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Chemical Engineering is all about changing raw materialsinto useful products you use everyday in a safe and costeffective way. Our modern society relies on the work of Chemical and Biochemical Engineers - they help manageresources, protect the environment and control health andsafety procedures, while developing the processes thatmake the products we desire or depend on.

Definition of Chemical EngineeringChemical engineering is one of the broadest fields of engineering.This breadth stems from the fact that the discipline is founded onmathematics and on all the basic sciences, namely, chemistry,

physics, as well as biology, making it a truely interdisciplinaryfield of study.

In comparison, the other major engineering disciplines are foundedmainly on math and physics. Thus, there are two alternatedefinitions of chemical engineering:

Disciplinary DefinitionChemical Engineering is the profession in whichknowledge of mathematics, physics, chemistry and

biology, gained by study, experience, and practice, isapplied with judgment to develop economic and safeways of using materials to benefit mankind.

Occupational DefinitionChemical Engineering is a broad discipline dealing with

processes (industrial and natural) involving thetransformation (chemical, biological, or physical) of matter or energy into forms useful for mankind,economically and without compromising environment,safety, or finite resources.

Domain of Chemical EngineeringThe molcular basis of the chemical and physical transformation of matter that Chemical Engineers are concerned with, coupled withthe global principles underlying the discipline (conservation of mass, energy, and momentum, the notion of unit operations, andreaction kinetics) allows them to work from the nano-scale (designof catalysts, or molecular design of drugs) to the meso-scale(petroleum refinery) to the global-scale (air pollution modeling and

control). This is unique to Chemical Engineering and is depicted inthe figure below (NRC Report, credited to Professor WolfgangMarquardt):

Chemical engineering occupies a unique position at the interface betweenmolecular sciences and engineering. Intimately linked with thefundamental subjects of chemistry, biology, mathematics, and physics and in close collaboration with fellow engineering disciplines like materialsscience, computer science, and mechanical, electrical, and civilengineering chemical engineering offers unparalleled opportunities todo great things.

Traditionally linked to fuel combustion and energy systems, today'schemical engineers are spearheading new developments in medicine,biotechnology, microelectronics, advanced materials, energy, consumer products, manufacturing, and environmental solutions. A new generationof chemical engineering-trained entrepreneurs are forming innovative newbusinesses, no doubt influenced by the fact that chemical engineers haveserved as CEOs of such leading global businesses as 3M, DuPont, Intel,General Electric, Union Carbide, Dow Chemical, Exxon, BASF, Gulf, and

Texaco.

People with undergraduate and graduate chemical engineering degreesgo on to work in industry, academia, consulting, law, medicine, finance,and other fields. For more information, the American Institute of ChemicalEngineers (AIChE)offers an online database that lists the companies thatare the most prolific hirers of its members. TheChemical Engineers in Actionsite shows the variety of things that chemical engineers can do.

Chemical engineering is the study and practice of transforming substances at large scales for the tangibleimprovement of the human condition. Such transformationsare executed to produce other useful substances or energy,and lie at the heart of vast segments of the chemical,petroleum, pharmaceutical, and electronic industries.

W hat is Chemical Engineering?W hat do Chemical Engineers do? Have you ever imagined that it is a really cool, dynamic and fun career with an impact on every aspect of our daily workinglives?

Chemical Engineers are employed around the world in afirst-class, largely graduate profession. They work in avariety of sectors, ranging from chemicals to energy, foodand drink, pharmaceuticals and health care. The roles theyundertake are numerous and include inventing, designing,constructing, operating and controlling industrial processesfor a wide range of products on which everyone's standard of

living depends.

These products may be bulk commodity chemicals andpolymers, such as plastics, or more specialised productsmanufactured on a small scale, such as enzymes. Productsare made by inducing chemical or physical changes inmaterials, through reaction or separation and mixing, for example - a Chemical Engineer must understand theseprocesses at the molecular level as well as on a factoryscale.

Many of the companies employing Chemical Engineers arenames that are instantly recognised all over the world, suchas Cadbury Schweppes, GlaxoSmithKline, Procter andGamble, Esso and Unilever, to name but a few. There areopportunities to work in small and medium sized businessesthat frequently provide technical services to the larger concerns. For the adventurous, there are also opportunitiesto operate either as a consultant within a particular industrysector, or to run your own business.

what is chemical engineering

Chemical engineering is a discipline influencing numerousareas of technology.In broad terms, chemical engineers areresponsible for the conception and design of processes for the purpose of production, transformation and transportation

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of materials. This activity begins with experimentation in thelaboratory and is followed by implementation of thetechnology to full scale production.The large number of industries which depend on thesynthesis and processing of chemicals and materials placethe chemical engineer in great demand.; In addition totraditional examples such as the chemical, energy and oilindustries, opportunities in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals,

electronic device fabrication, and environmental engineeringare increasing. The unique training of the chemical engineer becomes essential in these areas whenever processesinvolve the chemical or physical transformation of matter.For example, chemical engineers working in the chemicalindustry investigate the creation of new polymeric materialswith important electrical, optical or mechanical properties.This requires attention not only to the synthesis of thepolymer, but also to the flow and forming processesnecessary to create a final product. In biotechnology,chemical engineers have responsibilities in the design of production facilities to use microorganisms and enzymes tosynthesize new drugs. Problems in environmentalengineering that engage chemical engineers include thedevelopment of processes (catalytic converters, effluenttreatment facilities) to minimize the release of or deactivateproducts harmful to the environment.To carry out these activities, the chemical engineer requiresa complete and quantitative understanding of both theengineering and scientific principles underlying thesetechnological processes. This is reflected in the curriculum of the chemical engineering department which includes thestudy of applied mathematics, material and energy balances,thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, energy and mass transfer,separations technologies, chemical reaction kinetics andreactor design, and process design. These courses are builton a foundation in the sciences of chemistry, physics andbiology.

Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that

deals with the application of physicalscience (e.g., chemistry and physics ), and life sciences(e.g., biology , microbiology and biochemistry )with mathematics and economics , to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. In addition to producing useful materials,modern chemical engineering is also concerned withpioneering valuable new materials and techniques suchas nanotechnology , fuel cells and biomedicalengineering .[1] Chemical engineering largely involves thedesign, improvement and maintenance of processesinvolving chemical or biological transformations for large-scale manufacture . Chemical engineers ensure theprocesses are operated safely, sustainably andeconomically. Chemical engineers in this branch are usuallyemployed under the title of process engineer . A relatedterm with a wider definition is chemical technology. A personemployed in this field is called a chemical engineer .

[edit ]Chemical engineering timeline

Main article: History of chemical engineering

In 1824, French physicist Sadi Carnot , in his "On the MotivePower of Fire", was the first to studythe thermodynamics of combustion reactions . In the 1850s,German physicist Rudolf Clausius began to apply theprinciples developed by Carnot to chemical systems at theatomic to molecular scale. [2] During the years 1873 to 1876

at Yale University , American mathematical physicist JosiahWillard Gibbs , the first to be awarded a Ph.D. in engineeringin the U.S., in a series of three papers, developed amathematical-based, graphical methodology, for the study of chemical systems using the thermodynamics of Clausius. In1882, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz , publisheda founding thermodynamics paper, similar to Gibbs, but withmore of an electro-chemical basis, in which he showed that

measure of chemical affinity , i.e., the "force" of chemicalreactions , is determined by the measure of the freeenergy of the reaction process. The following timeline showssome of the key steps in the development of the science of chemical engineering: [3]

1805 John Dalton published Atomic Weights, allowingchemical equations to be balanced and the basis for chemical engineering mass balances.

1882 a course in "Chemical Technology" is offeredat University College London

1883 Osborne Reynolds defines the dimensionlessgroup for fluid flow, leading to practical scale-up andunderstanding of flow, heat and mass transfer

1885 Henry Edward Armstrong offers a course in

"chemical engineering" at Central College(later Imperial College ), London. 1888 There is a Department of Chemical Engineering

at Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical Collegeoffering day and evening classes. [4]

1888 Lewis M. Norton starts a new curriculumat Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT): CourseX, Chemical Engineering [5][6]

1889 Rose Polytechnic Institute awards the firstbachelor's of science in chemical engineering in theUS. [7]

1891 MIT awards a bachelor's of science in chemicalengineering to William Page Bryant and six other candidates.

1892 A bachelor's program in chemical engineering isestablished at the University of Pennsylvania .

1898 Bachelor of science program in chemicalengineering is established at the University of Michigan .

1901 George E. Davis produces the Handbook of Chemical Engineering

1905 the University of Wisconsin awards the firstPh.D. in chemical engineering to Oliver PattersonWatts .

1908 the American Institute of ChemicalEngineers (AIChE) is founded.

1922 the UK Institution of ChemicalEngineers (IChemE) is founded. [8]

[edit ]Overview

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Chemical engineers operate processes at plants, above isthe image of processes at an industry control room

Chemical engineers design processes to ensure the mosteconomical operation. This means that the entire productionchain must be planned and controlled for costs. A chemicalengineer can both simplify and complicate "showcase"reactions for an economic advantage. Using a different

pressure or temperature makes several reactions easier;ammonia, for example, is simply produced from itscomponent elements in a high-pressure reactor. On theother hand, reactions with a low yield can be recycledcontinuously, which would be complex, arduous work if doneby hand in the laboratory. It is not unusual to build 8-step, or even 10-step evaporators to reuse the vaporization energyfor an economic advantage. In contrast, laboratory chemistsevaporate samples in a single step.

