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Joseph M. Juran

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Joseph M. JuranBorn

December 24, 1904Brila, Romania

DiedFebruary 28, 2008 (aged 103)Rye, New York,U.S.

Occupation Management consultant, quality guru

Joseph Moses Juran (December 24, 1904 February 28, 2008) was a 20th centurymanagement consultant who is principally remembered as an evangelist forquality andquality management, writing several influential books on those subjects.[1] He was thebrother ofAcademy AwardwinnerNathan H. Juran.

Contents

[hide]

1 Early life 2 Japan 3 Contributions

o 3.1 Pareto principleo 3.2 Management theory

o 3.3 Juran's Trilogyo 3.4 Transferring quality knowledge between East and West

4 Later life and death 5 Bibliography

o 5.1 Bookso 5.2 Published paperso 5.3 In Japanese

6 References

7 External links

[edit] Early life

Juran was born to a Jewish family in 1904 in Brila,Romania, and later lived inGuraHumorului.[2] In 1912, he immigrated to America with his family, settling inMinneapolis,Minnesota. Juran excelled in school, especially inmathematics. He was a chesschampionat an early age,[3] and dominated chess at Western Electric. Juran graduated fromMinneapolis South High School in 1920.
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In 1924, with abachelor's degree in electrical engineering from the University ofMinnesota, Juran joined Western Electric's Hawthorne Works. His first job wastroubleshooting in the Complaint Department.[4] In 1925, Bell Labs proposed thatHawthorne Works personnel be trained in its newly-developed statistical samplingandcontrol chart techniques. Juran was chosen to join the Inspection Statistical Department, a

small group of engineers charged with applying and disseminating Bell Labs' statisticalquality controlinnovations. This highly-visible position fueled Juran's rapid ascent in theorganization and the course of his later career.[5]

In 1926, he married Sadie Shapiro, and they subsequently had four children: Robert,Sylvia, Charles and Donald. They had been married for over 81 years when he died in2008.

Juran was promoted to department chief in 1928, and the following year became adivision chief. He published his first quality related article in Mechanical Engineeringin1935. In 1937, he moved to Western Electric/AT&T's headquarters inNew York City.

As a hedge against the uncertainties of the Great Depression, he enrolled inLoyolaUniversity Chicago School of Lawin 1931. He graduated in 1935 and was admitted tothe Illinois bar in 1936, though he never practiced Law.[6]

During the Second World War, through an arrangement with his employer, Juran servedin the Lend-Lease Administration and Foreign Economic Administration. Just beforewar's end, he resigned from Western Electric, and his government post, intending tobecome a freelance consultant.[7] He joined the faculty ofNew York University as anadjunct Professor in the Department ofIndustrial Engineering, where he taught courses inquality control and ran round tableseminars for executives. He also worked through a

small management consultingfirm on projects forGilette,Hamilton Watch Company andBorg-Warner. After the firm's owner's sudden death, Juran began his own independentpractice, from which he made a comfortable living until his retirement in the late 1990s.His early clients included the now defunct Bigelow-Sanford Carpet Company, theKoppers Company, the International Latex Company,Bausch & Lomb and GeneralFoods.

[edit] Japan

The end of World War II compelled Japan to change its focus from becoming a militarypower to becoming an economic one. Despite Japan's ability to compete on price, its

consumer goods manufacturers suffered from a long-established reputation of poorquality. The first edition of Juran's Quality Control Handbookin 1951 attracted theattention of the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) which invited him toJapan in 1952. When he finally arrived in Japan in 1954 Juran met with tenmanufacturing companies, notably Showa Denko,Nippon Kgaku,Noritake, and TakedaPharmaceutical Company.[8] He also lectured at Hakone,Waseda University,saka, andKyasan. During his life he made ten visits to Japan, the last in 1990.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor's_degreehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_Workshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubleshootinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_charthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyola_University_Chicago_School_of_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyola_University_Chicago_School_of_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyola_University_Chicago_School_of_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyola_University_Chicago_School_of_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lend-Leasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Economic_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Economic_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_tablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_tablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_consultinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_consultinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Gillettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_Watch_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_Watch_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borg-Warnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koppershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILC_Doverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILC_Doverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bausch_%26_Lombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Foodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Foodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_Union_of_Scientists_and_Engineers&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Showa_Denkohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_K%C5%8Dgakuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noritakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeda_Pharmaceutical_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeda_Pharmaceutical_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waseda_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waseda_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waseda_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Csakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Csakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dyasanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor's_degreehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_Workshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubleshootinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_charthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyola_University_Chicago_School_of_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyola_University_Chicago_School_of_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lend-Leasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Economic_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_tablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_consultinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Gillettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_Watch_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borg-Warnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koppershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILC_Doverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bausch_%26_Lombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Foodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Foodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_Union_of_Scientists_and_Engineers&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Showa_Denkohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_K%C5%8Dgakuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noritakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeda_Pharmaceutical_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeda_Pharmaceutical_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waseda_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Csakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dyasan


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Working independently ofW. Edwards Deming (who focused on the use ofstatisticalprocess control), Juranwho focused on managing for qualitywent to Japan andstarted courses (1954) in Quality Management. The training started with top and middlemanagement. The idea that top andmiddle managementneed training had foundresistance in the United States. For Japan, it would take some 20 years for the training to

pay off. In the 1970s, Japanese products began to be seen as the leaders in quality. Thissparked a crisis in the United States due to quality issues in the 1980s.

[edit] Contributions

[edit] Pareto principle

In 1941 Juran stumbled across the work ofVilfredo Pareto and began to apply the Paretoprinciple to quality issues (for example, 80% of a problem is caused by 20% of thecauses). This is also known as "the vital few and the trivial many". In later years Juranpreferred "the vital few and the useful many" to signal that the remaining 80% of the

causes should not be totally ignored.

[edit] Management theory

When he began his career in the 1920s the principal focus in quality management was onthe quality of the end, or finished, product. The tools used were from the Bell system ofacceptance sampling, inspection plans, and control charts. The ideas ofFrederickWinslow Taylordominated.

Juran is widely credited for adding the human dimension to quality management. Hepushed for the education and training of managers. For Juran, human relations problemswere the ones to isolate.Resistance to changeor, in his terms, cultural resistancewasthe root cause of quality issues. Juran creditsMargaret Mead's bookCultural Patternsand Technical Change for illuminating the core problem in reforming business quality.[9]

He wrote Managerial Breakthrough, which was published in 1964, outlining the issue.

