAU, ECOWAS, SADC, ASEAN, MERCOSUR, etc.
NGO’sAll shapes and sizesSpecializedCredibilityBagage
SovereigntyStates yield sovereignty via IGO’s
Binding commitmentsEnforcement mechanisms
International Law allows violations of sovereignty
GenocideViolation of preemptory norms
CooperationGG provides channels of communication
Reduce uncertaintyBuild working relationshipsDevelop shared interest in “the system”
Norm diffusionGG extends norms and permits a shared language
Simplify cooperation
CoordinationChannels of operation
SOP’sAgreed upon rulesBurden sharing
LegitimacyResponsibility
Resource AllocationVaries widely depending on GG constellationShare burden across statesProvide a structure of cost sharingGenerate revenues from non-participantsCoordinate flows to NGO’s
InformationBest PracticesShared experienceReduced learning curvePromote broader understanding of key issues
Identification of issuesShare information on past cases
Capacity BuildingTraining of forcesTraining of administratorsTraining of policy staffPromote skill development in local, regional, and international areasNGO, IGO, state responses
GG in PracticeIt’s a messThe system works spottily as it standsThings are improving, but slowly
What Works?
The requirements for NB today
Post WWII ContextOver 100 peacekeeping / stabilization missionsDozens of NB missions6 decades of international development effortsExtensive study of domestic institutionsExtensive efforts by IGO’s and NGO’s
NB Is Not A MysteryThe loose parameters of success are knownThe problem has come with implementation
Problem ExampleNo nation has more experience with post conflict NB in Muslim states than the USBy the measure of the original goals Iraq and Afghanistan have been failures
Lessons From Conflict StudiesThe Frozen Conflict ProblemThe Barney Fife ProblemThe Hurting Stalemate“Ripeness”
Frozen ConflictsNB intervention does not end a conflictThe conflict ceases due to the presence of the intervenorNB efforts fail to deal with underlying tensionsConflict will resume when intervenor leaves
The Barney Fife ProblemIntervenor mean wellBut are not competentCreate unnecessary tensionLack direction in their efforts
The intervenor means well, but can’t follow through
Hurting StalematesAllowing a conflict to drag on may make NB efforts easierHurting stalemates demonstrate that neither side can winSides are more willing to accept outside help in resolving the issuePromote peacekeeping-type NB
Ripeness“Ripeness” is the concept of optimal moments
Most or all parties see a benefit to and end to conflictInternational attention is highDomestic circumstances in intervenor favors planning and resource allocation
ComplexityMany things contribute to NB successMuch of the effort is about controlling what can be controlled
Planning for “known unknowns”Bracing for “unknown unknowns”
Recognizing that the danger is from the storm within
Knowing is Half the BattleWe know what is necessaryWe know that the resources are sometimes there to do itWe know that the hard part is political willNow, how do we make it work?
Establishing Physical Security
Boots on the ground
Basic SecurityShort window to establish orderForces needed vary, but are usually military
In unusual cases, police and paramilitary forces may work
Keep order on a day to day basis for the general population
Boots on the GroundTo provide security you need a physical presence
Personnel that can be seenRapid response to disruptions
Sufficient number are keyLack of numbers forces inconsistent actionYou cannot keep order without manpower
PlanningBasic parameters
Geographic constraintsLogistic constraintsNature of mission
Force compositionNumbersTypesEquipment
Combat PhasesSuppression of military forces in the initial stagesMay include traditional combat or asymmetric combatMay or may not have a clear endRequires military unitsMay not be required in all cases
Public SecurityImmediate establishment of basic protections of the general populationDeterrence of violations of order
Requires a physical presenceOunce of prevention = pound of cure
Early success eases later phasesDifficulty depends on conditions
DDRDisarmamentDemobilization
Can be tricky depending on other conditions
ReintegrationKey to long-term success
Intelligence GatheringInformation must be gathered on the real conditions on the ground
Requires an honest assessmentMay require abandoning older plans
Requires development of a local network
Civic EngagementEngage the local population in decision makingIdentification of key local playersIntegration of military and reconstruction efforts
Security Institution BuildingReform or construction of basic security institutionsIn most cases, this is a complex processExtent depends on the nature of the NB effortIs part of an integrated institution-building effort (courts, admin, etc.)