The individual processes used by chemical engineers(e.g., distillation or filtration ) are called unit operations andconsist of chemical reactions , mass- , heat- and momentum-transfer operations. Unit operations are grouped together in

various configurations for the purpose of chemicalsynthesis and/or chemical separation . Some processes area combination of intertwined transport and separation unit

operations, (e.g., reactive distillation ).Three primary physical laws underlying chemicalengineering design are conservation of mass , conservationof momentum and conservation of energy . The movement of mass and energy around a chemical process are evaluatedusing mass balances and energy balances , laws that applyto discrete parts of equipment, unit operations, or an entireplant. In doing so, chemical engineers must also useprinciples of thermodynamics , reaction kinetics , fluidmechanics and transport phenomena . The task of performingthese balances is now aided by process simulators , whichare complex software models (see List of Chemical ProcessSimulators ) that can solve mass and energy balances andusually have built-in modules to simulate a variety of common unit operations.

[edit ]Design

Chemical engineers design chemical production equipmentand entire chemical plants:

Piping and pump sizing and specification Chemical reactors

Continuous stirred-tank reactor Plug flow reactor Catalytic reactor

Separation equipment Distillation column Extraction column Evaporation Filtering Reverse osmosis

Process Systems Engineering Process control and instrumentationDesign is worked through in a number of phases. With theprocess concept and intended chemical reactions in hand,a Flowsheet is designed, which includes all material flows inthe process, including not only starting materials andproducts, but all intermediates, wastes and unit operations .Preliminary design is done to approximate cost, space andenvironmental requirements to further evaluate the viabilityof the concept. Later stages require the design andspecification of all parts and each piece of equipment in theprocess, and finally, cost calculation and project planning.Supervision of the work, testing, simulation follow. Runningthe process and its maintenance continues, with continualimprovement, for the life of the process, followed byshutdown and cleanup of the site. mkm

[edit ]Modern chemical engineering

The modern discipline of chemical engineeringencompasses much more than just process engineering.Chemical engineers are now engaged in the developmentand production of a diverse range of products, as well as incommodity and specialty chemicals . These products includehigh performance materials neededfor aerospace , biomedical , electronic , environmental , space and military applications. Examples include ultra-strongfibers, fabrics , dye-sensitized solar cells , adhesives andcomposites for vehicles, bio-compatible materials for implants and prosthetics , gels for medicalapplications, pharmaceuticals , and films withspecial dielectric , optical or spectroscopic properties for opto-electronic devices. Additionally, chemical engineering is

often intertwined with biology and biomedical engineering .Many chemical engineers work on biological projects suchas understanding biopolymers ( proteins ) and mapping thehuman genome . The line between chemists and chemicalengineers is growing ever more thin as more and morechemical engineers begin to start their own innovation usingtheir knowledge of chemistry, physics and mathematics tocreate, implement and mass produce their ideas.

Chemical Engineering

History and Basics of Chemical Engineering

y Feb 21, 2007y S udheendra Dhulipala

This article discusses the main function of chemicalengineering, how its scope has expanded as compared toearlier times and its importance to the industrial sector.

Chemical engineering, as the name suggests, deals with thetask of finding more efficient and economical techniques tomake the total cost of production of the end-productfinancially viable. Its origin can be attributed to the need for making various intermediate processes in the mechanicalengineering sector cost-effective.

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Chemical engineering - The Past

In the early years of its inception, chemical engineering hadlittle or minor part to play in the production processes. Duringthis time, it was mainly concerned with inspection of asample of the product by putting it through differentoperations of the procedure and observing the quality of theend-product attained. In other words, the chemical engineersof those times were not any different from chemists. Their involvement was less because the volume of production wasless due to low demand for products.

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The term Chemical Engineering gained real significanceduring the time of industrial revolution, when the need for people who not only were aware of the chemical processes

but also the factors needed to enhance the efficiency of theprocess was highlighted. Hence, the modern chemicalengineer is mainly concerned with the application of variousscientific principles to the design and maintenance of different chemical processes for large scale manufacturingprocedures.

Chemical engineering - The Present

The main task of a chemical engineer is to apply either newly researched or well-established methods to theproduction processes so as to yield high savings. Thismeans he is in charge of all the individual processes thatmake up the procedure and must ensure the cost-effectiveness of each and every process. He is supposed tocombine a few processes or separate them as required toattain cost-effectiveness for the entire procedure.

READ ON

y Environmental Engineering y Engineering Classified y Chemical Engineering 101

As it was mentioned earlier that chemical engineering wasderived from mechanical engineering, the three main lawswhich govern chemical engineering were also derived frommechanical engineering. These three laws, the law of conservation of mass, the law of conservation of momentumand the law of conservation of energy have their roots inmechanical engineering.

Chemical engineering - The Future

Though chemical engineering started out as a field of studyrelated to various processes in the operation of industriesand large scale manufacturing companies, it later spread outto many other areas of human importance. Today, chemicalengineers are providing high quality services to aerospace,military, pharmaceuticals, and many other areas. They are

also concerned with determining the right composition of fuelto be used in spacecrafts and missiles.

Read more at Suite101: Chemical Engineering: Historyand Basics of Chemical Engineering |S uite 101. com http://www .suite 101. com/content/chemical-engineering-studied-a 14316# ixzz 1O gmaMt 2 p

~440 BC: Democritus proposes the concept an of atom todescribe the indivisible and indestructible particles that werethought to compose the substance of all things.

~250 BC: Archimedes deduces the law of the levers andcould evaluate the relative density of bodies by observingtheir buoyancy force when immersed in water.

~240 BC: Eratosthenes of Cyrene , director of Alexandrialibrary, calculates the size of Earth by measuring the sun's shadowat noon in Siena (Egypt) and Alexandria.

~70 : Pliny the Elder writes his Historia Naturalis, a 39volume universal encyclopedia , compiling all that was knownabout the science of his day. Pliny died in Pompeii during theeruption of the volcano the year 7 9.

~1 30 : Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy) writes a mathematicaland geographical treatise describing all ancient knowledgeconcerning distances and locations on the earth. He also developeda star catalogue with 1022 entries. The Ptolomeic model placedthe earth as the center of the universe; the sun, stars and planetsrevolved around the earth in circular orbits. This model remainedthe standard interpretation for more than a millennium, until the

time of Copernicus.

2 30 : Romans create life expectancy table for selling"annuities." Average life expectancy is only 20-30 years .

1 347 : William Occam enunciates the principle now knownas Occam's Razor ; "entities must not be multiplied beyond whatis necessary."

1450 : Johann Gutenberg receives from Johann Fust anadvance of 8 00 guilders to develop his printing press . Probablythe first book printed was a dictionary called Catholicon and thenlater the Latin Bible.

14 92 : Cristoforo Colombo ( Christopher Columbus ) arriveson the shores of a new continent. The continent was later calledAmerica in honor to the Italian cartographer Americo Vespucci .

1500 : Leonardo da Vinci points out that animals could notsurvive in an atmosphere that could not support combustion.

154 3: Copernicus ' heliocentric model of the universe was arevision of the Ptolomeic model which had become too complex

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and inaccurate to accommodate the known movement of celestial bodies.

1546 : H ieronymus Francastorius wrote on Contagion, thefirst known discussion of the phenomenon of contagiousinfection .

1616 : William H arvey demonstrates his findings onthe circulation of blood . In 162 8 he published ExercitacioAnatomica Motu Cardis et Sanguinis in Animalibus, in which hedescribes the function of the circulatory system, including thenotion of the heart as a mechanical pump .

16 35 : John Winthrop , Jr., opens America's first chemicalplant in Boston. They produce saltpeter (used in gunpowder ) andalum (used in tanning ).

1644 : Evangelista Torricelli devises the barometer .

1647 Blaise Pascal determines the pressure of air . He also

invents a machine to perform addition and subtraction; thePascalina, a remote precursor of calculating machines.

1660 : Nicaise Le Febvre , in Trait de la Chymie held thatthe function of air in the respiration was to purify the blood .

1662 : Robert Boyle found that the volume occupied by thesame sample of any gas at constant temperature is inversely

proportional to the pressure. This statement is known as Boyle'slaw .

1666 : Fire destroys 3/4 of London . Prompts introduction of fire insurance and municipal fire departments.

16 83: Antoni von Leewenhoek discovers bacteria .

16 87 : Isaac Newton publishes his "Philosophiae NaturalisPrincipia Matematica". The whole development of modern science

begins with this great book. Newton set the foundationsof mechanics , the theory of gravitation , a theory of light , and alsoconcurrently, with Leibnitz , invents the calculus .

1720 's: Newcomen's steam engine comes into general use.

1722 : Ramur publishes "L'art de covertir le Fer Forg enAcier" solving the guarded secret of steel-makers ; that steel isiron containing just the right amount of carbon.

174 9: England begins a Lead-Chamber Method to produce sulfuric acid .

1750 's: Classic British Industrial Revolution begins (oftensaid to last until 1 830 's, however in many ways it continues to thisday).

1760 's: James Watt improves on the Newcomen Engine.

1761 : Joseph Klreuter publishes reports in artificialhybridization .

1766 : H enry Cavendish discovers "inflammable air"(hydrogen ), which he concluded to be a combination of water and

phlogiston (oxygen), since its combustion yielded water.

1770 : John Priestley discovers oxygen and showed thatis consumed by animals and produced by the plants .

1772 : Daniel Rutherford describes "residual air", the first published description of nitrogen .

1772 : Joseph Priestley and JanIngenhousz investigate photosynthesis .

177 3: Stephen H ales makes the first measurement of bloodpressure .

1775 : Antoine Lavoisier shows that fire is due tothe exothermic reaction between combustible substances andoxygen. He named a gas discovered by Cavendish, that burned to

produce water, hydrogen (Greek, water producer). Alsodemonstrated that CO 2 , nitric acid, and sulfuric acid containedoxygen.

1776 : The United States declares its independence fromEngland.

17 80 : Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre Laplace publish their Memoire on Heat, in which they reach the conclusionthat respiration is a form of combustion .

17 81 : The Americans defeat the British in the last major battle of the War of Independence at Yorktown, Virginia .