Juran's vision of quality management extended well outside the walls of the factory toencompass non-manufacturing processes, especially those that might be thought of asservice related. For example, in an interview published in 1997[10] he observed:

The key issues facing managers in sales are no different than those faced by managers inother disciplines. Sales managers say they face problems such as "It takes us toolong...we need to reduce the error rate." They want to know, "How do customers perceiveus?" These issues are no different than those facing managers trying to improve in otherfields. The systematic approaches to improvement are identical. ... There should be noreason our familiar principles of quality and process engineering would not work in thesales process.

[edit] Juran's Trilogy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Edwards_Deminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_process_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_process_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Paretohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_to_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_to_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cultural_resistance&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Meadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Meadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-Selden_1997-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Edwards_Deminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_process_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_process_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Paretohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_to_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cultural_resistance&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Meadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran#cite_note-Selden_1997-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_M._Juran&action=edit&section=6


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He also developed the "Juran's trilogy," an approach tocross-functional managementthatis composed of three managerial processes: quality planning, quality control and qualityimprovement. These functions all play a vital role when evaluating quality.

[edit] Transferring quality knowledge between East and West

During his 1966 visit to Japan, Juran learned about the Japanese concept ofQualityCircles which he enthusiastically evangelized in the West.[11] Juran also acted as amatchmaker between U.S. and Japanese companies looking for introductions to eachother.[12]

[edit] Later life and death

Juran was active well into his 90s and only gave up international travel at age 86. Hisaccomplishments during the second half of his life include:

Consulting for U.S. companies such as Armour and Company,DennisonManufacturing Company, Merck, Sharp & Dohme, Otis Elevator Company,Xerox, and the United States NavyFleet Ballistic Missile System.[13]

Consulting for Western European and Japanese companies such as Rolls-RoyceMotors, Philips, Volkswagen, Royal Dutch Shell and Toyota Motor Company[14]

Pro-bono consulting for Soviet-Bloc countries (Hungary, Romania,Czechoslovakia, Russia, Poland, Yugoslavia)[15]

Founding the Juran Institute[16] and the Juran Foundation.[17]

In 2004, he became honorary doctor atLule University of Technology in Sweden.[18]

Juran died of a stroke at age 103 in Rye, New York

June 7, 2009

Dr. Joseph Juran

Filed under: Introduction to total quality management Tags:corss-functional qualityimprovement, fitness for use,Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers,Joseph Juran,Juran's 10 steps to quality,JUSE, Quality Guru ferhansyed @ 7:40 am

Juran, like Deming, was invited to Japan in 1954 by the Union ofJapanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE). His lectures introduced the management
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dimensions of planning, organizing, and controlling and focused on the responsibility ofmanagement to achieve quality and the need for setting goals.

Juran defines quality as fitness for use in terms of design, conformance, availability,safety, and field use. Thus, his concept more closely incorporates the viewpoint of

customer. He is prepared to measure everything and relies on systems and problem-solving techniques. Unlike Deming, he focuses on top-down management and technicalmethods rather than worker pride and satisfaction.

Jurans 10 steps to quality improvement are:

1. Build awareness of opportunity to improve.2. Set-goals for improvement.3. Organize to reach goals.4. Provide training5. Carryout projects to solve problems.

6. Report progress.7. Give recognition.8. Communicate results.9. Keep score.10. Maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the regular systems

and processes of the company.

Juran is founder is the founder of Juran Institute in Wilton, Connecticut. He promoted aconcept known as Managing Business Process Quality, which is a technique forexecutive cross-functional quality improvement. Juran contribution may, over the longerterm, may be greater than Demings because Juran has broader concept, while Demings

focus on statistical process control is more technical oriented

oseph M. Juran is one of total quality management philosophy leaders ,he was born in1904 in Romania.

Since 1924,Juran has pursued a varied career in management as an engineer,executive,government administrator, university professor, labor arbitrator,corporate director, andconsultant. Specializing in managing for quality, he has authored hundreds of papers and12 books, including Jurans Quality Control Handbook, Quality Planning and Analysis(with F. M. Gryna), and Juran on Leadership for Quality.

His major contributions include the Juran trilogy, which are three managerial processesthat he identified for use in managing for quality: quality planning, quality control, andquality improvement.

Juran conceptualized the Pareto principle in 1937. In 1954, the Union of JapaneseScientists and Engineers (JUSE) and the Keidanren invited Juran toJapan to deliver aseries of lectures on quality that had profound influence on the Japanese qualityrevolution.


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Juran is recognized as the person who added the human dimension to quality,expanding it into the method now known as total quality management (TQM).

Joseph Juran

Key Dates:

24 Dec 1904 -Dr.Joseph Juran born in Romania

1951 publishing Quality Control Handbook

mid 50s Like Deming, traveled to Japan to conduct top and middle level executiveseminars

Key Contributions:

Specializing in managing for quality, he has authored hundreds of papers and 12 books,including Jurans Quality control handbook , Quality Planning and Analysis, and Juranon Leadership for Quality.

Jurans trilogy:

is an approach to cross functional management that is composed of three managerialprocesses: planning, control, and improvement

Quality planning:

This is the activity of developing the products and processes required to meet customersneeds. It involves a series of universal steps which can be abbreviated as follows:

*Establish quality goals

*Identify the customers- those who will be impacted by the efforts to meet the goal.

*Determine the customers needs

*Develop product features that respond to customers needs

*Develop processes that are able to produce those product features

*Establish process controls, and transfer the resulting plans to the operating forces

Quality control:


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This process consists of the following steps:

*Evaluate actual quality performance

*Compare actual performance to quality goals

*Act on the difference

Quality improvement:

This process is the means of raising quality performance to unprecedented levels(breakthrough). The methodology consists of a series of universal steps:

*Establish the infrastructure needed to secure annual quality improvement.

*Identify the specific needs for improvement -the improvement projects

*For each project establish a project team with clear responsibility for bringing theproject to a successful conclusion

*Provide the resource, motivation, and training needed by the team to:

1.Diagnose the cause

2.Stimulate establishment of remedies

3.Establish controls to hold the gains

Cost of Quality:

The cost of quality, or not getting it right first time, Juran maintained should be recordedand analyzed and classified into failure costs, appraisal costs and prevention costs.

