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Postcolonial Architecture Through North Korean Modes: Namibian Commissions of the Mansudae Overseas Project
By
Meghan Laurel Elizabeth Kirkwood
Submitted to the graduate degree program in History of Art and the Graduate Faculty of
the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts.
________________________________ Chairperson, Dr. Marsha Haufler
________________________________
Dr. Elizabeth MacGonagle
________________________________ Dr. Gitti Salami
MA Exam: January 20-21, 2011
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The Thesis Committee for Meghan Laurel Elizabeth Kirkwood certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis:
Postcolonial Architecture Through North Korean Modes: Namibian Commissions of the Mansudae Overseas Project
________________________________ Chairperson, Dr. Marsha Haufler
MA Exam: January 20-21, 2011
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Abstract:
Sincethe1970stheNorthKoreandesignfirm,theMansudaeOverseasProject,has
completedcommissionsforpublicsculpturesandbuildingsineightdifferentAfrican
nations.Thoughthesecommissionsincorporatesubjectmatterspecifictotheir
respectivelocations,theworksreplicateanaestheticthatisdistinctlyNorthKorean.
ExamplesofthisvisualparallelmaybeobservediniconicMansudaeworksfoundin
Windhoek,thecapitalofNamibia:thenewNamibianStateHouse(2006),theHeroes’
AcreMemorial(2002)andtheIndependenceMuseum(begun2009).Thisthesisargues
thatthedecisionbyNamibianleaderstoawardarchitecturaltenderstotheMansudae
OverseasProjectwasnotbasedoneconomicconcernsorpreferenceforMansudae
designs,butwasinsteadmotivatedbyadesiretoemulatetheauthority,cohesiveness
anddirectednatureofavisualculturespecifictoPyongyang.InNamibia,the
constructionofMansudae‐designedbuildingsandmonumentsassertsadecisivebreak
witharchitectureandmemorialsassociatedwithcolonialregimes,andindoingso
foregroundstheauthorityandmodernityofthepostcolonialgovernment.Thorough
considerationofcommissionsoftheMansudaeOverseasProjectinurbancapitalssuch
asWindhoekexpandsthelimitedbodyofresearchontheestablishmentofa
postcolonialvernacularinAfricanurbansettings.
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I.Introduction
InSeptember2009constructionbeganontheIndependenceMemorialMuseumin
centralWindhoek,thecapitalofNamibia(Fig.1).**Thenewmuseummarksthefourth
majorarchitecturaltenderawardedtooneNorthKoreandesignfirm,theMansudae
OverseasProject,bytheNamibiangovernmentwithinthepasttenyears.Arthistorians
havenotexaminedtheappearanceofNorthKorean‐designedworksinNamibiaandin
otherAfricannations,1norhavetheyconsideredthehiringofNorthKoreanarchitects
overotherWesternorAfricanprofessionalsasanassertionoftheauthorityand
modernitybypost‐colonialregimes.Thispaperaimstodoboth.Itdiscussesthese
monumentsasstrategicadoptionsofaspectsofNorthKoreanvisualculture,ones
intendedtosymbolicallyinscribethecapitalcitywithafoundingnarrativefavorableto
thepostcolonialgovernment,andtoprovideavisualbreakwithcolonialantecedents.
Thiswillbeaccomplishedthroughacomparativevisualanalysisofphotographstakenby
**Theauthorwouldliketothankthemembersofhercommitteefortheirguidanceduringthisproject:Dr.MarshaHaufler,Dr.GittiSalamiandDr.ElizabethMacgonagle.InadditiontheauthorwouldliketothanktheMorrisFamily,withoutwhosescholarshipassistancethisresearchandmystudiesattheUniversityofKansaswouldnothavebeenpossible.1ImportantworkonpublicmonumentscommissionedbypostcolonialgovernmentshasbeendonebyscholarssuchasMaryJoArnoldi,butthisresearchdoesnotaddresstheparallelsbetweenAfricanmonumentsdesignedbyNorthKoreansandextantworksinNorthKorea,nordoesspeculateonthemotivationsforcommissioningtheMansudaeOverseasProject.See:MaryJoArnoldi.“SymbolicallyInscribingtheCity:PublicMonumentsinMali,1995‐2002.”AfricanArts36(Summer,2003):56‐65;MaryJoArnoldi.“Bamako,Mali:MonumentsandModernityintheUrbanImagination.”AfricaToday54(Winter,2007):3‐24.
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theauthorattheNamibiansiteswithimagesofcorrespondingworksinNorthKorea
takenfrominternetresources.
TheMansudaeOverseasProjectistheinternationaldivisionoftheMansudaeArt
Studio,whichproducesthemajorityofofficialpublicmonumentsandbuildingsin
Pyongyang,thecapitaloftheDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea(DPRK).InNamibia,
inadditiontotheIndependenceMemorialMuseum,theMansudaeOverseasProject
designedandbuilttheHeroes’AcreMemorial(2002),amartyrs’cemeterylocatedten
kilometerssouthofWindhoek(Fig.2),amilitarymuseum(2004)situatedseventy
kilometersnorthofWindhoekinthecityofOkahandja,2andthenewNamibianState
House(2008)(Fig.3).
NamibiaisnottheonlyAfricannationtoawardcommissionsofpublic
monumentsandgovernmentbuildingstotheMansudaeOverseasProject.Todate,the
firmhasalsocompletedprojectsinSenegal,Angola,Botswana,EquatorialGuinea,Benin,
DemocraticRepublicofCongo,ZimbabweandEthiopia.3ProjectsrealizedinAfrican
2OfthefourmonumentscommissionedbytheMansudaeOverseasProjecttheleastisknownaboutthiswork.Builtin2004atanestimatedcostofN$25milliontoN$30millionthemuseumstillremainsclosedtothepublic.See:“MilitaryMuseumStillOff‐limitstoPublic,”TheNamibian,3March2008.3TheexactnumberofcommissionscompletedwithintheAfricancontinenthasnotbeendisclosedbytheMansudaeOverseasProjectorMansudaeArtStudioofficials,thoughthereisbroadmentionofcommissionscompletedinspecificcountriesasbecomesrelevantinKoreanCentralNewsAgencybriefings.See:KoreanCentralNewsAgency“MonumentCreationCenter” http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2004/200409/news09/14.htm#10.Nonetheless,thisinformationiscollectedinscatteredpublicationsbygroupssuchastheNorthKoreanEconomyWatch,reportersfortheDailyNKandotherinternationalnewsorganizationssuchastheBritishBroadcastingCorporationandtheWallStreetJournal.See:ChristinaPassariello,“MonumentstoFreedomAren’tFree,butNorthKoreaBuildsCheapOnes”
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nationsbytheMansudaeOverseasProjectincludecommemorativeportraitsof
importantfiguresinpostcolonialgovernments(e.g.DemocraticRepublicofCongo–
StatueofJosephKasavubu,2010),revolutionaryheroes(e.g.Zimbabwe–National
Heroes’Acre,1981),4historicalfigures(e.g.Botswana‐ThreeDikgosi[chiefs]
Monument,2005).5Theyalsocommemoratepost‐colonialself‐determination(Senegal
–MonumenttotheAfricanRenaissance,2010),6andprovidenewspacesfor
governmentadministration(e.g.Namibia–NewNamibianStateHouse,2008).The
iconographicprogramsofthesemonumentsandbuildingsdifferbetweennations,yet
worksremainformallysimilar,effectivelyemulatingtheSocialistRealistaestheticofthe
artandarchitectureofPyongyang.7
Infact,thefourNamibiancommissionsoftheMansudaeOverseasProject
parallelmonumentsandedificesinPyongyangtothepointthattheyseemmorelike
NamibiantranslationsofaNorthKoreandesignvernacularratherthanasoriginal,
WallStreetJournalJanuary28,2010;KimYongHun,“ForeignCurrencyEarningConstructionsinAfrica,”DailyNKJune212010.4ForabriefdiscussionoftheZimbabweHeroes’Acresee:JoostFontein,“ThePoliticsoftheDead:Livingheritage,bonesandcommemorationinZimbabwe,”1‐27.5ForabriefdiscussionoftheBotswanamonumentssee:NeilParsons,“UnravellingHistoryandCulturalHeritageinBotswana,”JournalofSouthernAfricanStudies32(December2006),680,andMorongwaPhala,OpportunitiesMissedAsChiefsTenderIsGivenAway,Mmegi,May17,2004. 6ForabriefdiscussionoftheSenegalesemonumentsee:FerdinanddeJongandVincentFoucher,“LatragédieduroiAbdoulaye?NéomodernismeetRenaissanceafricainedansleSénégalcontemporain,”187‐204. 7Theterm“SocialistRealist”remainsproblematicasadescriptoroftheNorthKoreanscopicregimeforscholarssuchasJanePortal,whoacknowledgesthatartinDPRKrepresentsa“curiousmixtureofinfluencesfromWesternmonuments,transferredthroughSocialistRealistSovietandChineseworkstoahybridNorthKoreanmonumentalism,”distinguishingNorthKoreanSocialistRealismfromitspredecessorsinChinaandtheSovietUnion.See:JanePortal.ArtUnderControlInNorthKorea(London:Reaktion,2005):13.