17 81 : Tobacco snuff linked to cancer of nasal passage.

17 83: Lazaro Spallanzani performs experimentsdemonstrating that digestion is a chemical process rather than amechanical grinding of the food.

17 85 : Charles de Coulomb measures the attractive andrepulsive forces of electrically charged particles, and discoveredthat these forces are inversely proportional to the square of thedistance .

17 87 : Jacques Alexandre Csar Charles studies the volumechanges of gases with changes in temperature.

17 87 : The U.S. Constitution is written.

17 89: Nicholas Le Blanc develops his process for converting common salt into soda ash .

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17 95 : Alessandro Volta shows how to produce electricity bysimply putting two different pieces of metal together, with liquidor damp cloth between them, and he thus produced the firstelectrical current battery .

17 98: Thomas Robert Malthus publishes his Essay on thePrinciples of Population .

1 800 : Karl Friederich Burdach coins the term " Biology " todenote the study of human morphology, physiology and

psychology.

1 802 : Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac announces the ideal gaslaw .

1 802 : Jean Baptiste Lamarck elaborates a theoryof evolution based on heritable modification of organs .

1 802 : The E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (DuPont) is founded and builds a gunpowder factory along the banksof the Brandywine River near Wilmington, Delaware.

1 804 : Nicholas Theodore de Saussure publishes experimentson photosynthesis , and described the balanced equation of the

process.

1 805 : Geoges Cuvier publishes his Lessons in ComparativeAnatomy .

1 806 : Louis Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Robiquet firstisolated an amino acid, asparagine , from asparagus.

1 807 : H umprey Davy utilizes electric current to preparemetals from molecules such as; sodium, potassium, magnesium,calcium, strontium and barium.

1 80 9: Jean Baptiste Lamarck investigates the microscopicstructure of plants and animals and perceived that cellular tissue isthe general matrix of all organization. He also published hisPhilosophie Zoologique, where emphasized the fundamental unityof life.

1 80 9: Nicolas Franois Appert , inventor and bacteriologist,demonstrates a procedure for preservation of foods by canning .

1 810 : Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac deduces the equationsof alcoholic fermentation .

1 811 : Amadeo Avogadro demonstrates that equal volumes of all gases under the same temperature and pressure contain the samenumber of molecules, and that a fixed number of molecules of anygas will weigh proportional to its molecular weight. Presently theaccepted value for the Avogadro number is 6.023 x 10^23molecules per gram-mol .

1 824 : Sadi Carnot publishes his Reflexions sur la PuissanceMotrice du Feu, setting various outstanding principles thatconstitute the basis of actual Thermodynamics .

1 827 : J. B. Fourier outlines atmospheric process bywhich earth's temperature is altered , using a hothouse analogy.

1 82 8: Friederich Whler synthesizes the first organiccompound from inorganic compounds , preparing Urea byreacting lead cyanate with ammonia.

1 82 8: Robert Brown first describes Brownian motion .

1 830 -40 : Justus von Liebeg develops techniques inquantitative analysis and applied them to biological systems, andthe concept that vital activity could be explained in

physicochemical terms.

1 831 : Michael Faraday shows the relation betweenmagnetism and electricity is dynamic. He showed that not onlywas magnetism equivalent to electricity in motion but also,conversely, electricity was magnetism in motion. Later, Clerk Maxwell summarized in concise form the electromagnetic theory.

1 833: Jean Baptiste Boussingnault recommends the useof iodized salt to cure goiter .

1 835 : Ralph Waldo Emerson writes the essay N ature .

1 835 : Jns Jacob Berzelius demonstrates that the hydrolysisof starch is catalyzed more efficiently by malt diastase than bysulfuric acid. He published the first general theory of chemicalcatalysis .

1 837 : Ren Dutrochet recognizes that chlorophyll wasnecessary for photosynthesis.

1 838: Congress passes act requiring boiler inspection andtesting because of frequent steamboat explosions . This is the firstUS legislation regulating a technology .

1 839: Pierre Franois Verhulst develops the logistic modelof population growth .

1 840 : Publication of Justus von Liebig's Thierchemie whichunited the field of chemistry and physiology. He pointed out thatthat organic compounds in plants are synthesized from carbondioxide in the atmosphere while nitrogenous compounds arederived from precursors in the soil.

1 842 : Julius Robert Mayer enunciates the Law of Conservation of Energy (1 st Law of Thermodynamics), after establishing the work equivalent of Heat.

1 845 : H erman von H elmoltz and Julius RobertMayer formulate the Laws of Thermodynamics .

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1 845 : Alfred Kolbe synthesizes acetic acid .

1 846 : Joule demonstrates the equivalence for various formsof energy (heat - electrical - mechanical).

1 846 : An ether-soaked sponge became the first

successful surgical anesthetic helping to remove a tumor at theMassachusetts General Hospital in Boston.

1 84 8: The American-Mexican War comes to a close.

1 850 's: The first petroleum refinery consisting of a one-barrel still is built in Pittsburgh by Samuel Kier.

1 85 3: Kerosene is extracted from petroleum .

1 854 : The Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company becomesthe first oil company in the US

1 854 : Colera epidemic in London linked to contaminatedwater by Dr. John Snow. The removal of the pump-handle at theBroad Street well prevented people from drinking thecontaminated water and stopped the epidemic.

1 855 : Benjamin Silliman , of New Haven, Connecticut,obtains valuable products by distilling petroleum . Theyinclude; tar , naphthalene , gasoline , and various solvents .

1 856 : Bessemer devises a process to make cast steel on alarge scale by blowing air through melted pig iron to burn thecarbon and maintain the resulting steel melted.

1 856 : Seeking to make a substitute for quinine, the firstartificial aniline coal tar dye is developed by William H . Perkin .

1 85 8: Friederich August Kekul von Stradonitz proposesthat carbon atoms can form chains .

1 85 9: The first commercially successful US oil well is drilled by E. L. Drake near Titusville, Pennsylvania. This 70 footwell launches the petroleum industry .

1 860 : During the First International Congress of Chemistry in Karlsruhe, Canizzaro presented new methodsdetermine atomic weights ; Oxygen weight of 16 was adopted asmeasuring basis of element weights, thus setting Hydrogen'sweight, the lightest known element, to approximately 1 .

1 860 : Louis Pasteur germ theory of disease revolutionizesconcepts of Medicine and public health.

1 86 3: Ernest Solvay perfects his method for producing sodium bicarbonate .

1 86 3: The British government passes the " Alkali WorksAct " in an attempt to control environmental emissions.

1 864 : Ernst H aekel outlines the essential elements of modern zoological classification.

1 864 : Louis Pasteur's demolition of the doctrineof spontaneous generation .

1 864 : Ernst Seyler performed the first crystallization of a protein: hemoglobin .

1 865 : The Civil War (1 861 -65 ) ends .

1 865 : Friederich August Kekul devices a ring model for the structural formula of benzene .

1 865 : The first US petroleum pipeline is built from an oilfield near Titusville, Pennsylvania to a nearby railroad.

1 866 : Dynamite is developed by Alfred Nobel .

1 866 : Celluloid is invented by a British entrepreneur named Alexander Parkes ("The Father of Plastics").

1 866 : Gregor Mendel published his investigations on planthybrids and the inheritance of "factors" .

1 866 : Ernst H einrich H aekel hypothesizes that the nuclei of a cell transmits its hereditary information . He was the firstusing the term "ecology" to describe the study of living organismsand their interactions with other organisms and with their environment.

1 867 : The Typewriter is invented.

1 86 8: Charles Darwin elaborated the theory of pangenesis.

1 86 8: Jean Baptiste Boussingnault pointed out that plantsrequire oxygen for the photosynthesis .

1 86 9: Dmitri Mendelejeff published a chemical elementsarrangement table. This is the basis of the well known periodictable .

1 86 9: The Transcontinental Railroad is completed as theGolden Spike is driven in at Promontory Point, Utah.

1 86 9: Celluloid was produced by John H yatt in Albany, NewYork. The breakthrough came about because of a search for an ivory substitute that could be used to make billiard balls .Celluloid was the first synthetic plastic to receive widecommercial use .

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1 870 : Justus von Liebeg proposed that all fermentswere chemical reactions rather than vital impulses .

1 871 : Johan Friederich Miescher isolated a substance whichhe called "nuclein" from the nuclei of white blood cells. Thissubstance came to be known as nucleic acid .

1 872 : Carl Friederich Wilhem Ludwig and EduardPfnger studied the gas exchange process in the blood and showedthat oxidation occurs in the tissues rather than in the blood .

1 872 : Lodygin , produced the first incandescent lamps inRussia.

1 87 3: Barbed wire is introduced. Meat becomes plentiful asthe cattle population doubles between 1 875 and 1 890 .

1 87 3: Anton Schneider observed and described the behavior of nuclear filaments ( chromosomes ) during cell division,

providing the first accurate description of the process of mitosis inanimal cells.

1 87 3: London fog kills 1,150 people ; similar incidentsrepeated in the following 20 years.

1 874 : German graduate student Othmar Zeider discovers thechemical formula for DDT .

1 875 : Oscar H ertwig showed that the head of thespermatozoon becomes a pronucleus and combines with the female

pronucleus as the zygote nucleus, thus establishing the conceptthat fertilization is the conjugation of two cells.

1 876 : The Telephone is patented by Alexander GrahamBell .

1 876 : Nikolaus August Otto designed the first four strokepiston engine . It is nicknamed the "Silent Otto".

1 876 : The American Chemical Society (ACS) is formed.

1 877 : Wilhelm Friederich Khne proposed theterm enzyme (meaning "in yeast") and distinguished enzymesfrom the microorganisms that produce them.

1 877 : Thomas Edison patented the phonograph .