Failure costs: Scrap, rework, corrective actions, warranty claims, customercomplaints and loss of custom Appraisal costs: Inspection, compliance auditing and investigations Prevention costs: Training, preventive auditing and process improvementimplementation

Juran proposes 10 steps to quality improvement:

Build awareness of the need and opportunity to improveSet goals for that improvementCreate plans to reach the goalsProvide trainingConduct projects to solve problems
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Report on progressGive recognition for successCommunicate resultsKeep scoreMaintain momentum


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Henry Gantt

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation,searchHenry Laurence Gantt

Born 1861

Died November 23, 1919

Citizenship United States

Fields Scientific management

Known for Gantt chart

Henry Laurence Gantt, A.B., M.E. (1861 23 November 1919) was anAmericanmechanical engineerand management consultant who is most famous for developing theGantt chart in the 1910s.

These Gantt charts were employed on major infrastructure projects including the HooverDam and Interstate highway system and continue to be an important tool inprojectmanagement.[1]

Biography

Gantt was born in Calvert County, Maryland. He graduated fromMcDonogh School in1878 and then went on to Stevens Institute of Technology inNew Jersey.

He then worked as a teacher and draughtsman before becoming a mechanical engineer. In1887, he joined Frederick W. Taylorin applying scientific management principles to theirwork at Midvale Steel and Bethlehem Steelworking there with Taylor until 1893. In his
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later career as a management consultantfollowing the invention of the Gantt charthealso designed the 'task and bonus' system of wage payment and additional measurementmethods worker efficiency and productivity.

Henry Gantt is listed underStevens Institute of Technology alumni.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) awards an annual medal inhonor of Henry Laurence Gantt.[2]

Work

Henry Gantt's legacy toproduction management is the following:

The Gantt chart: Still accepted as an important management tool today, itprovides a graphic schedule for the planning and controlling of work, andrecording progress towards stages of a project. The chart has a modern variation,

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT). Industrial Efficiency: Industrial efficiency can only be produced by the

application of scientific analysis to all aspects of the work in progress. Theindustrial management role is to improve the system by eliminating chance andaccidents.

The Task And Bonus System: He linked the bonus paid to managers to how wellthey taught their employees to improve performance.

The social responsibility of business: He believed that businesses have obligationsto the welfare of the society in which they operate.

Gantt charts

Gantt created many different types of charts.[3] He designed his charts so that foremen orothersupervisorscould quickly know whether production was on schedule, ahead ofschedule, or behind schedule. Modern project management software includes this criticalfunction even now.

Gantt (1903) describes two types ofbalances:[4]

the "mans record", which shows what each worker should do and did do, and the "daily balance of work", which shows the amount of work to be done and the

amount that is done.

Gantt gives an example with orders that will require many days to complete. The dailybalance has rows for each day and columns for each part or each operation. At the top ofeach column is the amount needed. The amount entered in the appropriate cell is thenumber of parts done each day and the cumulative total for that part. Heavy horizontallines indicate the starting date and the date that the order should be done. According toGantt, the graphical daily balance is "a method of scheduling and recording work". In this1903 article, Gantt also describes the use of:
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"production cards" for assigning work to each operator and recording how muchwas done each day.

In his 1916 book "Work, Wages, and Profits" [5]Gantt explicitly discusses scheduling,especially in the job shop environment. He proposes giving to the foreman each day an

"order of work" that is an ordered list of jobs to be done that day. Moreover, he discussesthe need to coordinate activities to avoid "interferences". However, he also warns that themost elegant schedules created by planning offices are useless if they are ignored, asituation that he observed.

In his 1919 book "Organizing for Work" [6]Gantt gives two principles for his charts:

one, measure activities by the amount oftime needed to complete them; two, the space on the chart can be used to represent the amount of the activity that

should have been done in that time.

Gantt shows a progress chart that indicates for each month of the year, using a thinhorizontal line, the number of items produced during that month. In addition, a thickhorizontal line indicates the number of items produced during the year. Each row in thechart corresponds to an order for parts from a specific contractor, and each row indicatesthe starting month and ending month of the deliveries. It is the closest thing to the Ganttcharts typically used today in scheduling systems, though it is at a higher level thanmachine scheduling.

Gantts machine record chart and man record chart are quite similar, though they showboth the actual working time for each day and the cumulative working time for a week.Each row of the chart corresponds to an individual machine or operator. These charts do

not indicate which tasks were to be done, however.

A novel method of displaying interdependencies of processes to increase visibility ofproduction schedules was invented in 1896 by Karol Adamiecki, which was similar to theone defined by Gantt in 1903. However, Adamiecki did not publish his works in alanguage popular in the West; hence Gantt was able to popularize a similar method,which he developed around the years 19101915, and the solution became attributed toGantt. With minor modifications, what originated as the Adamiecki's chart is now morecommonly referred to as the Gantt Chart.

Henry Gantt History/Background

Henry Laurence Gantt worked as a management consultant as well as abackground in mechanical engineer by trade. Henry Gantt is knownfor creating his self-named easily-viewed scheduling and monitoringdiagram. One creates Gantt Charts to reveal planned and actual projectprogress. A commonly accepted project management instrument thesedays, it was an innovation of world-wide significance in 1920, founded onMr. Gantts work while ship building during WWI. Changing history Henry Gantt
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forever, Gantt charts have subsequently been used to schedule and monitor largeconstruction projects like the Hoover Dam started in 1931 and the Eisenhower highwaynetwork launched in 1956.

Henry L. Gantt Biography

Henry Laurence Gantt was born in Calvert County, Maryland, USA. He graduated fromMcDonogh School in 1878 and Johns Hopkins College. After working as a teacher anddraftsman, he pursued mechanical engineering. In 1887, he joined Frederick W. Taylor inthe leveraging the theory of scientific management of Midvale Steel and BethlehemSteel, where they worked together until 1893.

Later in his career as a management consultant, in addition to the Gantt charts, he futhermade scientific management history by devising the task and bonus system. Thetheory behind the task and bonusmethod of wage payment (1901) was that it wouldcreate greater worker efficiency and productivity by rewarding the tasks monitored via

Gantt charts. Directly countering the piece work pay system of Taylor, which alsopenalized poor performance, Henry Gantts method allowed workers to earn their regularrate with an additional bonus for accomplishing their target productivity. This allowedworkers to maintain a stable salary while they were learning the job, and rewarded themfor leveraging this additional proficiency.

he Gantt Chart Idea

Henry Laurence Gantts work was based on a philosophy that industrial output isultimately a contribution of service to society, and he believed that managers should view

their jobs as a form of public service.