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indigenousinterpretations.ThisdirectformalrelationshipbetweentheNamibian
commissionsandextantworksinNorthKoreapromptsustoaskwhythepost‐colonial
governmentwouldchoosedesignsthatsoclearlyforegroundaforeignvisualculturefor
architecturalworksthatsymbolizetherealizationofanindependentNamibia.
CliffordGeertzarguesthatthetaskofconceivinganationalistselffor
postcolonialstatesshiftsbetweenpre‐andpost‐revolutionaryperiods.Whereaspre‐
revolutionarynationalisticsentimentbuildsuponan“easypopulism”offreedomand
self‐determination,thepost‐revolutionarystatefacesthetaskofdefining“acollective
subjecttowhomtheactionsofthestatecanbeinternallyconnected.”Theneedto
fosteracollectiveselfwithinthenationalunit,thus,motivatespostcolonial
governmentstoseekoutmeansofarticulatingthisself,suchasthrougharchitectural
buildingprograms.8
Yet,StuartMurphynotes,thoughthedesiretoestablish“abounded,linearand
empiricalversionofselfhood”mayfinda“setofusefulideologicaltools”inthesortof
nationalismasdescribedbyErnestGellner,whereinthepoliticalandnationalunitare
congruent,9Murphyassertsthatsuch“ideologicalmovesactuallyproducemultipleand
oftencontradictoryimagesofthenationalself.”10Thus,theefforttogenerateorboost
nationalisminthepostcolonialstatemaybeantitheticaltoapostcolonialorder
characterizedbyfluidityandhybridity.Nevertheless,theuseofarchitecturalprograms
8CliffordGeertz,InterpretationofCultures,238‐40.9 ErnestGellner,NationsandNationalism,1. 10 StuartMurray,“Introduction,”inNotonAnyMap:EssaysonPostcolonialityandCulturalNationalism,8.
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topromoteandsupportaregime’sviewofthenationalcollectiveselfshouldbe
understoodwithinaframeworkofnationalistassertionsofself.
Attentiontothemotivationsoftheindividualwhofacilitatedthehiringofthe
MansudaeOverseasProjectfortheNamibianprojects,Namibia’sFoundingPresident
SamNujoma(heldofficefrom1990‐2005)offersinsightintothenatureofthe
commissionsaseffortstopromoteaparticularviewoftheNamibiannationalistself.
FormerPresidentNujomawasapivotalfigureinNamibia’sresistancemovement
againstSouthAfricanrule.HehelpedfoundSWAPO(SouthWestAfricaPeople’s
OrganizationParty)in1960,11whichhasheldpowersinceNamibiagained
independencein1990,andledinthearmedinsurgencyagainsttherulingSouthAfrican
government.12NujomaremainsanomnipresentfigureinNamibiaevenafterhis
retirementfrompolitics(Fig.4).13Hissuccessor,HifikepunyePohamba,anotherSWAPO
foundingmemberelectedin2004,isbroadlyperceivedtobedistinctfromNujomain
nameonly,particularlyasNujomacontinuedonaspresidentofSWAPOfollowing
Pohamba’selection.14
11TheSWAPOpartywasoriginallyformedoutofagroupworkingonbehalfofmigrantOwambolaborersthatwantedtoenlargeitsconcernsfromtheworkingconditionsofmigrantstotheendingofSouthAfricanruleinthecountry.TheneworganizationwasmodeledaftertheSouthAfricanANC(AfricanNationalCongress)andstrovetomovebeyondtribalaffinitiesinfavorofacollectiveNamibianagenda.See:LionelCliffe,TheTransitiontoIndependenceinNamibia(London:LynneRienner,1994):18‐19.12ibid,826.13FormerPresidentNujomaisoftenconsultedforcommentrelatingtotheSWAPOpartyandadisparaterangeofstoriesinWindhoeknewspaperssuchastheWindhoekObserver.SeeAndreasThomas“NujomaproposesSWAPOTVstation,”WindhoekObserver,August14,2010.14 See:BBCNews,“SwapoManWinsNamibiaLandslide,”November21,2004.
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AsLawrenceValenotesinhiswritingsonthepostcolonialarchitectural
environment,“theleadershipofnewlyindependentstates[has]frequentlyattempted
tousearchitecturenotonlytohouseanewformofgovernmentbutalsotoproclaim
theworthinessofthenewregimeandadvanceitsstatus.”15Assomeonewhodevoted
hislifetothecauseofNamibianself‐realizationandservedasthefirstPresidentof
independentNamibiaforfourteenyears,Nujomanaturallyhadavestedinterestin
promotingthenewpostcolonialgovernmentandSWAPO’sroleinitsgeneration.Thus,
evenafterNujoma’sretirement,hispersonalmotivationsforcreatingnewarchitectural
worksremainrelevanttoadiscussionofthecontractsawardedtotheMansudae
OverseasProject.
InpublicstatementsregardingtheMansudaeOverseasProjectcommissions,
spokespersonsfortheNujomaandPohambaadministrationspointtothematerial
supportprovidedbytheNorthKoreansduringtheperiodofliberationstruggleas
justificationforawardingthemcommissions.16Althoughtheextentandnatureofthe
NorthKoreanassistanceisnotpubliclydocumented,itisframedbybothnationsasa
benevolentgesturemadeinsupportoftheNamibiannationinitsnascentstage.17For
15LawrenceVale,Architecture,Power,andNationalIdentity(London:Routledge,2008):10.16Examplesofthepublicacknowledgmentofthislong‐standingrelationshipappearofteninpublicstatementsassociatedwiththeMansudaecommissionsintheNamibianpress,butaregenerallyworkedintoanypublicdiscussionofstatevisitsordiplomatictalksbetweenthetwonationsondiversetopicssuchaspublichealthanddiplomaticconsultationagreements.See:BrigitteWeidlich,“NamibiaandNorthKorea'tostrengthensupremeties,”TheNamibian,March25,2008.17See:BBCSummaryofWorldBroadcasts,Transcript,“NorthKoreanDelegationinNamibiato‘Promote,Consolidate’ExistingTies,”March21,2002.
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example,a2000communiquédetailingtheeventsofNujoma’sStatevisittoPyongyang
notes:
SamNujomasaidinhisspeechhiscurrentvisittotheDPRKwasaimedatfurtherstrengtheningtheexistingfraternalrelationsoffriendshipbetweenthecountries.TheNamibianpeoplewillalwaysrememberthematerial,diplomaticandspiritualsupportgivenbytheworker’spartyandthegovernmentofKoreatotheSWAPOofNamibia,hesaid.18
Itisimportanttonotethatthefraternalrelationshipbetweenthetwonations
beganwiththepersonalfriendshipbetweenNujomaandKimIlSungratherthanwith
diplomaticexchangebetweenthetwonationspriortoNamibia’sindependencein
1990.19Duringhistimeinexile,NujomatraveledtoPyongyang.Thedetailsofhisvisit
andwhathediscussedwiththeNorthKoreangovernmentarenotknown,but
photographsfromtheNamibianNationalArchiveshowhimtogetherwithKimIlSung,
andNujomavisitingwithNorthKoreanmilitaryforces,attestingtohiscordialrelations
withhishostsand,fromtheNorthKoreanview,hisadmirationforthem(Fig.5‐6).
ThefoundingPresident’sdesiretohonorthesupportgivenbytheNorthKoreans
totheliberationmovementmayhavebeenonemotivationforthecommissions,yetthe
hiringoftheMansudaeOverseasProjectforfourmajorculturallandmarksdemands
morethoroughjustification.Forwhilethefoundingpresidenthadclearreasonto
supporthisallies,theSWAPOleadershipalsohadacommitmenttosupporttheir
economicallydisadvantagedbase,manyofwhomwouldhavebenefitedfinanciallyand
18KoreanCentralNewsAgency.“NamibianPresidenthere.”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200011/news11/28.htm.19KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“NamibianPresidentonRelationswiththeDPRK”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2002/200208/news26/2002.htm.
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experientiallyfromreceivingagreatershareofthelucrativegovernmentcontracts
associatedwiththecommissions.20Similarly,theastronomicalcostsassociatedwiththe
constructionoftheWindhoekmonumentschallengesthenotionthatNorthKorean
worksofferedaneconomicalalternativetoawardingcontractstoregionalarchitects.21
WhilepreviousrelationshipswithNorthKoreamayhavebeenafactor,Ibelieve
itsafetoassumethatAfricanleaders,suchasNujoma,whocommissionedthe
MansudaeOverseasProjecttoerectnationalmonumentsdidsoforstrategicpolitical
reasons.Iassertthattheyrecognizedthebold,dynamic,andmonumentalworks
characteristicoftheMansudaeOverseasProjectasdecisive,modernandauthoritative
meansofexpressingtheirnationalisticcontent.Moreover,IbelievethattheNamibian
governmentviewedMansudaeworksasexpressionsofatypeofSocialistRealismby
thenextinctelsewherethatwouldbeaneffectiveinsignalingtheirowntriumphover
colonialrule.