1 87 8: Josiah Willard Gibbs developed the theoryof Chemical Thermodynamics introducing fundamentalequations and relations to calculate multiphase equilibrium, the

phase rule, and the free energy concept. His work remainedunknown until 1 883, when Wilhelm Ostwald discovered his work and translated it to German.

1 87 9: First electric train is presented at the internationalexposition in Berlin.

1 87 9: Thomas Edison and Sir Joseph Swan independentlydevise the first practical electric lights .

1 87 9: Saccharin is discovered by Constantin Fahlberg, achemist at Johns Hopkins University. The calorie freesweetener is 3 00 times stronger than sucrose and has been soldcommercially since about 1 900 .

1 880 : Andrew Carnegie develops his first, large, steelfurnace .

1 880 : George Davis proposes a " Society of ChemicalEngineers " in England.

1 881 : Billy "the Kid" is shot by Pat Garrett .

1 881 : Louis Pasteur gave a public demonstration of theeffectiveness of his anthrax vaccine .

1 882 : Thomas Edison builds the first hydroelectric powerplant in Appleton, Wisconsin.

1 882 : Robert Koch discovers the rod-like tubercle bacillusresponsible for tuberculosis (TB).

1 883: Osborne Reynolds published his paper onthe Reynolds' Number , a dimensionless quantity whichcharacterizes laminar and turbulent flow by relating kinetic (or inertial) forces to viscous forces within a fluid.

1 884 : The World's first Skyscraper begins to be erectedin Chicago .

1 884 : Patent granted for chemical-coagulationfiltration process.

1 884 : The Solvay process is transferred to the UnitedStates and the Solvay Process Co. begins making soda ash inSyracuse.

1 884 : Svante Arrhenius and FriederichOstwald independently defined acids as substances which releasehydrogen ions when dissolved in water.

1 884 : Christian Joachim Gram invented his stainingmethod for classification of bacteria .

1 884 : Viscose Rayon is invented by the French chemistHilaire Chardonnet.

1 885 : The gasoline automobile is developed by Karl Benz .Before this, gasoline was an unwanted fraction of petroleum whichcaused many house fires because of its tendency to explode when

placed in Kerosene lamps.

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1 886 : The first modern Oil Tanker , the Gluckauf , was builtfor Germany by England.

1 887 : August Weismann elaborated a theory of chromosome behavior during cell division and fertilization predicting theoccurrence of meiosis .

1 887 : Emil Fischer elaborated the structural patternsof proteins .

1 888: George Davis provides the blueprint for a new profession as he presents a series of 12 lectures on ChemicalEngineering at the Manchester, England.

1 888: Jack "the Ripper" kills six women in London.

1 888: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology begins"Course X " (ten), the first four year Chemical Engineering

program in the United States.

1 888: H einrich H ertz performed the first experiments with areceptor to "hear" herzian radio waves.

1 889: Francis Galton formulated the law of ancestralinheritance, a statistical description of the relative contribution toheredity made by ancestors.

1 890 : Theodor Boveri and Jean Louis Guignard establishedthe numerical equality of paternal and maternal chromosomesat fertilization .

1 890 : Emil Adolf von Behring discovered antibodies .

1 891 : H einrich Wilhelm Weldiger proposed the neurontheory of the nervous system.

1 891 : Marie Eugene Dubois discovered Java man and namedit Pithecanthropus Erectus, now known as H omo erectus .

1 892 : Diesel develops his internal combustion engine .

1 892 : Pennsylvania begins its Chemical Engineeringcurriculum .

1 893: Sorel published "La rectification de l'alcool" were hedeveloped and applied the mathematical theory of the rectifyingcolumn for binary mixtures . William Ostwald provedthat enzymes are catalysts .

1 894 : Karl Pearson published the first of a series of contributions to the mathematical theory of evolution and methodsfor analyzing statistical frequency distribution.

1 894 : Emil Fischer conducted investigations which form the basis of the notion of enzyme specificity .

1 894 : William Maddock Bayliss and H enry Sterling studiedthe electric currents in mammalian heart.

1 894 : George Oliver and Eduard Albert Sharpey-Schaeffer first demonstrated the action of a specific hormone; theeffect of an extract of adrenal gland on blood vessels and musclecontraction, upon injection in normal animals it produced a strikingelevation of blood pressure.

1 894 : Tulane begins its Chemical Engineering curriculum .

1 895 : The German physicist Wilhelm KonradRoentgen discovered a new kind of radiation working with thevacuum tube discharge. This radiation was called X-rays.

1 895 : Linde develops his process for liquefying air .

1 895 : The first professional US football game is played inPennsylvania.

1 897 : Badishe produces synthetic Indigo on a commercialscale in Germany.

1 898: The US defeats Spain in the Spanish-American War .

1 899: The first bottle of Aspirin goes on sale to the public .

1 899: Max Plank introduced the concept that light and allother kinds of electromagnetic radiation, which were considered ascontinuous trains of waves, actually consist of individual energy

packages with well defined amounts of energy quanta , proportional to its vibration frequency.

1 900 : John H erreshoff , of the Nichols Chemical Co.,develops the first contact method for sulfuric acid production inthe United States.

1 900 : Automobile is welcomed as bringing relief frompollution . New York City, with 120 ,000 horses, scrapes up 2 .4 million pounds of manure every day.

1 901 : J.P. Morgan organizes the US Steel Corporation .

1 901 : George Davis publishes a " H andbook of ChemicalEngineering ."

1 901 : Oil Drilling begins in Persia .

1 90 3: Orville & Wilbur Wright fly the first poweredaircraft at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

1 90 3: The Ford Motor Company is founded.

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1 90 3: Arthur Noyes , a prominent MIT professor, establisheda Research Laboratory of Physical Chemistry .

1 905 : Einstein has his " miracle year " as he formulatesthe Special Theory of Relativity , establishes the Law of Mass-Energy Equivalence , creates the Brownian Theory of Motion ,and formulates the Photon Theory of Light .

1 906 : The San Francisco Earthquake kills hundreds anddestroys the city.

1 906 : Ludwig Boltzman dies . He has the equation: "S=k ln(W)" carved on his tombstone in Vienna. Today it is known asthe Boltzman Principle , and provides a statisticalrelationship between entropy (S) and the number of ways asystem can be configured (W).

1 90 8: The American Institute of ChemicalEngineers (AIChE) is founded.

1 90 8: Cellophane is discovered by a Swiss chemist namedJacques Brandenberger.

1 90 8: New Jersey starts chlorinating water supply .

1 90 8: Svante Arrhenius argues that the greenhouseeffect from coal and petroleum use is warming the globe.

1 90 8: The General Motors Company is founded.

1 90 8: The first " Model T " rolls of the Ford assembly line .

1 90 8: Dr. Leo Baekeland ("The Father of the PlasticsIndustry") discovers Bakelite in his laboratory in Yonkers, N.Y.

1 910 : Bakelite production begins at the General BakeliteCompany. The plastic finds widespread use in; electric insulation ,electric plugs and sockets , clock bases , iron handles ,and jewelry .

1 910 : Synthetic Ammonia is first produced by the H aberProcess in Ludwigshafen, Germany.

1 910 : A US Rayon plant is constructed by the AmericanViscose Co.

1 911 : Sir Ernest Rutherford proposes his theory concerningthe atomic nucleus .

1 912 : The Titanic sinks , killing 151 3 people, after striking aniceberg.

1 912 : Piltdown Man is proven a hoax .

1 912 : Wilson's cloud chamber allows the detectionof protons and electrons .

1 91 3: The Standard Oil Co. (Indiana) begins the thermalcracking of petroleum in "Burton Stills ".

1 91 3: Niels Bohr proposes his "solar system" model of theatom .

1 914 : Robert Goddard begins his rocketry experiments .

1 914 : World War I begins in Europe .

1 915 : The unit operations concept is articulated by ArthurLittle .

1 915 : Ford Motor Co. develops a farm tractor .

1 915 : Toxic gas (Chlorine Gas) is used in World War I at the battle of Ypres. Fritz H aber , primarily known for his ammonia production process, supervises these deadly "experiments" .Later, his wife pleads with him to stop his work concerning poisongases. After he refuses she commits suicide .

1 915 : The Corning Glass Works begins marketing Pyrexglass .

1 916 : William H . Walker and Warren K. Lewis , two prominent MIT professors, established a School of ChemicalEngineering Practice .

1 916 : German saboteurs blow up the US munitionsarsenal at Black Tom Island, New Jersey.

1 917 : The US enters World War I .

1 917 : A full-sized plant, producing nitric acid from ammonia,is built by the Chemical Construction Co.

1 91 8: Fritz H aber receives the Nobel Prize for his work on Ammonia synthesis . However, the award is highlyprotested because of his prominent role in developing anddelivering poison gas in WWI . Ironically, Haber is forced toleave his beloved Germany in 1 933 because he is part Jewish

1 91 8: Acetone is produced for the British in Terre Haute,Indiana.

1 920 's: Cellulose acetate , acrylics (Lucite & Plexiglas),and polystyrene can finally be produced in large quantities.

1 920 : The 18th Amendment , prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages, goes into effect. Many cases of blindness anddeath result as people mistake wood alcohol (methanol)for ethanol .

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1 920 : The Massachusetts Institute of Technology starts anindependent Department of Chemical Engineering .

1 920 : Ponchon and Savarit developed and presented thefamous Enthalpy-Concentration diagram useful to solvedistillations calculations.

1 920 : The Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) produces IsopropylAlcohol , the first commercial petrochemical.

1 921 : A 4 ,500 metric ton stockpile of ammonium nitrate andammonium sulfated exploded at a chemical plant in Oppau,Germany . The blast and subsequent fire killed 600 , injured 1500 ,and left 7000 people homeless.

1 922 : Thomas Midgley uses Tetraethyl lead as an antiknock additive in gasoline .

1 922 : Albert Calmette and Camille Guerin developa tuberculosis vaccine , BCG.