The Gantt Chart is the distillation of many different versions of charts that plottedexpected progress versus actual progress in a graphical representation of productivity andtimeliness. It eventually evolved into its modern counterpart, the Program Evaluation andReview Technique, or PERT.

Though there were a number of variations on Gantts chart, the basic idea is to plot actualprogress of a project versus expected progress over a period of time, commonly one year.Time is represented along the x-axis of the chart by the first letter of each month:JFMAMJJASOND.

The Technique

A thin line running parallel to the x-axis represents expected progress on a project, andoften, milestones are marked along this line. As the project progresses, a thick line issuperimposed on top of the thin line, showing how far the project has progressed at anygiven time. For example, if it is June, and the thick line only reaches April, the project is


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behind schedule. Conversely, if it is June, and the thick line reaches all the way toAugust, the project is ahead of schedule.

More Ideas

Two of Gantts books, Work, Wages, and Profits, first published in 1916, and Organizingfor Work, published in 1919, expand on his methods for maximizing productivity. InWork, Wages, and Profits, Gantt proposes giving the job foreman a daily order ofwork, (often called work order these days), and coordinating activities to avoidinterference between tasks and those carrying them out. In Organizing for Work, Ganttdiscusses his two principles for charts:

Measure project activities by the amount of time needed to complete them. Use the space on the chart to represent the amount of the activity that should have

been done by that time.

Legacy

Perhaps Gantts most lasting contribution to society was when his chart systems wereused in major American infrastructure projects such as the Hoover Dam, which wasbegun in 1931, and the Interstate Highway network that was begun in 1956. It is atestament to Gantts practicalities that not only were these systems put into wide use afterhis death, but that they still exist and are used in modified forms even today, and havebecome gold standards of productivity tracking.

Gantt contributions to project management were so widely influential that in 1929, 10years after his death, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) establishedthe Henry Laurence Gantt Medal, an annual honor that comes with a $1,000 prize.

So, if youve ever made a project timeline with filled triangles representing milestones,youve used the productivity method developed by Henry Laurence Gantt.
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ABOUTGANTT

CHARTS

A Gantt chart is

a graphicalrepresentationof the durationof tasks againstthe progressionof time.

A Gantt chart isa useful tool forplanning andschedulingprojects.

A Gantt chart ishelpful whenmonitoring aproject'sprogress.

Learn more.Evolution of theGantt chart.

Use a Gantt chart to plan how long a projectshould take.

A Gantt chart lays out the order in which thetasks need to be carried out.

Early Gantt charts did not show dependenciesbetween tasks but modern Gantt chart

software provides this capability.

A Gantt chart lets you seeimmediately what shouldhave been achieved atany point in time.

A Gantt chart lets you seehow remedial action maybring the project back oncourse.

Most Gantt charts include"milestones" which aretechnically not availableon Gantt charts.However, for representingdeadlines and othersignificant events, it is
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very useful to include thisfeature on a Gantt chart.

Henry Laurence Gantt, an American mechanical engineer, is credited with the inventionof the Gantt chart.

Gantt Chart

During the era of scientific management, Henry Gantt developed a tool for displaying theprogression of a project in the form of a specialized chart. An early application was thetracking of the progress of ship building projects. Today, Gantt's scheduling tool takes theform of a horizontal bar graph and is known as a Gantt chart, a basic sample of which is

shown below:

Gantt Chart Format

Task Duration Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1 2 mo.

2 2 mo.

3 2 mo.

4 2 mo.

5 2 mo.

6 2 mo.

The horizontal axis of the Gantt chart is a time scale, expressed either in absolute time orin relative time referenced to the beginning of the project. The time resolution depends onthe project - the time unit typically is in weeks or months. Rows of bars in the chart showthe beginning and ending dates of the individual tasks in the project.

In the above example, each task is shown to begin when the task above it completes.However, the bars may overlap in cases where a task can begin before the completion ofanother, and there may be several tasks performed in parallel. For such cases, the Gantt

chart is quite useful for communicating the timing of the various tasks.

For larger projects, the tasks can be broken into subtasks having their own Gantt charts tomaintain readability.


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Gantt Chart Enhancements

This basic version of the Gantt chart often is enhanced to communicate more information.

A vertical marker can used to mark the present point in time.

The progression of each activity may be shown by shading the bar as progress ismade, allowing the status of each activity to be known with just a glance.

Dependencies can be depicted using link lines or color codes. Resource allocation can be specified for each task. Milestones can be shown.

Gantt Chart Role in Project Planning

For larger projects, a work breakdown structure would be developed to identify the tasksbefore constructing a Gantt chart. For smaller projects, the Gantt chart itself may used toidentify the tasks.

The strength of the Gantt chart is its ability to display the status of each activity at aglance. While often generated using project management software, it is easy to constructusing a spreadsheet, and often appears in simple ascii formatting in e-mails amongmanagers.

For sequencing and critical path analysis, network models such asCPM orPERTaremore powerful for dealing with dependencies and project completion time. Even whennetwork models are used, the Gantt chart often is used as a reporting tool.

Alternative spellings: The name of this tool frequently is misspelled as "Gannt Chart".

PERT

Complex projects require a series of activities, some of which must be performedsequentially and others that can be performed in parallel with other activities. Thiscollection of series and parallel tasks can be modeled as a network.

In 1957 the Critical Path Method (CPM) was developed as a network model for projectmanagement. CPM is a deterministic method that uses a fixed time estimate for each

activity. While CPM is easy to understand and use, it does not consider the timevariations that can have a great impact on the completion time of a complex project.

TheProgram Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a network model that allowsfor randomness in activity completion times. PERT was developed in the late 1950's forthe U.S. Navy's Polaris project having thousands of contractors. It has the potential toreduce both the time and cost required to complete a project.
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The Network Diagram

In a project, an activity is a task that must be performed and an event is a milestonemarking the completion of one or more activities. Before an activity can begin, all of itspredecessor activities must be completed. Project network models represent activities and

milestones by arcs and nodes. PERT originally was an activity on arc network, in whichthe activities are represented on the lines and milestones on the nodes. Over time, somepeople began to use PERT as an activity on node network. For this discussion, we willuse the original form of activity on arc.

The PERT chart may have multiple pages with many sub-tasks. The following is a verysimple example of a PERT diagram:

PERT Chart

The milestones generally are numbered so that the ending node of an activity has a highernumber than the beginning node. Incrementing the numbers by 10 allows for new ones tobe inserted without modifying the numbering of the entire diagram. The activities in the

above diagram are labeled with letters along with the expected time required to completethe activity.