TosupportthisargumentIwillfirstdiscussFoundingPresidentSamNujoma’s
2000visittoNorthKoreatoestablishhisfamiliaritywithPyongyangandhisknowledge
ofthewaysmonumentsandbuildingsdesignedbytheMansudaeArtStudio
20Foradiscussionofthe1992LabourActSee:Bauer,“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?”40‐41.21OneofthereasonsadvancedbytheNamibiangovernmentfortheirdecisiontouseNorthKoreanarchitectsforthecommissionswasthattherewerenolocalNamibianarchitectscapableofcompletingthejobs.See:LindsayDentlinger,“MoreQuestionsonNewStateHouseComplex,”TheNamibian,April21,2006.ThisassertionhasbeenrejectedbytheNamibianInstituteofArchitects,whoevidencethevarietyofcommissionscompletedbytheirmembersrequiringsimilarlevelsofexpertise.See:NinaMaritz,PersonalCommunication,10August2010andJacobWasserfall,PersonalCommunication,13August2010;ChristofMaletsky,“ArchitectssaymoveofMonumentFlawed,”TheNamibianJuly17,2008.
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aestheticallyunifythecityandprojectstateideology.Second,throughacomparative
analysisofextantmonumentsinPyongyangandtheNamibiancommissionsIwill
identifytheformaldevicescommontobothandassertthattheNamibianworksare
Namibianincontentonly.Finally,Iwilldiscussthecircumstancesofthemostrecent
commission,theIndependenceMemorialmuseum,andidentifyitisanattemptbythe
Namibiangovernmenttosymbolicallyinscribepublicmemoryinfavorofthepost‐
colonialregime.Insum,thispaperwillshowthattheNamibianleadershipembraced
theMansudae‐designedworksasameanstoasserttheirauthority,modernityand
securetheirlegitimacy.
II.PresidentNujoma’s2000visittoPyongyang
ThevisualcultureofPyongyangisdefinedinlargepartbythepublicartworksand
monumentscreatedbytheMansudaeArtStudiotohonortheachievementsandlegacy
oftheGreatLeaderKimIlSung.Inadditiontomonumentalsculpture,thestudio
specializesinlarge‐scalemosaics,paintings,andbronzereliefs.Theprominenceofthe
MansudaeArtStudioinPyongyangcannotbeoverstated.Foundedin1959,itemploys
3,700workers,onequarterofwhomareartists,mostgraduatesofthePyongyang
UniversityofFineArts.22TheMansudaeArtStudiopridesitselfonitsproductionof
diverseworksthatcommemoratetheresistanceagainstJapanesecolonization.23
MansudaemonumentssuchastheJuchetowerexemplifythewaysinwhichMansudae
worksarehighlysymbolicandmeticulouslyconceivedtorelayaprogrammaticintent
22JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,127.23www.mansudaeartstudio.com/.../en/the_mansudae_art_studio.pdf
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(Fig.7andFig.8).This170meterhightowercelebratesKimIlSung’sJuchephilosophy
ofself‐reliance,whichstressesself‐sufficiencywithoutoutsideassistance.24Builtonthe
occasionofKim'sseventiethbirthdayin1982,thetoweriscoveredwith25,550pieces
ofgranite,eachrepresentingadayinthelifeoftheGreatLeader.25
MansudaebuildingsandmonumentsaroseintheNorthKoreancapitalfollowing
theneartotaldestructionofthecityduringtheKoreanWar(1950‐53).AsPeterAtkins
notes,NorthKoreanplannershadatabularasaonwhichtoideologicallyinscribethe
physicallandscapeonagrandandunifiedscale.26Indeed,majoravenues,government
buildings,large‐scalemonumentswereconceivedwithinashortperiodbyarelatively
smallgroupofindividualsandonemajordesignfirm.Theresultantcohesionwithinthe
urbancapitalandgeomanticplacementofMansudaemonumentsaredefining
characteristicsoftheSocialistRealismspecifictoNorthKorea.
OutsidershaveinterpretedthePyongyangcityscapeasametaphoricalmirrorfor
theGreatLeader,conceivedsolelytofuelhispersonalitycult.Suk‐YoungKimsuggests
comparisonsbetweenmodernPyongyangandAlbertSpeer’sunrealizedGermania,and
arguesthatPyongyangfunctionsasatheatricalset,whereinhabitantsexistaspropsin
anendlessproductionglorifyingKimIlSung.27Whilethevisualcharacterofthecityis
arguablyone‐tracked,itisoverlydismissivetoperceivethemoderncityofPyongyangas
24 ForfurtherreadingonKimIlSung’sJuchephilosophysee:JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,77‐79;B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreanSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,46‐47. 25 Thename“GreatLeader”isusedtorefertoKimIlSung,while“DearLeader”referenceshissonandsuccessor,KimJongIl. 26Atkins,““ASéancewiththeLiving:theIntelligibilityoftheNorthKoreanLandscape,”199.27Suk‐YoungKim,“SpringtimeforKimIlSunginPyongyang,”24.
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simplyastagewithacentralactorandanaudience.InhisbookTheCleanestRace:How
NorthKoreansSeeThemselves—AndWhyItMatters,B.R.Myerscommentsonthe
popularmisconceptionsaboutKimIlSung’spersonalitycult:
TheregimeinPyongyangisoftenaccusedof‘brainwashing’itssubjects,asiftheformersecretlybelievedsomethingverydifferent,andthelatterwerepassiveorevenunwillingvictimsofindoctrination.Perhapsthismisconceptionderivesfromthemistakenbeliefthatthepersonalitycult…formsthebasisoftheofficialworldview.Infact…thepersonalitycultproceedsfrommythsabouttheraceanditshistorythatcannotbutexertastrongappealontheNorthKoreanmasses.28
Myersobservationssuggeststhat,ratherthaninterpretingthevisuallandscapeof
Pyongyangasjustamirrorforthesolebenefitofitsleadership,wecanunderstand
Pyongyangasanorchestratedsystemsupportedbyaunified,omnipresentvisual
culture,whereinmonumentsandvisualreferencestotheGreatLeaderservetoremind
citizensoftheirleaders’legitimacyandachievementstowardsNorthKoreanself‐
definitionafteraperiodofJapanesecolonialRule.
***
InNovemberof2000NamibianPresidentSamNujomamadeadiplomaticvisittothe
DemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKoreainresponsetoastateinvitationfromPyongyang.
NujomahadrecentlybegunhisthirdtermasPresident,bypassingtheconstitutionally
statedtwo‐termlimitonthegroundsthathehadinitiallybeenelectedbythe
Constituent/NationalAssemblyandthushadonlyoncebeenpopularlyelected.29Atthe
timeofhisvisit,SWAPOcontrolledboththeexecutiveandlegislativebranchesofthe
28 B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,75.29ChristopherSaunders,“RecentHistory,”828;Bauer,“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?”,37.
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Namibiangovernment,andhadbeenwithoutsignificantoppositionfromotherpolitical
partiesforoveradecade,promptingconcernforsomethatNamibiacoulddevelopinto
asinglepartystate.30Thetrendtowardssinglepartyruleandthepotentiallossof
democracyisnotedbyGretchenBauer,whohaspointedtoconstitutionalamendments,
suchasthepresidentialtermextensions,andtotheincreasingconcentrationofpower
intheOfficeofthePresidentasconcernsfortheevolvingpoliticalclimateoftheyoung
nation.31
TheKoreanCentralNewsAgency,theofficialNorthKoreannewsorganization,
issuedadetailedaccountofNujoma’sNovember2000visittoPyongyang.32Through
thesedescriptionsweknowwhatmonumentsandbuildingsNujomavisited,andthus
canspeculateonhisimpressionsofthecity.VisitstotheKumsusanMemorialPalace
andtheRevolutionaryMartyrs’Cemeteryareofparticularnoteastheyfamiliarizedhim
withtheritualexperienceprovidedbysitesinPyongyang.Nujomaalsovisitedthe
MansudaeArtStudio,givinghimafirsthandsenseofthemagnitudeofthisartfactory.