1 922 : The first human diabetes patient is injectedwith insulin. Mass production of this wonder drug soon follows.

1 92 3: Louis de Broglie demonstrated that radiation hascorpuscular properties, and that matter particles suchas electrons present ondulatory wave characteristics .

1 925 : The AIChE begins accreditation of chemicalengineering programs.

1 925 : Rubber antioxidants begin to be used.

1 925 : McCabe and Thiele present a graphical method for computing the number of equilibrium plates required in afractionating column for binary mixtures.

1 926 : Du Pont and Commercial Solvents begin syntheticmethanol production in the US

1 927 : H ermann Miller used X-rays to cause artificial genemutations in Drosophila.

1 92 9: The stock-market crash on "Black Thursday" bringsruin to thousands of investors.

1 92 9: Alexander Fleming observes the effect Penicillin hason bacteria. The breakthrough occurred when he returned to hislaboratory after a four week vacation . An improperly sealed

bacteria culture had been accidentally contaminated by a number of molds and yeast . One of the molds had killed the bacteria in theculture.

1 930 's: The Wisconsin duo of H ougen & Watson stress theimportance of thermodynamics in ChemicalEngineering Education .

1 930 's & 40 's: Michigan's Katz , Brown , White , Kurata,Standing, & Sliepcevich help lay down some foundations in phaseequilibria , heat transfer, momentum transfer, and mass transfer .

1 930 's: The US suffers through the Great Depression .

1 930 's & 1 940 's: Systematic analysis of chemicalreactors begun by; Damkohler in Germany, Van H eerden inHolland, and Danckwerts and Denbigh in England. Theyexplore mass transfer , temperature variations , flow patterns ,and multiple steady states .

1 931 : Neoprene synthetic rubber is produced by Du Pont .

1 933: The Imperial Chemical Industries in Englanddiscover Polyethylene .

1 933: Du Pont begins production of Rayon tire cord fabrics .

1 934 Perry's first edition of the Chemical EngineersH andbook is published.

1 935 : Wallace H . Carothers , of Du Pont , discovers Nylon .

1 936 : Rohm & Haas begins marketing Methyl Methacrylateplastics (PMMA) .

1 936 : The H oudry Process is used in the Catalytic Crackingof Petroleum .

1 937 : Polystyrene is offered to consumers in the US by DowChemical . It finds uses in radios , clock cases , electricalequipment , and wall tiles .

1 938: World War II begins in Europe.

1 939: Enrico Fermi, Otto Hahn, F. Strassman, Lisa Meitner,and Otto Frish discover Nuclear Fission .

1 939: Nylon used for women's stockings .

1 940 's: Polyethylene (electrical insulation and food packaging), silicones (lubricants, protective coatings, and high-temperature electronic insulation), and epoxy (a very strongadhesive) are developed.

1 940 : Standard Oil Co. (Indiana) develops CatalyticReforming to produce higher octane gasoline and create toluenefor TNT . Higher octane gasoline helped the American and Britishfighters outperform their German counterparts.

1 940 : First tire from synthetic rubber produced in US

1 941 : The United States enters World War II .

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1 941 : Styrene-Butadiene Rubber first produced in the US

1 942 : Polyester resins introduced.

1 942 : Enrico Fermi , and a team of scientists, operatedthe first man-made nuclear reactor under a football field at

the University of Chicago . A cadmium control rod wassuspended over the pile with a rope . Should something have gonewrong, a scientist was to cut the rope with an ax, thereby droppingthe rod into the reactor, hopefully solving the problem. Ever sincethen an emergency shutdown has been called a SCRAM , whichstands for " safety control rod ax man ".

1 942 : New York State grants Hooker ChemicalCompany permission to dispose of waste in clay-linedabandoned Love Canal .

1 94 3: Government owned synthetic rubber plants help boost war time production.

1 94 3: DDT , a powerful pesticide, first produced in the US

1 944 : Teflon, Tetrafluoroethelene resins, marketed by DuPont .

1 944 : Selman Waksman discovers streptomycin , the firsteffective anti-tuberculous drug .

1 945 : The US ends World War II by detonating the AtomicBomb over H iroshima, Japan .

1 945 : After World War II, the US broke Germany'senormous I.G. Farben into; BASF , Bayer , and H oechst .

1 947 : A barge , the Grandcamp , loaded with fertilizer gradeammonium nitrate catches fire and explodes destroying a nearbycity and killing 576 in what would later be known as the " TexasCity Disaster ".

1 947 : The formation of hydrocarbons from synthetic gas bythe Fischer-Tropish Process .

1 947 : ENIAC computer uses Monte Carlo methods to solveneutron diffusion problem in atomic bombs.

1 947 : The first off shore oil is drilled.

1 94 8: A deadly smog settled over the small steel mill townof Donora, PA . The noxious air killed 19 and caused thousands to

become ill.

1 94 8: Mller awarded Nobel Prize for inventingDDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane).

1 950 's: Television enters American homes.

1 950 : The Korean War begins.

1 950 's & 1 960 's: Minnesota's mathematicalmarvel of Amundson & Aris stress the importanceof mathematical modeling in Chemical Reactor Engineering .Their work helps encourage greater mathematicalcompetence in Chemical Engineering Education.

1 950 's & 1 960 's: Wisconsin's triumvirate of Bird, Stewart,& Lightfoot reveal the unifying concepts of mass, momentum,and energy transport . Their textbook, " Transport Phenomenon "continues to be a phenomenon in Chemical Engineering Education.

1 950 : Benzene produced from petroleum.

1 951 : The first Fusion Bomb is tested.

1 952 : Du Pont introduces Mylar polyester film.

1 952 : 4 ,000 die in a London smog.

1 95 3: Production of soap exceeded by synthetic detergents .

1 95 3: Francis Crick solved the three-dimensional structureof DNA molecule disclosed by James Watson and discovered in1 950 by Erwin Chargaff.

1 95 3: After an extremely strong storm the North Sea floodssouthern H olland . More than 1800 people di e.

1 954 : Polyisoprene rubber developed.

1 955 : General Electric produces synthetic diamond .

1 955 : Government sells synthetic rubber plants to privateindustry.

1 957 : The Russians launch Sputnik I , the first man-madesatellite.

1 957 : Windscale graphite nuclear reactor burns for 42 hours in England. Releases I- 1 31 . Residents curtail milk consumption for safety reasons.

1 957 : General Electric develops polycarbonate plastics .

1 95 9: The computer control of chemical processes gainscredibility.

1 95 9: A large scale hydrogen plant , to produce rocket fuel ,is completed by Air Products.

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1 960 : Theodore Maiman builds the first LASER based uponthe proposal of Arthur Schawlow.

1 961 : Alan Shepard becomes the first American into space .

1 961 : William McBride , an Australian obstetrician, discovers

that thalidomide , a mourning sickness drug, causes birth defects .Twenty years later he similarly "discovers" that debendox , another mourning sickness drug, also causes birth defects. However, thistime his McBride had altered his data. Debendox produces no illeffects. In 1 993, he was found guilty of scientific fraud by amedical tribunal .

1 962 : The Russians remove their missiles from Cuba .

1 962 : The smog in London kills 1 ,000 .

1 962 : Rachel Carson's book, " Silent Spring ", presents anemotional plea for protecting human health andthe environment from chemical pesticides .

1 965 : American Troops enter the Vietnam War .

1 965 : Bottles made from polyvinyl chloride gain marketshare.

1 965 : NutraSweet is discovered by a researcher, Mr. JamesSchlatter, at the G.D. Searle & Co. The calorie free sugar replacer is 200 times sweeter than common sucrose.

1 966 : Fist attempt to control organic solvent emissions made by Los Angeles' Rule 66 .

1 96 8: Consumption of man-made fibers tops natural fibers inUS

1 96 9: The Apollo 11 mission succeeds by landing Man onthe Moon .

1 96 9: The horribly polluted Cuyahoga River , runningthrough Cleveland, actually caught on fire .

1 970 's: America's heavy dependence on foreign oil results inan Energy Crisis as the Arabs stop shipment to countries whichsupported Israel in the Arab-Israeli Wars .

1 970 : America holds its first " Earth Day " on April 22 .

1 970 : The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA )is formed . It consists of 6 ,000 employees and has an annual

budget of $ 1 .3 billion.

1 970 : Congress passes the " Clean Air Act " establishingnational air quality standards.

1 972 : Congress passes the " Clean Water Act " to confrontwater pollution.

1 97 3: The last American Troops leave Vietnam .

1 97 3: Stanley Cohen & Herbert Boyer perform the first

experiment in Genetic Engineering .

1 97 3: Construction on New York's " World Trade Center "and Chicago's " Sears Tower " are completed.

1 974 : Richard Nixon resigns from office.

1 974 : Cyclohexan vapor from ruptured makeshift bypass pipe explodes killing 28 workers in Flixborough, England , prompting legislation for risk studies in British chemical plants.

Mid 1 970 's: Toxic releases including: the Kepone tragedyat H opewell , VA; the PCB contamination of the H udson River ;and the PBB poisoning of cows in Michigan keep environmentissues in the headlines.

1 975 : Catalytic converters are introduced inmany automobiles to meet emissions standards established by theUS government.

1 975 : Cable fire at Browns Ferry nuclear reactor inAlabama almost leads to disaster. It was caused by an electricianwho used a candle to check for air leaks below the nuclear

plant's control room.

1 975 : Du Pont recognizes the contributions of Nathaniel C.Wyeth. He was responsible for introducing the plastic sodabottles made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) whichquickly replaced their glass predecessors .

1 975 : McDonald's fast food chain starts using Polystyrene to package its hamburgers .

1 976 : Congress passes the " Toxic Substances Control Act "regulating toxic chemicals.