Steps in the PERT Planning Process

PERT planning involves the following steps:

1. Identify the specific activities and milestones.2. Determine the proper sequence of the activities.3. Construct a network diagram.4. Estimate the time required for each activity.

5. Determine the critical path.6. Update the PERT chart as the project progresses.


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1. Identify Activities and Milestones

The activities are the tasks required to complete the project. The milestones are the eventsmarking the beginning and end of one or more activities. It is helpful to list the tasks in atable that in later steps can be expanded to include information on sequence and duration.

2. Determine Activity Sequence

This step may be combined with the activity identification step since the activitysequence is evident for some tasks. Other tasks may require more analysis to determinethe exact order in which they must be performed.

3. Construct the Network Diagram

Using the activity sequence information, a network diagram can be drawn showing thesequence of the serial and parallel activities. For the original activity-on-arc model, the

activities are depicted by arrowed lines and milestones are depicted by circles or"bubbles".

If done manually, several drafts may be required to correctly portray the relationshipsamong activities. Software packages simplify this step by automatically convertingtabular activity information into a network diagram.

4. Estimate Activity Times

Weeks are a commonly used unit of time for activity completion, but any consistent unitof time can be used.

A distinguishing feature of PERT is its ability to deal with uncertainty in activitycompletion times. For each activity, the model usually includes three time estimates:

Optimistic time - generally the shortest time in which the activity can becompleted. It is common practice to specify optimistic times to be three standarddeviations from the mean so that there is approximately a 1% chance that theactivity will be completed within the optimistic time.

Most likely time - the completion time having the highest probability. Note thatthis time is different from the expected time.

Pessimistic time - the longest time that an activity might require. Three standard

deviations from the mean is commonly used for the pessimistic time.

PERT assumes a beta probability distribution for the time estimates. For a betadistribution, the expected time for each activity can be approximated using the followingweighted average:

Expected time = ( Optimistic + 4 x Most likely + Pessimistic ) / 6


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This expected time may be displayed on the network diagram.

To calculate the variance for each activity completion time, if three standard deviationtimes were selected for the optimistic and pessimistic times, then there are six standarddeviations between them, so the variance is given by:

[ ( Pessimistic - Optimistic ) / 6 ]2

5. Determine the Critical Path

The critical path is determined by adding the times for the activities in each sequence anddetermining the longest path in the project. The critical path determines the total calendartime required for the project. If activities outside the critical path speed up or slow down(within limits), the total project time does not change. The amount of time that a non-

critical path activity can be delayed without delaying the project is referred to asslacktime.

If the critical path is not immediately obvious, it may be helpful to determine thefollowing four quantities for each activity:

ES - Earliest Start time EF - Earliest Finish time LS - Latest Start time LF - Latest Finish time

These times are calculated using the expected time for the relevant activities. The earlieststart and finish times of each activity are determined by working forward through thenetwork and determining the earliest time at which an activity can start and finishconsidering its predecessor activities. The latest start and finish times are the latest timesthat an activity can start and finish without delaying the project. LS and LF are found byworking backward through the network. The difference in the latest and earliest finish ofeach activity is that activity's slack. The critical path then is the path through the networkin which none of the activities have slack.

The variance in the project completion time can be calculated by summing the variancesin the completion times of the activities in the critical path. Given this variance, one can

calculate the probability that the project will be completed by a certain date assuming anormal probability distribution for the critical path. The normal distribution assumptionholds if the number of activities in the path is large enough for the central limit theoremto be applied.

Since the critical path determines the completion date of the project, the project can beaccelerated by adding the resources required to decrease the time for the activities in the


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critical path. Such a shortening of the project sometimes is referred to as projectcrashing.

6. Update as Project Progresses

Make adjustments in the PERT chart as the project progresses. As the project unfolds, theestimated times can be replaced with actual times. In cases where there are delays,additional resources may be needed to stay on schedule and the PERT chart may bemodified to reflect the new situation.

Benefits of PERT

PERT is useful because it provides the following information:

Expected project completion time. Probability of completion before a specified date. The critical path activities that directly impact the completion time. The activities that have slack time and that can lend resources to critical path

activities. Activity start and end dates.

Limitations

The following are some of PERT's weaknesses:

The activity time estimates are somewhat subjective and depend on judgement. Incases where there is little experience in performing an activity, the numbers maybe only a guess. In other cases, if the person or group performing the activityestimates the time there may be bias in the estimate.

Even if the activity times are well-estimated, PERT assumes a beta distributionfor these time estimates, but the actual distribution may be different.

Even if the beta distribution assumption holds, PERT assumes that the probabilitydistribution of the project completion time is the same as the that of the criticalpath. Because other paths can become the critical path if their associated activities

are delayed, PERT consistently underestimates the expected project completiontime.

The underestimation of the project completion time due to alternate paths becomingcritical is perhaps the most serious of these issues. To overcome this limitation, MonteCarlo simulations can be performed on the network to eliminate this optimistic bias in theexpected project completion time.


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Frederick Winslow Taylor

Mary Ellen Papesh

Frederick Winslow Taylor, the father of scientific management, was born on March 20,1865, into an upper class liberal Philadelphia family. His father, a Princeton graduate andlawyer, made enough money from mortgages and did not have to keep a regular job. Hismother was a spirited abolitionist and feminist who was said to have run an undergroundrailroad station for runaway slaves. Both parents were Quakers and believed in highthinking and plain living. Parental authority was not questioned and children were seenand not heard in the Taylor family. Family members referred to each other as "thee" and"thou". At an early age Taylor learned self-control and his Quaker upbringing helped himto avoid conflicts with his peers and to resolve disagreements among them.

Taylor was a compulsive adolescent and was always counting and measuring things tofigure a better way of doing something. At age twelve, he invented a harness for himselfto keep from sleeping on his back, hoping to avoid the nightmares he was having.

At age twenty-five, Taylor earned an engineering degree at the Stevens Institute ofTechnology in New Jersey while holding a full time job. To date, no one has broken thatrecord.

Another of his achievements was his winning of the U.S. Lawn Tennis Associationdoubles championship where he used a patented spoon-shaped racket that he himselfdesigned.

Even though he excelled in math and sports and had a degree from an exclusive college,Frederick chose to work as a machinist and pattern maker in Philadelphia at theEnterprise Hydraulic Works (Weisford 1987).