30 Bauer,“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?,”43. 31 AccordingtoBauer,thisconcentrationofpowercanbeseen,forexample,“inPresidentNujoma'sinsistenceonmakingpoliticalappointmentshimself,hispracticesofkeepingpoliticalrivalsatbaywithperiodicCabinetreshuffles,ofchoosingthebulkofthecandidatesforSwapo'slistinNationalAssemblyelectionsandofretainingmostofthepre‐independenceSwapoleadershipinkeyCabinetposts.”“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?,”37.Also,throughoutherarticleBaueracknowledgesagrowingresistencetocriticismanddissenttowardsactionstakenbySWAPOleaders,see:“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?,”46;AbsalomShigwedha,“Pohamba,Nujoma,GeingoblashoutatcriticsofSwapo,”TheNamibian,July1,2008.32 B.R.MyersacknowledgesthattheEnglishlanguageKoreanCentralNewsAgencyreleasesdonotrepresentthelevelofpropagandaaboutNorthKoreaanditsleadersthatdomesticaudiencesreceive.See:B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,17‐18.
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SomeofhisstaffmembersvisitedthePyongyangMaternityHospital.VisitstotheGrand
People’sStudyHouseandtheJuchetowerarenotmentionedintheKoreanCentral
NewsAgencyaccountofhisvisit,buttheyareprominent,centrallylocatedbuildings
andNujomacouldnothavefailedtoseethemashewasdrivenaroundthecity.Thus,
theymaybecountedamongtheNorthKoreanexperiencesthatinfluencedhisdecisions
regardingtheMansudaeworksinNamibia.33
NujomabeganhisgoodwillvisittoPyongyangonthetwenty‐eighthof
November,2000and,accordingtotheKoreanreports,hewaswelcomedwithmuch
celebration,asiscustomaryuponthearrivalofforeignleaders.CrowdsofPyongyang
citizenswavedtheflagsofbothnations,cheeredandraisedbouquetswhenhisplane
landed.34TheanthemsofbothnationswereplayedattheairportbeforetheNamibian
PresidentleftinalimousinefordowntownPyongyang.Theroutewasdecoratedwith
theflagsandsloganboardswelcomingNujomaandaseaofdancerssprangtolifewhen
thelimousinereachedtheplazaoftheApril25thHouseofCulture.35Theseaccountsnot
onlyhighlighttheelaboratewelcomeextendedtoNujoma,butalsodocumenthis
33Followingthisvisitintheyear2000otherdiplomaticvisitstoPyongyangweremadein2007,2008duringwhichreportsdocumentvisitstotheArchofTriumph,theThreeRevolutionExhibition,theMangyongdaeandPyongyang326ElectricWireFactoryarementioned.ThoughthesevisitswillnotbeincludedinthecontextofinfluencesoftotheHeroes’AcreandnewNamibianStateHousetheynonethelessenterintothesphereofinfluencefortheIndependenceMuseumandfurthersupportanawarenessonthepartoftheNamibiangovernmenttohowNorthKoreanworksfunctionintheirenvironment.See:KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“NamibianGovernmentDelegationLeaves,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2008/200810/news25/20081025‐17.htm34ibid.35KoreanCentralNewsAgency.“Over100,000PyongyangiteswelcomeNamibianPresident.”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200011/news11/28.htm
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observationofacoordinatedcitizenryactinginsupportofthegovernment’sdiplomatic
intent.
OntheseconddayofPresidentNujoma’svisittoPyongyanghepaidvisittothe
RevolutionaryMartyrs’Cemetery,asitethatprefiguresthe2002NamibianHeroes’Acre.
Establishedin1975andremodeledin1985,theMartyrs’Cemeterycommemoratesover
170revolutionarieswhodiedfightingagainsttheJapaneseoccupationforcesduringthe
colonialperiodbetween1910and1945.36Thesiteispartofalargerparkcomplex,
which,asPeterAtkinsnotes,servestounitereverentialandrecreationalcontextswithin
theMartyrs’Cemetery.37Newlywedsaresaidtomakethissitetheirfirstdestination
afterthemarriageceremony,anditisacommonlyvisitedbyschoolgroups,further
expandingpopularuseandinteractionwiththememorial.38
Asiscustomaryofanyvisitingdignitary,duringhisofficialexcursiontothe
MountTaesongmonumentNujomalaidawreathatthepedestalbeforethemonument
and,togetherwiththeKoreanofficialspresent,includingKimYongNam,Presidentof
thePresidiumofNorthKorea,observedamomentofsilenceinmemoryoftheanti‐
Japaneserevolutionaryfighters.39
Itisimportanttoemphasizethesignificancethatthismonumentandritual
wouldhavehadforNujoma.LikeKimIlSung,whoasayoungmanassumedaleadership
roleofaguerillagroupintheNortheastAnti‐JapaneseArmy,Nujomaalsoledina
36Portal,Jane.ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,145.37 PeterAtkins,“ASéancewiththeLiving:theIntelligibilityoftheNorthKoreanLandscape,”inNorthKoreaintheNewWorldOrder,204. 38JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,146.39KoreanCentralNewsAgency.“GreetingstoBarbadianPrimeMinister.”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200011/news11/28.htm
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revolutionarystrugglethroughhisleadershippositionwithinSWAPO.40Nujomawas
likelyawareoftheseparallels,andthus,appreciatedthereverentialtreatmentgivento
therevolutionaryleadersasmeaningfulpracticeforanynationborneoutofstruggle.
RitualpracticeattheMartyrs’Cemeteryevokesthememoryandlegacyofthe
Koreanrevolutionaryheroes,andpreventsthespacefrombecomingfrozenina
previousera,andthusremovedfromcontemporaryaudiences.JamesYoungwriteson
theuseofritualpracticetoforestallthepotentialofmemorialstobecome
anachronisms.Henotes:“Monumentsdependonthepublicfortheirverylives:aslong
asthepublicspheresharesaregime’sdesireforpermanenceofitsformalself‐
idealizations,itsuspendsdisbeliefinthemonument’sownimpermanenceandthus
makestheregime’smonumentitsownsacredspace.”41Similarly,CarolMedlicottnotes:
“States’sovereigntyandtheircoercivepoweronlybecomerealandmeaningfulthrough
symbolandperformance.42Theobservationsofbothscholarsontheimportanceof
ritualpracticeinmotivatingasharedperformanceofcollectivehistoryprovideinsight
intotheappealoftheMansudae‐designedworksforAfricanleaderslookingtofostera
similarreverentialrelationshipbetweentheirpopulationsandrevolutionaryheroes.
ThatcertainfeaturesoftheMartyrs’CemeterylikelystoodouttoNujomais
suggestedbytheirparallelsinthelaterNamibianHeroes’Acremonument.Toaccess
thePyongyangmonumentavisitormustpassthroughnineteen‐meterhighKorean‐style
gatewithagreen‐tiledroof(Fig.9).Thegateframesaseriesof348stonestairsthat
40MichaelJ.Seth,AConciseHistoryofModernKorea,88.41JamesYoung,“Memory/Monument,”244.42CarolMedlicott,Medlicott“SymbolandSovereigntyinNorthKorea.”71.
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ascendChujakPeakandsymbolicallymarksthepassagefromtheurbanenvironsof
Pyongyangtothesacred,reverentialspaceaccordedtotheMartyrs’Cemetery.Atthe
topofthestairsawidestoneavenue,flankedoneithersidebysculpturegroupsof
soldiersemergingfromrusticatedstone,leadstothebaseofaterracedcemetery(Fig.
10‐Fig.13).Inadditiontothesculpturegroups,ontheleftsideoftheavenueastone
placarddisplaysaninscriptioninKim‐Il‐Sung’shandwritingthatproclaims:“Thenoble
revolutionaryspiritdisplayedbytheanti‐Japaneserevolutionarymartyrswilldwell
foreverintheheartsofourPartyandourpeople.October10th,1985.”(Fig.14)43Atthe
endofthestoneavenueagranitepedestal,raisedagainsttheinclineofthehill,serves
asapolishedbackdropforalargebronzemedallionandwreathmotif(Fig.15).Set
againstthemaroonstone,thegoldsymbolsprojecttowardtheviewer,reflecting
ambientlightandechoingthemetallicglowofthecopperbustsatopthedistant
gravestones.Takentogether,thepedestalandmedallionmetaphoricallyannouncethe
viewer’sarrivalatthecentralareaofimportance,thesacredgroundwherethelegend
ofNorthKorea’srevolutionaryheroesiscontinuallyrecalled.
Thegravestones,spacedevenlyinrowsconformingtotheterracedhillside,lead
toagraniteredflagatthehill’sapex(Fig.16andFig.17).Thebustsdisplayindividual
likenessesofrevolutionaryheroes,andtheirsize,viewingheightanddescriptive
featuresservetoanimatethegravestonesinamannernottypicallyachievedthrough
writteninscriptions.Assuch,theMartyrs’Cemeterytranscendstheviewingexperience
traditionallyaccordedaburialgroundbyinvokingassociationsrelatedtoshrinesor
43 KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“KimIlSung'sCalligraphicStyle,TreasureofKoreanNation,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2010/201004/news12/20100412‐13ee.html
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commemorativemonuments,wherereplicastatuesandestablishedenvironments
encouragereflectionandrecreationwithinthepublicsphere.