1 976 : Seymour Cray, of Cray Research , makes the Cray-1 super-computer

1 976 : The US National Academy of Sciences reportsthat chlorofluorocarbons (Freons) can deplete the Ozone Layer .

1 976 : The US bans the use of chloroform in drugs andcosmetics.

1 976 : Viking 1 lands on Mars , becoming the first man-madeobject to ever soft-land on another planet.

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1 977 :The FDA moves to ban Saccharin , a calorie freesweetener, because it has been found to cause cancer in rats .

1 977 : Raymond Damadian builds his first MagneticResonance Imager (MRI) used to generate 3-D images of the human body using the principles of Nuclear MagneticResonance spectroscopy (NMR) .

1 97 8: Due to considerable grass roots pressure,the FDA decides to merely require an information label onSaccharin , despite being shown to cause cancer in laboratoryanimals.

1 97 8: Chlorofluorcarbons (Freons) are banned as spray propellants in the US because of fears over the Ozone Layer .

1 97 8: The US Government begins limiting the amountof lead permitted in gasoline . The action is takento prevent deterioration of the platinum catalysts in catalyticconverters, not to protect the public's safety .

1 97 9: No one is injured, but many are terrified, by an nuclearreactor incident at Three Mile Island , Pennsylvania.

1 97 9: Soviet troops retreat from Afghanistan .

1 97 9: Genetic Engineering succeeds in synthesizing humaninsulin .

Late 1 970 's: Love Canal (in New York) and the Valley of Drums (10 ,000 leaking hazardous waste drums near West Point,KY) keep environmental issues in the news and are described as"ticking time bombs ."

1 980 : The US Supreme Court rules that GeneralElectric can Patent a microbe used for oil cleanup .

1 980 : The " push through tabs " used on today's pop andbeer cans are first introduced.

1 980 : The US Government bans the sale of lead basedpaints .

1 980 : The Superfund , containing $ 1 .6 billion, is formed to beused by the EPA in cleaning up pollution sites .

1 981 : Microsoft develops MS-DOS for the IBM PC.

1 981 : Chemical Process Simulation software is released for the PC. Soon packages like DESIGN II, ASPEN, SIMSCI(PROII), HYSIM, & CHEMCAD start appearing on engineeringdesktops.

1 981 : John Darsee , a former Harvard researcher, was foundto be faking heart study data . His fraud had been propagated inalmost 100 published research studies.

1 981 : Gerd Binnig & Heinrich Rohrer develop the ScanningTunneling Microscope (STM) which is capable of resolvingindividual atoms on a surface .

1 981 : NASA's "Columbia" Space Shuttle becomes theworld's first reusable space craft .

1 983: Carl Sagan , and a group of scientists, publishes analarming report concerning the long term climatic impacts of nuclear war .

1 984 : AT&T is broken into " Baby Bells " by the USgovernment.

1 984 : Apple introduces the Macintosh personal computer.

1 984 : An accidental toxic gas release by Union Carbide killsover 2000 and disables 10000 in Bhopal, India.

1 985 : Richard E. Smalley and Harold W. Kroto discover "Buckyballs ", a soccer ball like molecule made of 60 carbonatoms .

1 985 : Low petroleum prices lead to the cancellation of theUS Government sponsored "Synfuels" project , designed todevelop alternative energy sources based on coal or oil shales .

1 986 : Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor #4 explodes , releasinglarge amounts of radiation near Kiev, USSR.

1 986 : NASA's Space Shuttle, Challenger , explodes shortlyafter take off.

1 986 : K. Alex Muller and George J. Bednorz discover a superconductor that operates at 30 degrees Kelvin . This sets off an explosion in "high" temperature superconductors.

1 987 : Japan's "Nipon Zeon" company develops a plastic with"memory ". At low temperatures it can be bent and twisted ,however when heated above 3 7 degrees Celsius it returns to itsinitial shape .

1 988: A Scanning Tunneling Microscope produces the first picture of a Benzene Ring .

1 988: North Sea oil platform explodes prompting England torequire risk assessments in oil industry.

1 988: McDonald's fast food chain stops using the"clamshell " to package its hamburgers because of fears over theCFC's used in manufacturing Polystyrene.

1 989: An Exxon Oil Tanker , the V aldez , runs aground in of the coast of Alaska.

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1 989: The fall of Berlin Wall .

1 989: "The New Yorker" magazine raises the possibilitythat electromagnetic fields might cause cancer . Over the nextdecade, US taxpayers spend $ 25 billion funding studies which findno link between power lines and cancer. Similar epidemiologicalstudies in Canada and Britain also find no link .

1 989: The H uman Geonome Project , designed to map all thegenes in a human being, is launched.

1 989: Stanley Pons & Martin Fleischmann boldly announcethe "invention" of cold fusion . Results have never been duplicatedand are agreed to have been faulty.

1 990 : Lithuania declares independence from Soviet Unionin March 11 . As response USSR sends troops and blocks gas andoil supplies.

1 990 : Federal Trade Commission opens antitrust probe of Microsoft .

1 991 : The Soviet Union formally dissolves.

1 991 : Washington D.C. has a victory parade , celebrating thedecisive US success against Iraq in the Gulf War .

1 992 : The Australian Government begins a three year planto introduce plastic $5, $10, $20, $50, & $100 bills .

1 993: New York's " World Trade Center " is bombed byterrorists. The explosive was created by a 26 -year-old chemicalengineer educated at Rutgers University .

1 993: The high price of replacing a corroding heatexchanger causes the Portland General ElectricCompany to retire, rather than repair , its Nuclear PowerPlant in Rainier Oregon.

1 994 : More computers than television sets are sold.

1 994 : Eurotunnel opens . The 50 kilometer long tunnelconnects England with France.

1 995 : The Shinri Kyo cult uses Sarin nerve gas in thedeadly Tokyo subway attack .

1 995 : A bomb made from ammonium nitrate fertilizer and fuel oil destroys the Federal Building in Oklahoma City ,OK.

1 995 : Dow-Corning files bankruptcy after being sued by1 9000 women over "faulty" breast implants.

1 996 : Dolly , a female sheep, becomes the first mammal to be cloned from an adult mammal's cells. This incredible work wascarried out at Edinburgh's Roslin Institute, and its announcementsparked a rash of discussion and legislation concerning themorality of cloning human beings.

1 996 : Olestra , a fat-free fat replacer, is approved for use insalted snacks by the FDA after 10 years of deliberation. Olestra isa novel lipid made from sucrose and soybean oil. With up to 8 fattyacids attached to the sucrose molecule, instead of the 3 fatty acidstypically found in fat, enzymes are unable to break down Olestra.The Procter & Gamble company has been studying the safety of Olestra for nearly 3 0 years.

1 996 : Britain announces that 10 people have contracted madcow disease , or Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), fromcontaminated beef. In response, 3.7 million cattle areslaughtered .

1 996 : A NASA funded team finds evidence that suggestsmicrobial life may have existed on Mars more than 3. 6 billionyears ago. The evidence consists of traces of organiccompounds and mineral features characteristic of biologicalactivity.

1 996 : Troll offshore platform begins collecting natural gasoff the Norwegian coast. At 3 6 9 meters tall (most submerged) and656 ,000 tons it is one of the worlds largest structures.

1 997 : Mar's Pathfinder becomes the first spacecraft to landon Mars in more than two decades. Its automated rover providesclose-up views of "Barnacle Bill" and other Martian rocks while itsnovel airbag landing demonstrates NASA's commitment to morenumerous, less expensive missions.

1 998: Government begins antitrust trial of Microsoft.

2000 : Y2K bug costs $ 100 billion to fix. Doomsday scenariosaverted.

16 35 : John Winthrop, Jr., opens America's first chemical plant inBoston. They produce saltpeter (used in gunpowder) and alum(used in tanning).

1720 's: Newcomen's steam engine comes into general use.

174 9: England begins a Lead-Chamber Method to produce sulfuricacid.

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1750 's: Classic British Industrial Revolution begins (often said tolast until 1 830 's, however in many ways it continues to this day).

1760 's: James Watt improves on the Newcomen Engine.

1776 : The United States declares its independence from England.

17 81 : The Americans defeat the British in the last major battle of the War of Independence at Yorktown, Virginia.

17 87 : The U.S. Constitution is written.

17 89: Nicholas Le Blanc develops his process for convertingcommon salt into soda ash.

1 802 : The E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (Du Pont) isfounded and builds a gunpowder factory along the banks of theBrandywine River near Wilmington, Delaware.

1 846 : An ether-soaked sponge became the first successful surgicalanesthetic helping to remove a tumor at the Massachusetts General

Hospital in Boston.

1 84 8: The American-Mexican War comes to a close.

1 850 's: The first petroleum refinery consisting of a one-barrel stillis built in Pittsburgh by Samuel Kier.

1 85 3: Kerosene is extracted from petroleum.

1 854 : The Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company becomes the first oilcompany in the U.S.

1 955 : Benjamin Silliman, of New Haven, Connecticut, obtainsvaluable products by distilling petroleum. They include; tar,

naphthalene, gasoline, and various solvents.

1 856 : The first coal tar dye is developed by William H. Perkin.

1 85 9: The first commercially successful U.S. Oil Well is drilled byE. L. Drake near Titusville, Pennsylvania. This 70 foot welllaunches the petroleum industry.

1 86 3: Ernest Solvay perfects his method for producing sodium bicarbonate.

1 86 3: The British government passes the "Alkali Works Act" in anattempt to control environmental emissions.

1 865 : The Civil War ( 1 861 -65 ) ends.

1 865 : The first U.S. petroleum pipeline is built from an oil fieldnear Titusville, Pennsylvania to a nearby railroad.

1 866 : Dynamite is developed by Alfred Nobel.

1 866 : Celluloid is invented by a British entrepreneur namedAlexander Parkes ("The Father of Plastics")

1 867 : The Typewriter is invented.