After his apprenticeship at the hydraulic works plant, he became a common laborer at theMidvale Steel Company. He started as shop clerk and quickly progressed to machinist,foreman, maintenance foreman, and chief draftsman. Within six years he advanced toresearch director, then chief engineer. While working there he introduced piece work inthe factory. His goal was to find the most efficient way to perform specific tasks. Heclosely watched how work was done and would then measure the quantity produced

(Kanigel 44).

Taylor's work was taking place in a time period when there was much industrial changehappening after the Civil War. National industries grew out of local trades -- steel, glass,textiles, and shoes and what were small factories became large plants. Owners of capitalbecame wealthier with mass production, and workers received little for their efforts.Problems included carelessness, safety, inefficiencies, and soldiering (worker footdragging) on the job. Taylor sought to get past the futile incentive bonuses that


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management thought would remedy the problems. He believed that incentive wages wereno solution unless they were combined with efficient tasks that were carefully plannedand easily learned. He proposed that management should work cooperatively in asupportive role (Freedman 26-38). "Not only did Taylor have some definite ideas aboutwork and how it should be studied, organized, and rewarded, but it appears he also knew

something about organizational change" (Wredge and Greenwood 270-272).

Taylor believed that the secret of productivity was finding the right challenge for eachperson, then paying him well for increased output. At Midvale, he used time studies to setdaily production quotas. Incentives would be paid to those reaching their daily goal.Those who didn't reach their goal would get the differential rate, a much lower pay.Taylor doubled productivity using time study, systematic controls and tools, functionalforemanship, and his new wage scheme. He paid the person not the job.

At age thirty-seven, Frederick became a consulting engineer. Unfortunately, he did notunderstand the resistance of the people most threatened by his system -- supervisors and

middle managers. He focused on cost cutting methods when a problem called for newcustomers and products. At the Simonds Roller Bearing Company he increasedproductivity while improving speed and accuracy. Taylor's critics said he was too harshbecause his innovative plan caused people to lose their jobs, referring to his replacing of120 workers with only 35 at Simonds.

In practice, Taylor "took a harsh, often ruthless approach" to chopping heads rather thansaving jobs. He believed that unions wouldn't be necessary if workers were paid theirindividual worth (Weisbord 1987).

As a consultant, Frederick's most important client was Bethlehem Iron Company, later

known as Bethlehem Steel Company. In 1901, he and another Stevens graduate madeBethlehem "the world's most modern factory and potentially a prototype formanufacturers and engineers in other industries" by installing production planning,differential piece rates, and functional foremanship (Nelson 1980). Among Taylor's othercontributions to Bethlehem in 1901 were a real time analysis of daily output and costs, amodern cost accounting system, reduced yard worker's ranks from 500 to 140, doubledstamping mill production, and lowered cost per ton of materials handled from eight centsto four cents. He successfully implemented cost saving techniques even though he addedclerks, teachers, time-study engineers, supervision and staffing support positions. Whileat Bethlehem, Taylor and Manusel White codeveloped the Taylor-White system for heattreating chrome-tungsten tool steel, which won Frederick international recognition.

Despite his many impressive achievements, Taylor made enemies. Some managers werealso landlords and when Taylor reduced the yard force population, they thought he woulddepopulate South Bethlehem (Weisbord 1987). Ironically, that is exactly what they hadhired Taylor to do, but they never expected that he would actually do it. In fact, displacedworkers were moved to other jobs and did not lose employment. After disputes with newmanagement at Bethlehem, Taylor was eventually fired in May of 1901.


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Taylor did not suffer financially from losing his job, but the event did hurt his self-esteem. He began to concentrate on his home and hobbies and with his wife , LouiseSpooner, adopted three orphaned children. After Bethlehem, Frederick never worked formoney again.

Much of his famous book, "The Principles of Scientific Management", was written fromtranscripts of talks Taylor gave at his estate years after he stopped working for money.The system he describes in his book is an actual composite of everything he had learnedfrom trying different things at many companies. Taylor did what he could to fit as muchof his thinking to his client's problems and motives for each particular situation.Consultants use this type of process today." He was the first person in history to make asystematic attempt to improve both output and work life in factories" (Weisford 1987).

In his last years Frederick felt misunderstood by quick-fix managers and zealousunionists, and wronged by consultant imitators. His energy was sapped by the constantattention he paid to his wife's severe illnesses.

While on a speaking tour in the Midwest, in 1915, he contracted influenza. He wasadmitted to a hospital in Philadelphia and celebrated his fifty-ninth birthday there. Hedied the next day.

Taylor's core values: the rule of reason, improved quality, lower costs, higher wages,higher output, labor-management cooperation, experimentation, clear tasks and goals,feedback, training, mutual help and support, stress reduction, and the careful selectionand development of people. He was the first to present a systematic study of interactionsamong job requirements, tools, methods, and human skill, to fit people to jobs bothpsychologically and physically, and to let data and facts do the talking rather than

prejudice, opinions, or egomania (Weisford 1987).


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Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management

In 1911, Frederick Winslow Taylor published his work, The Principles of ScientificManagement, in which he described how the application of the scientific method to themanagement of workers greatly could improve productivity. Scientific managementmethods called for optimizing the way that tasks were performed and simplifying the jobsenough so that workers could be trained to perform their specialized sequence of motionsin the one "best" way.

Prior to scientific management, work was performed by skilled craftsmen who hadlearned their jobs in lengthy apprenticeships. They made their own decisions about howtheir job was to be performed. Scientific management took away much of this autonomyand converted skilled crafts into a series of simplified jobs that could be performed by

unskilled workers who easily could be trained for the tasks.

Taylor became interested in improving worker productivity early in his career when heobserved gross inefficiencies during his contact with steel workers.

Soldiering

Working in the steel industry, Taylor had observed the phenomenon of workers'purposely operating well below their capacity, that is,soldiering. He attributed soldieringto three causes:

1. The almost universally held belief among workers that if they became moreproductive, fewer of them would be needed and jobs would be eliminated.

2. Non-incentive wage systems encourage low productivity if the employee willreceive the same pay regardless of how much is produced, assuming the employeecan convince the employer that the slow pace really is a good pace for the job.Employees take great care never to work at a good pace for fear that this fasterpace would become the new standard. If employees are paid by the quantity theyproduce, they fear that management will decrease their per-unit pay if the quantityincreases.

3. Workers waste much of their effort by relying on rule-of-thumb methods ratherthan on optimal work methods that can be determined by scientific study of the

task.

To counter soldiering and to improve efficiency, Taylor began to conduct experiments todetermine the best level of performance for certain jobs, and what was necessary toachieve this performance.