AnotherofficialexcursiontookNujomatoKumsusanMemorialPalace,aformer
palatialassemblyhallreconstructedasKimIlSung’smausoleumuponhisdeathin1994
(Fig.18),andtotheMansudaeGrandMonument(colossalbronzeKimIlSungstatue)
erectedbytheMansudaeArtStudioin1972(Fig.19).TheKoreanCentralNewsAgency
mentionsthataceremonialfloralbasketwaslaidbeforethestatueinthenameofthe
NamibianPresident,afamiliarritualforPyongyangcitizensandarequisiteactfor
foreignvisitors.44AsattheMartyrs’Cemetery,Nujomatookpartinthisriteand
experiencedfirst‐handthereverenceaccordedtoNorthKorea’srevolutionaryleader,a
manwithwhomhecouldpersonallyidentifygivenhisroleinthestruggleforNamibian
independence.
InsidetheKumsusanMemorialPalaceNujomaalsofollowedritualpractice
requiredofvisitors.IntheMourners’Hall,helearnedoftheoverwhelminggriefofthe
NorthKoreanpeoplewhentheylearnedofthedeathoftheGreatLeader.ThenNujoma
viewedtheembalmedbodyofKimIlSung.Afterward,intheexhibitionhalls,Nujoma
sawtheordersandmedalsawardedtotheGreatLeaderfromcountriesacrossthe
world.
AttheKumsusanMemorialPalace,aswellasotherMansudaebuildingssuchas
theGrandPeople’sStudyHouse(Fig.20)Nujomaviewedflamboyantinteriorsthat
featurebrightlycolored,floral‐patternterrazzofloors,extensiveuseofcoloredmarble,
44KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“NamibianPresidentvisitsKumsusanMemorialPalace,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200011/news11/28.htm.
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decorativebronzereliefs,gaudycrystalchandeliers,andepiclandscapepaintings(Fig.
21andFig.22).Themarbleandterrazzofloors,grandchandeliers,andepiclandscape
worksarealldefinitivemarkersoftheopulent,modernsensibilityofNorthKorean
visualcultureandcametobefeaturedinthedesignsoftheNamibiancommissionsof
theMansudaeOverseasProject.
Insum,Nujoma’s2000goodwillvisittoPyongyangfamiliarizedhimwiththe
particularlypotent,stilllivingbrandofsocialistartandarchitecturespecifictoNorth
Korea.Heobservedfirst‐handhowmonumentsandbuildingscanbecombinedona
grandscaletoglorifythelegacyofthenation’sfoundersandtheirresistanceofcolonial
forces,andmotivatetheperformanceofasharednationalhistory.Visitingthevarious
Mansudaedesignedmonumentsandbuildings,Nujomaobservedasystemofunified
andhighlycontrollednationalmemory,apparentlypropagatedwillinglybytheNorth
Koreanpeople.WhileothersmaydismissPyongyangasacityservingthepersonality
cultofKimIlSung,Nujomamighthaveperceiveditmorepositivelyasacity
rememberingitspastandagreatleadernotentirelyofobligation,butoutof
gratefulness.Whateverhispersonalresponse,whathesawwassoonechoedinthe
buildingprojectsheinitiatedandsupportedfollowinghisreturntoNamibia.
III.MansudaeOverseasProjectinNamibia:theHeroesAcreandNamibianStateHouse
Inhiswritingsoncollectivememoryandpublicmonuments,JamesYoungarguesfora
relationshipbetweenastate’sdesiretoforgeacommon,nationalmemoryandthe
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creationofmonumentsthatserveasanaturalizinglocusforthatmemory.Accordingto
Young,theseplacesofmemory,ortoborrowPierreNora’sterm,lieuxdemémoire,cast
astate’smartyrs,foundingmythsandidealsasnaturallytrueasthelandscapethey
inhabit.45Furthermore,invokingHalbwachs’assertionthatmemoriesarerecalled
throughmembershipinnational,religiousorclassgroups,Youngarguesthat“boththe
reasonsformemoryandtheformsmemorytakesarealwayssociallymandated,partof
asocializingsystemwherebyfellowcitizensgaincommonhistorythroughthevicarious
memoryoftheirforbearers’experiences.”46
Young’sidentificationofmonumentsassocially‐mandated,naturalizedlociof
nationalmemoryprovidesinsightintothecreationofthefirstNamibianworkdesigned
bytheMansudaeOverseasProject,theHeroes’Acremonument.Completedovera
periodofthirteenmonths,itwasinauguratedonAugust26th,2002.Officiallydesignated
“Heroes’Day,”August26thisanationalholidaycommemoratingthestartofthe
Namibianwarforindependence,ledbySWAPOliberationforces,in1966.47TheHeroes’
AcrecommemoratesimportantrevolutionaryfiguresthatworkedtoattainNamibian
independence.Themonumentfeaturesathirty‐fivemeterhighobelisk,aneight‐meter
highbronzestatueofanUnknownSolider,acontinuoussemi‐circularbronzerelief
45 JamesYoung,“Memory/Monument,”237.46JamesYoung,“Introduction”toTheTextureofMemory,6. 47EachyearceremoniesareheldoutattheHeroes’AcreonAugust26th,Heroes’Day,whenthemonumentitselfishonoredbyofficialsandattendingcitizens.ItisalsoofnotethatwhenrepresentativesoftheDPRKtraveltoNamibia,asdidKimYongNam,PresidentofthePresidiumoftheDPRKSupremePeople’sAssembly,theywilllaywreathsatthemonument.See:KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“WreathLaidBeforeHeroesCemeteryinWindhoek”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2008/2008003/news03/22.htm
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depictingNamibia’sstruggleforindependence,aneternalflame,and170graves(Fig.23
andFig.24).48ThemonumentemergesatthefootoftheAuasMountains,ten
kilometerssouthofWindhoek’sdowntownarea.Itslocationoutsidetheimmediate
urbanenvironsofWindhoek,incombinationwiththeentryadmissionchargeand
restaurantadjacenttotheseatingpavilion,allfunctiontodistinguishtheHeroes’Acre
memorialasasiteofdestination,aplaceonevisitstoleavebehindeverydayactivities.
Theplacementofthemonumentinthecity’soutskirtsamidstdeserthillsalsoforgesa
connectionbetweenthememorialtoNamibia’smartyrsandthenaturalenvironment.
ThisjuxtapositioninvokesYoung’snotionthattheplacementofamonumentwithina
particularnaturalenvironmentseekstoinvokea“truth”and“legitimacy”associated
withthe“objective”and“impartial”land.
ThereareanumberofimportantparallelsbetweentheHeroes’Acreandworks
inPyongyang,whichconnectthedecisiontoemployaNorthKoreanaesthetictothe
intentionofthepostcolonialregimetocreateasiteofcollectivenationalmemory.First,
theviewingexperiencecloselyreplicatesthatoftheNorthKoreanMartyrs’Cemetery.
VisitorstotheHeroes’Acremonumentmustenterthroughamonumentalentrance
gateadornedoneachsidewithreliefsculpturesdepictingtwokneelingwomenholding
bouquetsofflowers(Fig.25andFig.26).Afterpassingthroughthegate,thevisitor
encountersafountainwithacolumnatitscenter,whosetopiscarvedawayinthe
shapeofthreefacesmeanttosymbolizeyouththatlooktowardthe“buriedheroesand
48MinistryofInformationandBroadcastingandtheNamibiaNationalHeritageCouncil.“HeroesAcreIntroduction.”http://www.namibia‐1on1.com/a‐central/heroes‐acre‐2.html(accessedonNovember30,2009).
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heroineslaidtorestontheAcreitself”(Fig.27).49Thefountainitselfhasparticular
iconographicmeaning;oneguidenotesthatitcontains“cleansingandsoothingqualities
[that]symbolizefreedomafteralongandbitterstruggle.”50Thedegreetowhichthis
iconographicprogramcanbeinterpretedbyvisitorsisuncertainasnoplaqueorwritten
inscriptionatthesiteprovidessuchinformation.
Ashortdriveupthehillbringstheviewertoapavilionatthebaseofthe
monument,onerepletewithagrandstandpurportedlycapableofholdingupto5,000
persons(Fig.28).51Beforereachingthestairstheviewerencountersasprawling,
cruciformbronzemedal–aclearreferencetothemedalattheMartyrs’Cemetery(Fig.
29).Here,themedal,“theHeroes’MedalofBravery,”isdedicatedto“allNamibians
whosacrificedtheirlivesforthefreedomandsovereigntyofNamibia.”52Theeternal
flameatthebaseofthemedalissimilarlysymbolic,honoringthefallenheroesand
heroinesofNamibia.
ThegravesattheHeroes’AcrearealsosimilartothoseattheMartyrs’Cemetery.