1 86 9: The Transcontinental Railroad is completed as the GoldenSpike is driven in at Promontory Point, Utah.

1 86 9: Celluloid was produced by John Hyatt in Albany, NewYork. The breakthrough came about because of a search for an

ivory substitute that could be used to make billiard balls. Celluloidwas the first synthetic plastic to receive wide commercial use.

1 87 3: Barbed wire is introduced. Meat becomes plentiful as thecattle population doubles between 1 875 and 1 890 .

1 876 : The Telephone is patented by Alexander Graham Bell.

1 876 : The American Chemical Society (ACS) is formed.

1 87 9: Thomas Edison and Sir Joseph Swan independently devisethe first practical electric lights.

1 880 : Andrew Carnegie develops his first, large, steel furnace.

1 880 : George Davis proposes a "Society of Chemical Engineers"in England.

1 881 : Billy "the Kid" is shot by Pat Garrett.

1 882 : Thomas Edison builds the first hydroelectric power plant inAppleton, Wisconsin.

1 882 : Robert Koch discovers the rod-like tubercle bacillusresponsible for tuberculosis.

1 883: Osborne Reynolds published his paper on the Reynolds' Number, a dimensionless quantity which characterizes laminar and

turbulent flow by relating kinetic (or inertial) forces to viscousforces within a fluid.

1 884 : The World's first Skyscraper begins to be erected inChicago.

1 884 : The Solvay process is transferred to the United States andthe Solvay Process Co. begins making soda ash in Syracuse.

1 884 : Viscose Rayon is invented by the French chemist HilaireChardonnet.

1 885 : The gasoline automobile is developed by Karl Benz. Beforethis, gasoline was an unwanted fraction of petroleum which causedmany house fires because of its tendency to explode when placedin Kerosene lamps.

1 886 : The first modern Oil Tanker, the Gluckauf, was built for Germany by England.

1 888: George Davis provides the blueprint for a new profession ashe presents a series of 12 lectures on Chemical Engineering at theManchester, England.

1 888: Jack "the Ripper" kills six women in London.

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1 888: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology begins "CourseX" (ten), the first four year Chemical Engineering program in theUnited States.

1 892 : Diesel develops his internal combustion engine.

1 892 : Pennsylvania begins its Chemical Engineering curriculum.

1 894 : Tulane begins its Chemical Engineering curriculum.

1 895 : Linde develops his process for liquefying air.

1 895 : The first professional U.S. football game is played inPennsylvania.

1 897 : Badishe produces synthetic Indigo on a commercial scale inGermany.

1 898: The U.S. defeats Spain in the Spanish-American War.

1 899: The first bottle of Aspirin goes on sale to the public.

1 900 : John Herreshoff, of the Nichols Chemical Co., develops thefirst U.S. contact method for sulfuric acid production.

1 901 : J.P. Morgan organizes the U.S. Steel Corporation.

1 901 : George Davis publishes a "Handbook of ChemicalEngineering."

1 901 : Oil Drilling begins in Persia.

1 90 3: Orville & Wilbur Wright fly the first powered aircraft atKitty Hawk, North Carolina.

1 90 3: The Ford Motor Company is founded.

1 90 3: Arthur Noyes, a prominent MIT professor, established aResearch Laboratory of Physical Chemistry.

1 905 : Einstein has his "miracle year" as he formulates the SpecialTheory of Relativity, establishes the Law of Mass-EnergyEquivalence, creates the Brownian Theory of Motion, andformulates the Photon Theory of Light.

1 906 : The San Francisco Earthquake kills hundreds and destroysthe city.

1 906 : Ludwig Boltzman dies. He has the equation: "S=k ln(W)"carved on his tombstone in Vienna. Today it is known as theBoltzman Principle, and provides a statistical relationship betweenentropy and the number of ways a system can be configured .

1 90 8: The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) isfounded.

1 90 8: Cellophane is discovered by a Swiss chemist named JacquesBrandenberger.

1 90 8: The General Motors Co. is founded.

1 90 8: The first "Model T" rolls of the Ford assembly line.

1 90 8: Dr. Leo Baekeland ("The Father of the Plastics Industry")discovers Bakelite in his laboratory in Yonkers, N.Y.

1 910 : Bakelite production begins at the General BakeliteCompany. The plastic finds widespread use in; electric insulation,electric plugs and sockets, clock bases, iron handles, and jewelry.

1 910 : Synthetic Ammonia is first produced by the Haber Processin Ludwigshafen, Germany.

1 910 : A U.S. Rayon plant is constructed by the American ViscoseCo.

1 911 : Sir Ernest Rutherford proposes his theory concerning theatomic nucleus.

1 912 : The Titanic sinks, killing 151 3 people, after striking an

iceberg.

1 912 : Piltdown Man is proven a hoax.

1 912 : Wilson's cloud chamber allows the detection of protons andelectrons.

1 91 3: The Standard Oil Co. (Indiana) begins the thermal crackingof petroleum in "Burton Stills".

1 91 3: Niels Bohr proposes his "solar system" model of the atom.

1 914 : Robert Goddard begins his rocketry experiments.

1 914 : World War I begins in Europ e.

1 915 : The Unit Operations concept is articulated by Arthur Little.

1 915 : Ford Motor Co. develops a farm tractor.

1 915 : Toxic gas (Chlorine Gas) is used in World War I at the battleof Ypres. Fritz Haber, primarily known for his ammonia

production process, supervises these deadly "experiments". Later,his wife pleads with him to stop his work concerning poison gasesand after he refuses she commits suicide.

1 915 : The Corning Glass Works begins marketing Pyrex glass.

1 916 : William H. Walker and Warren K. Lewis, two prominentMIT professors, established a School of Chemical EngineeringPractice.

1 916 : German saboteurs blow up the U.S. munitions arsenal atBlack Tom Island, New Jersey.

1 917 : The U.S. enters World War I.

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1 917 : A full-sized plant, producing nitric acid from ammonia, is built by the Chemical Construction Co.

1 91 8: Fritz Haber receives the Nobel Prize for his work onAmmonia synthesis. However, the award is highly protested

because of his prominent role in developing and delivering poisongas in WWI. Ironically, Haber is forced to leave his belovedGermany in 1 933 because he is part Jewish

1 91 8: Acetone is produced for the British in Terre Haute, Indiana.

1 920 's: Cellulose acetate, acrylics (Lucite & Plexiglas), and polystyrene can finally be produced in large quantities.

1 920 : The 1 8th Amendment, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages, goes into effect. Many cases of blindness and deathresult as people mistake wood alcohol (methanol) for ethanol.

1 920 : The Massachusetts Institute of Technology starts anindependent Department of Chemical Engineering.

1 920 : The Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) produces IsopropylAlcohol, the first commercial petrochemical.

1 921 : A 4 ,500 metric ton stockpile of ammonium nitrate andammonium sulfated exploded at a chemical plant in Oppau,Germany. The blast and subsequent fire killed 600 , injured 1500 ,and left 7000 people homeless.

1 922 : Thomas Midgley uses Tetraethyl lead as an antiknock additive in gasoline.

1 922 : Albert Calmette and Camille Guerin develop a tuberculosisvaccine, BCG.

1 922 : The first human diabetes patient is injected with insulin,

mass production of the

wonder drug soon follows.

1 925 : The AIChE begins accreditation of Chemical Engineering programs.

1 925 : Rubber antioxidants begin to be used.

1 926 : Du Pont and Commercial Solvents begin synthetic methanol production in the U.S.

1 92 9: The stock-market crash on "Black Thursday" brings ruin tothousands of investors.

1 92 9: Alexander Fleming observes the effect Penicillin has on

bacteria. The breakthrough occurred when he returned to hislaboratory after a four week vacation. An improperly sealed bacteria culture had been accidentally contaminated by a number of molds and yeasts. One of the molds had killed the bacteria in theculture.

1 930 's: The Wisconsin duo of Hougen & Watson stress theimportance of thermodynamics in Chemical EngineeringEducation.

1 930 's & 40 's: Michigan's Katz, Brown, White, Kurata, Standing,& Sliepcevich help lay down some foundations in phase equilibria,heat transfer, momentum transfer, and mass transfer.

1 930 's: The U.S. suffers through the Great Depression.

1 930 's & 1 940 's: Systematic analysis of chemical reactors begun

by; Damkohler in Germany, Van Heerden in Holland, andDanckwerts and Denbigh in England. They explore mass transfer,temperature variations, flow patterns, and multiple steady states.

1 931 : Neoprene synthetic rubber is produced by Du Pont.

1 933: The Imperial Chemical Industries in England discover Polyethylene.

1 933: Du Pont begins production of Rayon tire cord fabrics.

1 935 : Wallace H. Carothers, of Du Pont, d iscovers Nylon.

1 936 : Rohm & Haas begins marketing Methyl Methacrylate

plastics (PMMA).

1 936 : The Houdry Process is used in the Catalytic Cracking of Petroleum.

1 937 : Polystyrene is offered to consumers in the U.S. by DowChemical. It finds uses in radios, clock cases, electrical equipment,and wall tiles.

1 938: World War II begins in Europe.

1 939: Enrico Fermi, Otto Hahn, F. Strassman, Lisa Meitner, andOtto Frish discover Nuclear Fission.

1 939: Nylon used for women's stockings.

1 940 's: Polyethylene (electrical insulation and food packaging),silicones (lubricants, protective coatings, and high-temperatureelectronic insulation), and epoxy (a very strong adhesive) aredeveloped.

1 940 : Standard Oil Co. (Indiana) develops Catalytic Reforming to produce higher octane gasoline and create toluene for TNT. Higher octane gasoline helped the American and British fightersoutperform their German counterparts.

1 940 : First tire from synthetic rubber produced in U.S.

1 941 : The United States enters World War II.

1 941 : Styrene-Butadiene Rubber first produced in the U.S.