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Time Studies

Taylor argued that even the most basic, mindless tasks could be planned in a way thatdramatically would increase productivity, and that scientific management of the workwas more effective than the "initiative and incentive" method of motivating workers. The

initiative and incentive method offered an incentive to increase productivity but placedthe responsibility on the worker to figure out how to do it.

To scientifically determine the optimal way to perform a job, Taylor performedexperiments that he called time studies, (also known as time and motion studies). Thesestudies were characterized by the use of a stopwatch to time a worker's sequence ofmotions, with the goal of determining the one best way to perform a job.

The following are examples of some of the time-and-motion studies that were performedby Taylor and others in the era of scientific management.

Pig IronIf workers were moving 12 1/2 tons of pig iron per day and they could be incentivized totry to move 47 1/2 tons per day, left to their own wits they probably would becomeexhausted after a few hours and fail to reach their goal. However, by first conductingexperiments to determine the amount of resting that was necessary, the worker's managercould determine the optimal timing of lifting and resting so that the worker could movethe 47 1/2 tons per day without tiring.

Not all workers were physically capable of moving 47 1/2 tons per day; perhaps only 1/8of the pig iron handlers were capable of doing so. While these 1/8 were not extraordinarypeople who were highly prized by society, their physical capabilities were well-suited to

moving pig iron. This example suggests that workers should be selected according to howwell they are suited for a particular job.

The Science of ShovelingIn another study of the "science of shoveling", Taylor ran time studies to determine thatthe optimal weight that a worker should lift in a shovel was 21 pounds. Since there is awide range of densities of materials, the shovel should be sized so that it would hold 21pounds of the substance being shoveled. The firm provided the workers with optimalshovels. The result was a three to four fold increase in productivity and workers wererewarded with pay increases. Prior to scientific management, workers used their ownshovels and rarely had the optimal one for the job.

BricklayingOthers performed experiments that focused on specific motions, such as Gilbreth'sbricklaying experiments that resulted in a dramatic decrease in the number of motionsrequired to lay bricks. The husband and wife Gilbreth team used motion picturetechnology to study the motions of the workers in some of their experiments.


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Taylor's 4 Principles of Scientific Management

After years of various experiments to determine optimal work methods, Taylor proposedthe following four principles of scientific management:

1. Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study ofthe tasks.

2. Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather than passively leavingthem to train themselves.

3. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically developed methodsare being followed.

4. Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managersapply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workersactually perform the tasks.

These principles were implemented in many factories, often increasing productivity by a

factor of three or more. Henry Ford applied Taylor's principles in his automobilefactories, and families even began to perform their household tasks based on the resultsof time and motion studies.

Drawbacks of Scientific Management

While scientific management principles improved productivity and had a substantialimpact on industry, they also increased the monotony of work. The core job dimensionsof skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback all were missingfrom the picture of scientific management.

While in many cases the new ways of working were accepted by the workers, in somecases they were not. The use of stopwatches often was a protested issue and led to a strikeat one factory where "Taylorism" was being tested. Complaints that Taylorism wasdehumanizing led to an investigation by the United States Congress. Despite itscontroversy, scientific management changed the way that work was done, and forms of itcontinue to be used today.

Frederick W. Taylor

Taylor (Frederick Winslow Taylor - March 20, 1856 - March 21, 1915), was anAmerican mechanical engineer who originally sought to improve industrial efficiency.

A management consultant in his later years, he is sometimes called "the father ofscientific management." He was one of the intellectual leaders of the EfficiencyMovement and his ideas, broadly conceived, were highly influential in the ProgressiveEra.

Taylor was also an accomplished tennis player. He won the first doubles tournamentin the 1881 U.S. National Championships (later called the US Open), with ClarenceClark.


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Life of Frederick Taylor

Taylor was born in 1856 to a wealthy Quaker family in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,USA. He wanted to attend Harvard University, but poor eyesight forced him toconsider an alternative career. In 1874, he became an apprentice patternmaker,gaining shop-floor experience that would inform the rest of his career. He obtained adegree in Mechanical Engineering through a highly unusual (for the time) series ofcorrespondence courses at the Stevens Institute of Technology where he was aBrother of the Gamma Chapter of Theta Xi, graduating in 1883 (Kanigel 1997:182-183,199). He began developing his management philosophies during his time at theMidvale Steel Works, where he rose to be chief engineer for the plant. Later, at

Bethlehem Steel, he and Maunsel White (with a team of assistants) developed highspeed steel. He eventually became a professor at the Tuck School of Business atDartmouth College.

Taylor believed that the industrial management of his day was amateurish, thatmanagement could be formulated as an academic discipline, and that the bestresults would come from the partnership between a trained and qualifiedmanagement and a cooperative and innovative workforce. Each side needed theother, and there was no need for trade unions.

Louis Brandeis, who was an active propagandist of Taylorism (Montgomery 1989:250), coined the term scientific management in the course of his argument for theEastern Rate Case, which Taylor used in the title of his monograph The Principles ofScientific Management, published in 1911. His approach is also often referred to, asTaylor's Principles, or frequently disparagingly, as Taylorism. Taylor's scientificmanagement consisted of four principles:

1. Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientificstudy of the tasks.

2. Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passivelyleaving them to train themselves.
http://vectorstudy.com/management_schools/scientific_management.htmhttp://vectorstudy.com/management_schools/scientific_management.htm


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3. Provide "Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in theperformance of that worker's discrete task" (Montgomery 1997: 250).

4. Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that themanagers apply scientific management principles to planning the work andthe workers actually perform the tasks

Scientific Management and Frederick Winslow Taylor

By far the most influential person of the time and someone who has had an impacton management service practice as well as on management thought up to thepresent day, was F. W. Taylor. Taylor formalized the principles ofscientificmanagement, and the fact-finding approach put forward and largely adopted was areplacement for what had been the old rule of thumb.

He also developed a theory of organizations which altered the personalized autocracywhich had only been tempered by varying degrees of benevolence, such as in theQuaker family businesses of Cadbury's and Clark's.

Taylor was not the originator of many of his ideas, but was a pragmatist with theability to synthesize the work of others and promote them effectively to a ready andeager audience of industrial managers who were striving to find new or improvedways to increase performance.

At the time of Taylor's work, a typical manager would have very little contact withthe activities of the factory. Generally, a foreman would be given the totalresponsibility for producing goods demanded by the salesman. Under theseconditions, workmen used what tools they had or could get and adopted methodsthat suited their own style of work.