DesignatedforheroesoftheNamibianindependencestruggle,over170gravesare
presentatthememorial,thoughsomeareemptyandaremarkedinhonorof
revolutionaryheroesburiedelsewhere.Evenlydividedamongthetiersascendingtothe
obelisk,thegravesappearinginorderedlinesfrombelowinamannersimilartothe
49NamibiaHeroes’AcreMonument.http://my‐beautiful‐namibia.com/heroes‐acre‐monument.html(accessedonDecember12,2010).50Ibid.51MinistryofInformationandBroadcastingandtheNamibiaNationalHeritageCouncil.“HeroesAcreIntroduction.”http://www.namibia‐1on1.com/a‐central/heroes‐acre‐2.html(accessedonNovember30,2009).52Ibid.
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Martyrs’Cemetery.IncontrasttothestonesattheMartyrs’Cemetery,however,which
feature110copperbustsoftheirdead,theNamibianstonesdisplaynamesandpictures
engravedinblackmarblemarkers(Fig.30andFig.31).Takentogether,thelocationof
theHeroes’Acreattheedgeofthecity,thepassagewaybetweencityandsacredspace
signaledthroughtheentrancegate,theinclusionofasymbolicallycleansingwater,and
theascensionavisitormustmaketoreachthemonument’sfocalpoint,allechothe
viewingexperienceperformedbyavisitortothePyongyangMartyr’sCemetery.
Inadditiontotheviewer’sspatiallymediatedexperience,otherimportant
formalparallelsassociatetheHeroes’AcrewithMansudaeworksinPyongyang.For
example,thedynamically‐posedstatueoftheUnknownSoldierinfullcombatgear,who
standsinfrontoftheobeliskandlookstowardsWindhoekoveranexpanseofthearid
Namibianlandscape,closelyrecallsastatueofthe“Victory”monumentatthe
VictoriousFatherlandLiberationWarMemorial(Fig.32–Fig.37).Alsobrandishing
militaryarmament,thelattersoldierholdstheNorthKoreanflaginonehandandboldly
motionswiththeother.Thekineticfoldsofhiscaperhymewiththewhippingflag,
creatingavaliant,explosivetenorseeminglyinconflictwiththeweightofthesculptural
medium.ThatthesoldierisposedwiththeNorthKoreanflagconnotesarelationship
betweenthebrazenrevolutionaryfighterandthecollectivenationalidentitysymbolized
withintheflag.Thesoldier’sopenmouthfurtherenergizesthebold,decisivenessofhis
gestureandsuggeststheemanationofavisceralyell,oneperhapsprojectedoverthe
howlofthewindfillingthesoldier’scape.
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TheUnknownSoldierattheNamibianHeroes’Acregripsagrenadeinonehand
andanAK‐47intheother,areferencetothetypicalarmamentoftheliberationarmof
theorganizedresistance.LiketheUnknownSoldierattheVictoriousFatherland
LiberationWarMemorial,theNamibianfigurestridesforward,replicatingthekineticsof
thePyongyangwork.ThoughthebronzestatuerepresentstheUnknownSolider,its
chiseledfeaturesbearastrikingresemblancetoNujomahimself,andthelikenessis
oftenreadassuch.Thisconnectionisfurtheradvancedthroughtheinclusionofa
handwrittenmessageatthebaseofthestatue,whichreads:"Glorytothefallenheroes
andheroinesofthemotherlandNamibia!SamNujoma,26thAugust2002"(Fig.38).53
Theinclusionofaleader’swrittenscriptalsohasampleprecedentinPyongyang,where
KimIlSung’sautographsandmessagesappearingoldinsuchplacesastheUnitedFront
Tower,theChongchonBridge,andChungsongBridge.Additionally,KimIlSung’s
calligraphyfiguresprominentlyatthebaseofthePyongyangMartyrs’Cemetery,where
itservesasarecordofthemonumentsbenedictionanddedication.54
InfluencesfortheMansudae‐designedthirty‐meterhighobeliskandbronze
statuelikelyincludetheJucheTower,andotherWesternprototypesfromwhichthe
NorthKoreanmonumentoriginallyderived.Theobelisk,visibleevenfromtheapexof
thedowntownareaofWindhoek,representsaswordsymbolizingstrength,braveryand
53Thatthememorialwasinauguratedonthe26thofAugustissignificantasitthisdatemarkedthebeginningofthearmedstrugglein1966.SinceNamibia’sindependencethisdatehasbeenknownas“HeroesDay.”54KoreanCentralNewAgency,“KimIlSung'sCalligraphicStyle,TreasureofKoreanNation,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2010/201004/news12/20100412‐13ee.html.
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dedication.55BelowthestatueasymbolicgravetotheUnknownSoldiercontainssoil
frommassgravesinAngolaandZambiabelievedtocontainremainsofrevolutionary
fighters.56
Thesemi‐circularbronzemuraldepictingNamibia’sstruggleforindependence
canbecomparedtothereliefencirclingthemonumentcommemoratingthefoundingof
theKoreanWorkers’Party,leadbyGeneralSecretary,KimJongIl(Fig.39–Fig.43).The
MonumenttothePartyFoundingwascompletedin1995andfeaturesthreefifty‐meter
highsculpturaltowersthatdepictthehammer,thesickleandthewritingbrush,
representingtheworker,thepeasantandtheintellectual.Belowthemassivesculptures
astonebeltencirclesthemonument,insidewhichanarrativebanddisplays
iconographically‐richbronzereliefs.Thebandsaresaidtorepresent“thehistoricalroot
oftheKoreanWorkers’Party,themightofthesingle‐mindedunityoftheleader,party
andmasses,andthefightingfeatureoftheKoreanpeopletocarryoutthehumancause
ofindependence.”57Thenarrativescenesfeaturestrong,defiantfiguresofbothsexes,
againsteitherneutralorforestedbackdrops.Thefacialfeaturesofthefiguresvaryonly
slightly,andtheirdeterminedexpressionsarematchedbytheforcefulposesoftheir
bodies.Thelargesizeofthefiguresandtheirplacementbeneaththesoaringsculptures
underscorethemessageofhardworkanddedicationastherootoftheparty’spower.
55NamibiaHeroes’AcreMonument.http://my‐beautiful‐namibia.com/heroes‐acre‐monument.html(accessedonDecember12,2010).56NamibiaHeroes’AcreMonument.http://my‐beautiful‐namibia.com/heroes‐acre‐monument.html(accessedonDecember12,2010).57 KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“MonumenttoPartyFounding,SymbolofWorkers'PartyofKorea,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2008/200810/news10/20081010‐13ee.html.
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Toseethebandinitsentirety,thevisitormuststandinsidethemonumentitselfandis
confrontedwiththedynamicchargeofthefiguresanddwarfedbythegreatstonefists
overhead.Thisthunderingviewingexperiencecombinedwiththenarrativereliefs
effectivelyassertthemythandmightoftherulingWorkers’Partyanditsrolein
achievingKoreanfreedomfromcolonialrule.
ThenarrativewithintheNamibianmuraliscontinuous(Fig.44andFig.45),but
ismeanttorepresentfiveseparatesceneschroniclingthejourneytowardsself‐rule.An
onlineNamibianguideidentifieseachsceneas:“theawakeningoftheindependence
ideal(Fig.46),politicalmobilizationofthemasses(Fig.47),startofthearmedstruggle
(Fig.48),intensificationofthestruggleandfinally(Fig.49),achievementof
independenceitself(Fig.50).”58Thisguideindicatesthatthefinalscene,the
achievementofindependence,is“depictedbyaflag‐bearingsoldiermarchingatthe
headofacolumnofmaleandfemalesoldiers.”59Theguidedoesnot,however,notethe
strikingresemblancebetweentheflagbearerinthefinalsceneandFoundingPresident
SamNujoma.
ExceptforthelikenessofSamNujomaleadingthevictorioussoldiers,the
mural’siconographicalreferencesaregeneralized.Forexample,inthefirstsection,the
awakeningoftheindependenceideal,figuresrepresentingHereroandHimbaethnic
tribes,areshownenslaved,somecrawling,visiblydefeated,andburdenedunderthe
weightofcolonialrule.Theslopeoftheirbacksleadstheeyetothenextscene,the
58NamibiaHeroes’AcreMonument.http://my‐beautiful‐namibia.com/heroes‐acre‐monument.html(accessedonDecember12,2010).59Ibid.
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politicalmobilizationofthemasses.EmblematicplantsassociatedwiththeNamibian
desertenvironment,suchasthecenturyplant,areshownatthebaseofthefirst
throughthirdscenes.Weaponsdepictedthroughoutthefinalfourscenesofthemural
representthevariousarmamentsoftheliberationforces,includingAK47s,grenades
andabazooka.Thesoldiersthemselvesappearsimilarinphysiqueandfacial
expressions,liketheminimallyvariedfiguresinthedioramasorotherbronzereliefs
producedbytheMansudaeArtStudioinPyongyang.