1 942 : Polyester resins introduced.

1 942 : Enrico Fermi, and a team of scientists, operated the firstman-made nuclear reactor under a football field at the Universityof Chicago. A cadmium control rod was suspended over the pilewith a rope. Should something have gone wrong, a scientist was tocut the rope with an ax, thereby dropping the rod into the reactor,

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hopefully solving the problem. Ever since then an emergencyshutdown has been called a SCRAM, which stands for "safetycontrol rod ax man".

1 94 3: Government owned synthetic rubber plants help boost war time production.

1 94 3: DDT, a powerful pesticide, first produced in the U.S.

1 944 : Teflon, Tetrafluoroethelene resins, marketed by Du Pont.

1 944 : Selman Waksman discovers streptomycin, the first effectiveanti-tuberculous drug.

1 945 : The U.S. ends World War II by detonating the AtomicBomb over Hiroshima, Japan.

1 945 : After World War II, the U.S. broke Germany's enormou sI.G. Farben into; BASF, Bayer, and Hoechst.

1 947 : A barge, the Grandcamp, loaded with fertilizer grade

ammonium nitrate catches fire and explodes destroying a nearbycity and killing 576 in what would later be known as the "TexasCity Disaster".

1 947 : The formation of hydrocarbons from synthetic gas by theFischer-Tropish Process.

1 947 : The first off shore oil is drilled.

1 94 8: A deadly smog settled over the small steel mill town of Donora, PA. The noxious air killed 1 9 and caused thousands to

become ill.

1 950 's: Television enters American homes.

1 950 : The Korean War begins.

1 950 's & 1 960 's: Minnesota's Mathematical Marvel of Amundson& Aris stress the importance of mathematical modeling inChemical Reactor Engineering. Their work helps encouragegreater mathematical competence in Chemical EngineeringEducation.

1 950 's & 1 960 's: Wisconsin's Triumvirate of Bird, Stewart, &Lightfoot reveal the unifying concepts of mass, momentum, andenergy transport. Their textbook, "Transport Phenomenon"continues to be a phenomenon in Chemical Engineering Education.

1 950 : Benzene produced from petroleum.

1 951 : The first Fusion Bomb tested.

1 952 : Du Pont introduces Mylar polyester film.

1 95 3: Production of soap exceeded by synthetic detergents.

1 95 3: The structure of DNA is discovered by Erwin Chargaff.

1 954 : Polyisoprene rubber developed.

1 955 : General Electric produces synthetic diamond.

1 955 : Government sells synthetic rubber plants to private industry.

1 957 : The Russians launch Sputnik I, the first man-made satellite.

1 957 : General Electric develops polycarbonate plastics.

1 95 9: The computer control of chemical processes gainscredibility.

1 95 9: Large scale Hydrogen plant, for use as rocket fuel,completed by Air Products.

1 960 : Theodore Maiman builds the first LASER based upon the proposal of Arthur Schawlow.

1 961 : Alan Shepard becomes the first American into space.

1 962 : The Russians remove their missiles from Cuba.

1 962 : Rachel Carson's book, "Silent Spring", presents an emotional plea for protecting human health and the environment fromchemical pesticides.

1 965 : American Troops enter the Vietnam War.

1 965 : Bottles made from polyvinyl chloride gain market share.

1 966 : Fist attempt to control organic solvent emissions made byLos Angeles' Rule 66 .

1 96 8: Consumption of man-made fibers tops natural fibers in U.S.

1 96 9: The Apollo 11 mission succeeds by landing Man on theMoon.

1 96 9: The horribly polluted Cuyahoga River, running throughCleveland, actually caught on fire.

1 970 's: America's heavy dependence on foreign oil results in anEnergy Crisis as the Arabs stop shipment to countries whichsupported Israel in the Arab-Israeli Wars.

1 970 : America holds its first "Earth Day" on April 22 .

1 970 : The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is formed. Itconsists of 6 ,000 employees and has an annual budget of $ 1 .3

billion.

1 970 : Congress passes the "Clean Air Act" establishing nationalair quality standards.

1 972 : Congress passes the "Clean Water Act" to confront water pollution.

1 97 3: The last American Troops leave Vietnam.

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1 97 3: Stanley Cohen & Herbert Boyer perform the first experimentin Genetic Engineering.

1 97 3: Construction on New York's "World Trade Center" andChicago's "Sears Tower" are completed.

1 974 : Richard Nixon resigns from office.

Mid 1 970 's: Toxic releases including: the Kepone tragedy atHopewell, VA; the PCB contamination of the Hudson River; andthe PBB poisoning of cows in Michigan keep environment issuesin the headlines.

1 975 : Catalytic converters are introduced in many automobiles tomeet emissions standards established by the U.S. government.

1 975 : Du Pont recognizes the contributions of Nathaniel C. Wyeth.He was responsible for introducing the plastic soda bottles madefrom polyethylene terephthalate (PET) which quickly replacedtheir glass predecessors.

1 975 : McDonald's fast food chain starts using Polystyrene to package its hamburgers.

1 976 : Congress passes the "Toxic Substances Control Act"regulating toxic chemicals.

1 976 : Seymour Cray, of Cray Research, makes the Cray- 1 Supercomputer.

1 976 : The U.S. National Academy of Sciences reports thatchlorofluorocarbons (Freons) can deplete the Ozone Layer.

1 976 : The U.S. bans the use of chloroform in drugs and cosmetics.

1 976 : Viking 1 lands on Mars, becoming the first man-made objectto ever soft-land on another planet.

1 977 : Raymond Damadian builds his first Magnetic ResonanceImager (MRI) used to generate 3-D images of the human bodyusing the principles of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy(NMR).

1 97 8: Chlorofluorcarbons (Freons) are banned as spray propellantsin the U.S. because of fears over the Ozone Layer.

1 97 8: The U.S. Government begins limiting the amount of lead permited in gasoline. The action is taken to prevent deterioration of the platinum catalysts in catalytic converters, not to protect the

public's safety.

1 97 9: No one is injured, but many are terrified, by an nuclear reactor incident at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania.

1 97 9: Genetic Engineering succeeds in synthesizing humaninsulin.

Late 1 970 's: Love Canal (in New York) and the Valley of Drums(10 ,000 leaking hazardous waste drums near West Point, KY) keepenvironmental issues in the news and are described as "tickingtime bombs."

1 980 : The U.S. Supreme Court rules that General Electric canPatent a microbe used for oil cleanup.

1 980 : The "push through tabs" used on today's pop and beer cansare first introduced.

1 980 : The U.S. Government bans the sale of lead based paints.

1 980 : The Superfund, containing $ 1 .6 billion, is formed to be used by the EPA in cleaning up pollution sites.

1 981 : Microsoft develops MS-DOS for the IBM PC.

1 981 : Gerd Binnig & Heinrich Rohrer develop the ScanningTunneling Microscope (STM) which is capable of resolvingindividual atoms on a surface.

1 981 : NASA's "Columbia" Space Shuttle becomes the world's firstreusable space craft.

1 983: Carl Sagan, and a group of scientists, publishes an alarming

report concerning the long term climatic impacts of nuclear war.

1 984 : AT&T is broken into "Baby Bells" by the U.S. government.

1 984 : Apple introduces the Macintosh personal computer.

1 984 : An accidental toxic gas release by Union Carbide kills over 2000 in Bhopal, India.

1 985 : Richard E. Smalley and Harold W. Kroto discover "Buckyballs", a soccer ball like molecule made of 60 carbonatoms.

1 985 : Low petroleum prices lead to the cancellation of the U.S.

Government sponsored "Synfuels" project, designed to developalternative energy sources based on coal or oil shales.

1 986 : Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor # 4 explodes, releasing largeamounts of radiation near Kiev, USSR.

1 986 : NASA's Space Shuttle, Challenger, explodes shortly after take off.

1 986 : K. Alex Muller and George J. Bednorz discover asuperconductor that operates at 3 0 degrees Kelvin. This sets of anexplosion in "high" temperature superconductors.

1 987 : Japan's "Nipon Zeon" company develops a plastic with"memory". At low temperatures it can be bent and twisted,however when heated above 3 7 degrees Celsius it returns to itsinitial shape.

1 988: A Scanning Tunneling Microscope produces the first pictureof a Benzene Ring.

1 988: McDonald's fast food chain stops using the "clamshell" to package its hamburgers because of fears over the CFC's used inmanufacturing Polystyrene.

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1 989: An Exxon Oil Tanker, the Valdez, runs aground in of thecoast of Alaska.

1 989: The Human Geonome Project, designed to map all the genesin a human being, is launched.

1 990 : Congress passes the "Pollution Prevention Act" which

"encourages" companies to reduce pollution.

1 991 : The Soviet Union formally dissolves.

1 991 : Washington D.C. has a victory parade, celebrating thedecisive U.S. success versus Iraq in the Gulf War.

1 992 : The Australian Government begins a three year plan tointroduce plastic $ 5 , $10 , $20 , $50 , & $100 bills.

1 993: New York's "World Trade Center" is bombed by terrorists.The explosive was created by a 26 -year-old chemical engineer educated at Rutgers University.

1 993: The high price of replacing a corroding heat exchanger causes the Portland General Electric Company to retire, rather thanrepair, its Nuclear Power Plant in Rainier Oregon.

1 993: Procter & Gamble adds the cellulase enzyme to "Cheer".This enzyme breaks down cellulose (plant fiber) and it is hopedthat it will promote digestion of damaged cotton fibers, leavingundamaged ones intact.

1 994 : Mo4 : More computers than television sets are sold.

1 995 : The Shinri Kyo cult uses Sarin nerve gas in the deadlyTokyo subway attack.

A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physicalquantity , defined and adopted by convention and/or by law,that is used as a standard for measurement of the samephysical quantity. [1] Any other value of the physical quantitycan