Necessary but not SufficientBasic security is required for success, but it does not guarantee itFailure to provide security generally leads to failure
Establishing Broad Security
Police forces, predictability, and the rule of law
Long-Term SecurityMilitary forces are a short-term solutionLong-term requires development of indigenous sources of securityPolice, legal system, effective governance institutionsThis is a significant challenge for NB efforts
InterdependenceSecurity institution efforts are part of the larger institution-building effortProgress in other areas is necessary for securityProgress in security is necessary for other areas
Public SecurityIntervenor provides early on
Usually with military forcesSupplemented by intervenor police, paramilitary forces, or PMC’s
Transition to indigenous forces requires reform or creation of institutionsTransition will take time
ChallengesVettingTrainingEquipmentInstitutional Development / ReformTies to broader legal systemTies to broader institutions
VettingSorting through the existing institutions and personnelEstablishing vetting standards
Who cannot join the new forces?Who will lead them?• Local• National
TrainingEstablishing training standards
Requires link to legal institutionsRequires building of training infrastructure
Often initially done by expatriatesNeed to train indigenous trainersNeed to train indigenous leaders
EquipmentWhat sort of equipment?
Type of gearSufficient gear for the job
Who pays?Infrastructure
PhysicalInstitutional
Institutional DevelopmentReform or Deconstruct?
Reform – change the existing institutionsDeconstruct – wipe out existing institutions
Focus on missionCivil order and public safety
Link between institutions – interagency cooperation
Ties to Legal SystemPublic order requires a judicial system
Rule of lawEquality before the lawSufficient infrastructure
Police reform and legal reform must be managed in parallel
Ties to Broader SystemPublic order is part of larger systemSuccess adds credibility to larger reformsFailure feeds resistance and raises likelihood of failureThe institutional efforts are mutually dependent
Long-Term, Holistic ViewDevelopment of institutions takes timeDevelopment of indigenous institutions requires a long-term commitmentPublic order cannot be separated from other effortsPatience is virtuous, but can also breed dependence
Governance
Who is in charge? and do they have a plan?
Teaching Them To Fish
Economic development and the foundation for the future
Assessing Cases
Sierra Leone and Afghanistan
Sierra Leone
NumbersPopulation: about 6 million
78,000 troops required for peace enforcement18,000 for peacekeeping
GeographyGood trading locationExtractive industries dominate
Nutshell VersionPost-colonial state with standard problemsState fragility emerged in the late 1980’sDomestic efforts to reverse decline failed
Private Peace-building EffortsMNC’s in mining industry hire PSC’s for basis securityGovernment hires PSC’s to train its army and civil militiasMNC’s support PSC involvement
Failure of Private EffortsCoordination problem leads to failureParties pursue narrow interest
Mining MNC’s want basic security, but like rents derived from governmentGovernment sought revenues for patronageLocal leaders sought local advantagePSC’s focused on contract obligations
1996 Peace AccordsAll foreign forces to leaveRebels and government to negotiate a power-sharing arrangementNigerian support (via ECOWAS) for governmentAccords never implemented due to 1997 coup
From Fragility to FailureCivil war tears the state apartCoups and counter coups change those in charge
Army colludes with rebelsCivil militias form alternate military structure
ECOWAS intervenes (ECOMOG)
ECOMOGECOWAS forces deployed to restore order
Largely fail in initial effortsStalemate emergesForces were substantial (20,000) but poorly equipped
A Bloody MessCivil war stalemates with sides holding different areasMineral wealth used to fund rebelsLiberia supports rebelsCoup government allied with rebelsECOWAS supports recognized government, but not coup leaders
Lome AccordAll sides agree to dealEnd to fightingPower sharing in new governmentEnforcement by UN peacekeepers (UNAMSIL)
13,000 troops at peak
British InterventionLome fails utterlyUNAMSIL personnel captured and killed by RUFBritish send expeditionary force to evacuate EU citizens (about 1,000 troops)
From Evacuation to NBBritish commander decides decisive action could end conflictLobbies UK government to allow expansion of missionBlair agrees to limited expansion of UK role
Ending the ConflictUK forces take on training and support role
Dismantle old army Build a completely new force with British trainingBegin aggressive action against RUF
Decisive action when challengedTook the war “into the bush”
End ResultPeace restored in Sierra LeoneRetrained army is a national forceState-building efforts continueUN forces have withdrawn as of 2005
Afghanistan
NumbersPopulation 30 million
390,000 for peace enforcement90,000 for peacekeeping
GeographyLandlocked, weak infrastructureFew resources, but great potential for extractive industry
Civil War1973 coup begins long civil war1978 Communist coup1979 Soviet invasion1989 Soviet withdrawal1996 Taliban take Kabul2002 US intervention ousts Taliban, establishes interim government
NB Force
2010 Troop Levels94,000 US troops35,000 allied troops (total)
Total force of 129,000