Thenarrativeemphasisinthelastthreescenesisclearlyfocusedonsoldiersand
guerillaeffortsintheachievementofindependence,whichisrepresentedinthelast
sceneofthemural.Thisvisualconnectionbetweenguerillafiguresandthenarrative
climaxinthefinalscenecanbeobservedintheformalarrangementofthefigures
behindtheflagbearer.Fiveofthesixfiguresdressedinmilitaryattiredirectlybehind
theflagbearerstareinunisonattheirleader.Behindthem,amotherandchildfollow
thegroupofsoldiers,clappingandraisingtheirarmsincelebration.Thechildpushesa
bouquetofflowersintothehandofasoldieratthebackofthegroup,theonlysoldier
notlookingtowardstheleader.Precedingthemotherandchildarethreefigures
wieldingguns,whopartiallyobscurethefrontsoftankspeakingoutoverplantsand
rockyoutcroppingsinthedistance.
Thebold,dynamically‐posedSocialistRealistfigurescredittheSWAPOliberation
forceswiththeattainmentofindependence.Asidefromthemural’ssecondscene,the
“politicalmobilizationofthemasses,”wherethreefiguresareshownwiththeirhands
placedontopofeachotheroveraschematicglobe,referencestoResolution435orthe
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internationalmediationofthetransferofpowerareabsentinthestylizedaccountof
thestruggle.Instead,theconnectionbetweenguerillafightingandindependenceis
championedandassertedwithinthemural,suchasinthethirdscene,whichfeaturesa
soldierholdingaflagandraisingaclenchedfist.
ReinhartKösslerinterpretstherelief’snarrativeaseitheranimageofaunified,
nationalcollectiveopposingexternalrule,orasareferencetotheendofcolonialism
broughtbyanarmyinexile,butnotesthatbothinterpretationsadvancea“militarist
view”oftheliberationstruggle.60Historically,however,SWAPO'sarmedliberation
struggle,thoughitdidhave“amajorimpactonthecourseofdecolonization,”wasnot
thedecisivefactorintheachievementofindependence.61Rather,thetransferofpower
fromSouthAfricatotheSWAPO‐ledgovernmentcameaboutafterayear‐long
transitionsupervisedbytheUnitedNationsandguidedbyUnitedNationsSecurity
CouncilResolution435.62
Insum,thevisualpanoplyofreferencestothemilitarizedmembersofthe
independencemovementattheHeroes’Acre,exemplifiedthroughthenarrativerelief
thatforegroundstheroleofmilitaryleadersinachievingindependence,andthe
UnknownSoliderwholooksouttowardstheprosperousurbancapitalfromthe
monument’sapex,asserttheimportanceofSWAPOinachievingNamibianfreedom.A
NorthKoreanvisualrhetoricwasusedtoarticulatethisassertionofpowerbythe
SWAPOelitetocreatealastingmemorialtohonorandpromotetheachievementsof
60Kossler,“FacingaFragmentedPast:Memory,CultureandPoliticsinNamibia,”370.61MelberandSaunders,“ConflictMediationinDecolonisation:Namibia'sTransitiontoIndependence,”76.62Bauer,“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?,”35.
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theSWAPOrevolutionaryfiguresintheindependencestruggle,linkthecurrentregime
totheirefforts,andinspirearecognitionofasharedhistoryforthosevisitingthesite.
ThesecondworkdesignedandbuiltbytheMansudaeOverseasProjectinthe
capitalcitywasthenewNamibianStateHouse(Fig.51).Commissionedin2002,the
buildingofthenewStateHousetookfiveandahalfyearsandwascompletedinMarch
of2008.Itwasinauguratedwithmuchfanfare,andtheceremonyincludedaspeechby
KimYongNam,whotraveledtoNamibiafortheoccasion.ThenewStateHouseinspired
afairamountofcontroversy,muchofwhichsurfacedinWindhoekdailynewspapers
suchasTheNamibian,althoughonlysomeofitrelatedtothecommissioningofaNorth
Koreandesignfirmfortheproject.ByanymeasurethenewStateHouseisgrandiose,
withamenitiessuchasamusicalfountain,amassiveundergroundparkingareaand
collectionsoflife‐sizedanimalsculpturesdispersedthroughoutthegrounds(Fig.52–
Fig.54).63ThebuildingitselfislocatedoutsideofthecitycenterintheWindhoek
suburbofAuasblick,andrequiredtheexpropriationofsomefiftypropertiesforsecurity
purposes.ThecosttotheNamibiancitizensquicklyexceededfromoriginalestimates,
fuelingangerthatthegovernmentwasactingirresponsiblywhennearlyathirdofthe
populationlivedinpoverty.64Thefactthatthebuildingprojectbeganinthemiddleof
Nujoma’sthirdterminofficealsopromptedspeculationthatheintendedtocontinue
onasPresidentforafourthterm.Finally,thatNorthKoreanworkersfirmmadeupthe
majorityofthelaborforceforthebuildingprojectprovokedfurthercriticisms.When
63Dynes,Michael,“PalacePadforPeople’sHero.”TheTimes(London),June23,2004.64BusinessDay,“Namibia;NujomaBuildsforFourthTerm.”AfricaNews,October3,
2003.
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theprojectbeganin2003therewere176workersonsite,onlyforty‐fourofwhichwere
Namibiancitizens.65Thenumberofcontroversiessurroundingthebuildingofthenew
StateHouseunderscoresthefactthatthecommissionofMansudaeOverseasProject
forthejobwasnotachoiceofconvenience.Rather,thedecisionreflectsacleardesire
onthepartoftheformerNamibianPresidenttohavetheNorthKoreanfirmcomplete
thecommission,oneindicativeofhisfondnessfortheauthority,modernityand
monumentalityexpressedinMansudae‐designedworks.
ThedesignoftheNamibianStateHousedisplaysmyriadinfluencesfromextant
worksinNorthKorea,onesespeciallyvisiblewithinitsinterior.Elementssuchas
terrazzoflooring,extensiveuseofgranite,large‐scalepaintingsoftheNamibian
landscape,andtheincorporationoficonicplantspeciesallborrowfrommotifscommon
withinNorthKoreanvisualculture.AswiththeHeroes’Acre,thebold,symbolically‐
ladenMansudaedesignofferedaclearstrategyforinscribingnationalisticcontent
withinthenewStateHouse.
LawrenceValenotestheimportanceofstraightforward,legiblearchitectural
statementsfornewregimesassertingtheirlegitimacyandidentityfollowingtheir
election.Hewrites:“…forrulersoffledglingcountries,inwhichquestionsaretoomany
andanswersareatapremium,theprospectofabuildingthatfailstocontribute
unambiguouslytotheconsolidationofrulemaybeunsettling.”66Vale’semphasisonthe
importanceofbuildingsthatunambiguouslycontributetothelargerprojectofa
65TheNamibian,“Namibia;Governmenthas‘NoClue’OnFinalCostsofNewState
House”AfricaNews,September26,2003.66 Vale,Architecture,PowerandNationalIdentity,328.
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nationalidentityfavorabletoanewregimehasparticularrelevancetoconsiderationsof
theappealofNorthKoreandesignedworksforpostcolonialgovernmentsinAfrica.
Mansudaedesigns,asseenintheHeroes’Acre,emphasizeunderstandable,
iconographically‐richdesigns,andofferaunique,suitablemeansforcreating
“unambiguous”architecturalworksthatbothdeclarethepowerofanewregimeand
alignthemwiththeexpressionofnationalisticcontent.
ThattheNamibiangovernmentbuiltthelavishnewStateHousetoinspire
nationalisticsentimentandloyaltytothenewregimeisconfirmedinthevariouspublic
statementsmadeinresponsetoprotestsfromparliamentaryrepresentativesandthe
citizenryabouttheescalatingcostsfortheproject.Forexample,whenprobedabout
thecostoftheStateHousebytheoppositionpartyMinisterofPresidentialAffairs
AlbertKwanatoldtheNationalAssembly:
“TheNewStateHouseis–becauseofourbackground–asymbolofNamibia’sSovereignty,ofourhistoryandourstruggle.TheGovernmentthereforetookthedecisiontoexpressourhistoryandourstruggle,tohonourourheroesandheroinesandforebears.ThatiswhywecallittheHouseofthePeople.PeoplewillappreciateourfreedomwhentheyseethenewStateHouse.”67
InthisstatementtheMinisterbothjustifiedtheproject’scost,andremindedthe
readersoftheGovernment’sroleinthestruggleasameansofaffirmingitslegitimacy.
AlsoofnoteisthatinthestatebudgettheallocationforthenewStateHouseprojectis
67BrigitteWeidlich,“CostlyNewStateHouse,notonly‘HouseofthePeople’,butStruggleSymbol:Kwana,”TheNamibian,April18,2008.