F.W. Taylor's contributions to scientific management

By 1881 Taylor had published a paper that turned the cutting of metal into a science.Later he turned his attention to shoveling coal. By experimenting with differentdesigns of shovel for use with different material, (from 'rice' coal to ore,) he was ableto design shovels that would permit the worker to shovel for the whole day.

In so doing, he reduced the number of people shoveling at the Bethlehem SteelWorks from 500 to 140. This work, and his studies on the handling of pig iron,greatly contributed to the analysis of work design and gave rise to method study.

To follow, in 1895, were papers on incentive schemes. A piece rate system onproduction management in shop management, and later, in 1909, he published the

book for which he is best known, Principles of Scientific Management.

A feature of Taylor's work was stop-watch timing as the basis of observations.However, unlike the early activities of Perronet and others, he started to break thetimings down into elements and it was he who coined the term 'time study'.

Taylor's uncompromising attitude in developing and installing his ideas caused himmuch criticism. Scientific method, he advocated, could be applied to all problems andapplied just as much to managers as workers. In his own words he explained:
http://vectorstudy.com/management_schools/scientific_management.htmhttp://vectorstudy.com/management_schools/scientific_management.htmhttp://vectorstudy.com/management_schools/scientific_management.htmhttp://vectorstudy.com/management_schools/scientific_management.htm


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"The old fashioned dictator does not exist under Scientific Management. Theman at the head of the business under Scientific Management is governed byrules and laws which have been developed through hundreds of experimentsjust as much as the workman is, and the standards developed are equitable."

Taylor's contribution to organizational theory

This required an organization theory similar for all practical purposes to thatadvocated by those organizational theorists who followed. These theorists developedprinciples of management, which included much of Taylor's philosophy

His framework for organization was:

clear delineation of authority responsibility separation of planning from operations incentive schemes for workers management by exception

task specialization

Managers and workers

Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system:

"It is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of thebest implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that this fasterwork can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards andenforcing this cooperation rests with management alone." (Taylor, Principles ofScientific Management, cited by Montgomery 1989:229, italics with Taylor)

Workers were supposed to be incapable of understanding what they were doing.According to Taylor this was true even for rather simple tasks.

"'I can say, without the slightest hesitation,' Taylor told a congressional committee,'that the science of handling pig-iron is so great that the man who is ... physicallyable to handle pig-iron and is sufficiently phlegmatic and stupid to choose this for hisoccupation is rarely able to comprehend the science of handling pig-iron."(Montgomery 1989:251)

The introduction of his system was often resented by workers and provokednumerous strikes. The strike at Watertown Arsenal led to the congressionalinvestigation in 1912.

Propaganda techniques

Taylor promised to reconcile labor and capital. "With the triumph of scientificmanagement, unions would have nothing left to do, and they would have beencleansed of their most evil feature: the restriction of output. To underscore this idea,Taylor fashioned the myth that 'there has never been a strike of men working underscientific management', trying to give it credibility by constant repetition. In similarfashion he incessantly linked his proposals to shorter hours of work, without


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bothering to produce evidence of "Taylorized" firms that reduced working hours, andhe revised his famous tale of Schmidt carrying pig iron at Bethlehem Steel at leastthree times, obscuring some aspects of his study and stressing others, so that eachsuccessive version made Schmidt's exertions more impressive, more voluntary andmore rewarding to him than the last. Unlike [Harrington] Emerson, Taylor was not acharlatan, but his ideological message required the suppression of all evidence of

worker's dissent, of coercion, or of any human motives or aspirations other thanthose his vision of progress could encompass."

Management theory

Taylor thought that by analysing work, the "One Best Way" to do it would be found.He is most remembered for developing the time and motion study. He would break ajob into its component parts and measure each to the hundredth of a minute. One ofhis most famous studies involved shovels. He noticed that workers used the sameshovel for all materials. He determined that the most effective load was 21 lb, and

found or designed shovels that for each material would scoop up that amount. Hewas generally unsuccessful in getting his concepts applied and was dismissed fromBethlehem Steel. It was largely through the efforts of his disciples (most notably H.L.Gantt) that industry came to implement his ideas. Nevertheless, the book he wroteafter parting company with Bethlehem Steel, Shop Management, sold well....

Relations with ASME

Taylor was president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) from1906 to 1907. While president, he tried to implement his system into themanagement of the ASME but was met with much resistance. He was only able toreorganize the publications department and then only partially. He also forced outthe ASME's long-time secretary, Morris L. Cooke, and replaced him with Calvin W.Rice. His tenure as president was trouble-ridden and marked the beginning of aperiod of internal dissension within the ASME during the Progressive Era.

In 1912, Taylor collected a number of his articles into a book-length manuscriptwhich he submitted to the ASME for publication. The ASME formed an ad hoccommittee to review the text. The committee included Taylor allies such as JamesMapes Dodge and Henry R. Towne. The committee delegated the report to the editorof the American Machinist, Leon P. Alford. Alford was a critic of the Taylor systemand the report was negative. The committee modified the report slightly, butaccepted Alford's recommendation not to publish Taylor's book. Taylor angrilywithdrew the book and published Principles without ASME approval...

Taylor's influence

Taylor's influence on United States


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Carl Barth helped Taylor to develop speed-and-feed-calculating slide rules toa previously unknown level of usefulness. Similar aids are still used inmachine shops today. Barth became an early consultant on scientificmanagement and later taught at Harvard.

H. L. Gantt developed the Gantt chart, a visual aid for scheduling tasks anddisplaying the flow of work.

Harrington Emerson introduced scientific management to the railroadindustry, and proposed the dichotomy of staff versus line employees, with theformer advising the latter.

Morris Cooke adapted scientific management to educational and municipalorganizations.

Hugo Mnsterberg created industrial psychology. Lillian Gilbreth introduced psychology to management studies. Frank Gilbreth (husband of Lillian) discovered scientific management while

working in the construction industry, eventually developing motion studiesindependently of Taylor. These logically complemented Taylor's time studies,as time and motion are two sides of the efficiency improvement coin. The twofields eventually became time and motion study.

Harvard University, one of the first American universities to offer a graduatedegree in business management in 1908, based its first-year curriculum onTaylor's scientific management.

Harlow S. Person, as dean of Dartmouth's Amos Tuck School ofAdministration and Finance, promoted the teaching of scientific management.

James O. McKinsey, professor of accounting at the University of Chicago andfounder of the consulting firm bearing his name, advocated budgets as ameans of assuring accountability and of measuring performance.

Taylor's influence on France

In France, Le Chatelier translated Taylor's work and introduced scie

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