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listedundertheheadingof“protectinganddefendingtheConstitution,”ansection
designatingprovisionsforthemaintenanceofpeace,stabilityandgoodgovernance.68
AsinthecaseoftheHeroes’AcrevisualparallelsexistbetweentheNamibian
StateHouseandsimilarprojectsinPyongyang.TheNamibianStateHouseinterior
recallselementsfoundintheGrandPeople’sStudyHouse,theKumsusanMemorial
Palace,andthePyongyangMaternityHospital.Forexample,commontotheNamibian
StateHouseandthegrandbuildingsofPyongyangaretheinlaidfloralpatternsthat
radiateoutfromthecenterofstonefloors.Examplesofsuchcirculardesignsarefound
onfloorsintheCredentialArearoomandtheStateHouseMediaBriefingroominthe
NamibianStateHouse(Fig.55andFig.56).ThedesignintheCredentialAreadisplays
alternatingdarkandlight“s”curvedlinesthatspiraloutfromarosettecentertocreate
adynamicpatternthatseemstoreferencenature.FloorsintheGrandPeople’sStudy
House,andthePyongyangMaternityHospital(Fig.57andFig.58)aresimilarly
symmetricalandderivedfromnature.However,thePyongyangexamplesdisplayclear
subjectmatter,suchasbotanicalmotifs,andagreaterrangeofcolorsthandothe
Namibianfloors.Nevertheless,theNamibianworksundoubtedlyderivefromthis
popularmodeofadorningpublicbuildingsinPyongyang.
AnotheraestheticfeatureoftheNamibianStateHouserootedinthebombastic
visualcultureofNorthKoreaandothercommuniststatesistheuseofgrand
emblematiclandscapepaintingsandmosaics.Onesuchmosaiclandscapeappearsin
GrandPeople’sStudyHousebehindaseatedstatueofKimIlSung;thesubjectisthe
68LindsayDentlinger,“NewStateHouse‘todefendtheConstitution,’TheNamibian,May17,2005.
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iconiccraterlakeonMt.Paektu,theholymountainofrevolution(Fig.59).69Depictions
ofthenaturallandscapewereapprovedassubjectmatterinthe1970s,whenKimJong
Ildeclaredthat:“TheideaofdescribingnatureinaSocialistcountryistopromote
patriotism,heightennationalprideandconfidenceoflivinginaSocialistcountry.”70This
statementbyKimJongIlunderscorestheimportantrelationshipthatNorthKoreans
havewiththeirphysicallandscapeandthevalueattachedtoitasanartisticsubject.71
Suchlandscapesalsoserveasbackdropsforofficialphotographswithstatevisitors.For
example,duringhisstatevisittoNorthKorea,BillClintonwasphotographedwithKim
JongIlinfrontofalargemuralofacrashingwaterfall(Fig.60).72Astatephotographof
NujomaandNorthKoreanofficialswastakeninfrontasimilarmuralduringaprevious
visitmadebyNujoma(Fig.61).
RepresentativescenesofNamibia’slandscapesuchasRucanaFalls,FishRiver
Canyon(Fig.62andFig.63),EpupaFalls(Fig.64andFig.65),andtheSpitzkopperock
formation(Fig.66)werepaintedbyMansudaeartistsandfigureprominentlywithinthe
69BrianMyersdisucssesthissymbolofthebirthplaceoftheKoreanraceandafrequentlydepictednationallandmark.B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,76.Seealso:JanePortal.ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,60.70JanePortal.ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,124.71Foranin‐depthdiscussionofNorthKoreaninterpretationsandusesoflandscapessee:B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,73;seealsoPeterAtkins’post‐structuralistinterpretationoflandscapehistoryin:“ASéancewiththeLiving:theIntelligibilityoftheNorthKoreanLandscape”inNorthKoreaintheNewWorldOrder,(NewYork:St.Martin’sPress,1996):196‐211.72CrashingwavesarefrequentlyusedinNorthKoreanpaintingsasametaphorfortheaggressionandhostilityoftheoutside(particularyWestern)world.Theirbreakingalongthecoastassceneinthisimageismeantasareferencetotheineffectualityofsuchonslaughts.See:B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,photographicinsert13.
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StateHouseinterior.73ThesepaintingsrepresenthighlightsoftheNamibianlandscape,
withoutindicationofhumanpresence.Thescenesarecroppedcloselytoemphasizethe
powerofthefallingwaterandarchingdunes,andeffectivelyassociatethegrandeurof
theNamibianlandscapewiththepostcolonialgovernment.
AssigningNorthKoreanstopaintscenesoftheNamibianlandscapeforState
HousedecorationisperhapsoneofthemostsurprisingdecisionsmadebyNamibian
officialsorchestratingthecommission.Thearid,desertexpansesoftheNamibian
landscapearefamiliartropesofNamibianpaintingsofthepastcentury,exemplifiedin
theworksofearlytwentieth‐centuryartistssuchasAlfredJentsch(Fig.67andFig.68)
andmorecontemporaryartistssuchasChristineMarais.74Inaddition,Namibiahasa
vibrantartscommunity,asevidencedbythenumberofartistsworkingandexhibitingin
WindhoekandothercitiessuchasthecoastalmunicipalityofSwakopmund.In
Windhoekalonetherearetwoinstitutionsthatprovideartseducation:theDepartment
ofArtattheUniversityofNamibiaandtheKataturaCenterforthearts,whosestudents
workinavarietyofmediaandreceiverigoroustrainingthroughtheirrespective
73Economist,The,“NewStateHousetoopenonIndependenceDay.”TheEconomist
(Namibia),March20,2008.74ItisimportanttonotethatevenifthegovernmentrejectedtheuseofartworksmadebyNamibianartistsofEuropeandescentforthenewStateHousetherewereanumberofotherartistswhoseworktheycouldhaveusedinstead.Forexample,theworkofprominent,prolificblackartistssuchasJohnMuafangejoorJosephMadisiacouldhavebeenchosentodecoratetheStateHouse,andassuch,effectivelysupportedthoseNamibiansdisadvantagedunderthecolonialadministration’sapartheidrule.Foranin‐depthdiscussionofthehistoryoflandscapepaintinginNamibiasee:AdelheidLilienthal,AnnaleenEins,andJoRogge,ArtinNamibia:NationalArtGalleryofNamibia,1‐7.
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curricula.75Thus,localartistsmighthavebeengiventhecommissions.Another
alternativewasborrowingfromtheNationalGalleryofArtinWindhoek,whichhasa
largepermanentcollectionrichwithworkfromNamibianartists,rangingfromtradition‐
basedtocontemporaryworksindifferentmedia.76Presumablysomeoftheseworks
couldhavebeenloanedtotheStateHouse,aswasdonepreviouslyforvariousministry
offices.77
ThelobbyoftheStateHousefeaturesalargepaintingdepictingthefirst
NamibianCabinet.Large‐scaleportraitsofKimIlSungandKimJongIlmaybecounted
amongtheimmediateprecedentsforthiswork(Fig.69andFig.70).Suchportraits
typicallydisplaythetwoleaderstogetherwithinanaturalsetting,sometimeswith
emblematicplantspeciessuchastheKimilsungia,aspecialnewhybridcultivaroforchid,
andtheKimjongilia,aspecialbegonia,namedinhonoroftheleaders;themagnolia,the
nationalfloweroftheDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea;andtheazalea,theflower
oftherevolution(Fig.71andFig.72).
ThegroupportraitoftheNamibianleadersextendsthelengthofthewalland
presents:SamNujoma,HifikepunyePohama,HageGeingob(thefirstPrimeMinisterof
75ManyoftheKataturastudentsaredisadvantagedandhadthegovernmentwantedtosupportanon‐elitegroupofstudetnsttheycouldhavedoneso.76TheprevalenceofdesertscenesandotherdepictionsoftheNamibiannaturalenvironmentpaintedbyNamibianartistsbegantodiminishtowardstheendofthe1970s,whentastesestablishedbyEuropeanpaintersandpatronslostmuchoftheirinfluence.The1970swereatumultuoustimepoliticallyandassuchmanyartistsbegantomoveawayfromedenisticdepictionsofthecountrysideintheirworktosubjectswithpoliticalcontentandorthatcouldotherwiseconveytensionandunease.See:NationalArtGalleryofNamibia,AdelheidLilienthal,AnnaleenEins,andJoRogge,ArtinNamibia:NationalArtGalleryofNamibia(Windhoek:TheGallery,1997):6.77Personalcommunication,AnnaleenEins,August15,2010.
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Namibia),Theo‐BenGurirab(whoreplacedHageGeingobasPrimeMinisterandnow
servesasSpeakeroftheNationalAssemblyofNamibia),BenandLibertinaAmathilia
(bothpreviouscabinetandNationalAssemblymembers),HidipoHamutenya(former
cabinetandNationalAssemblymember),GertHanekom(FormerFinanceMinister)and
othersagainstaNamibianlandscapewithlacesofWelwitschialeavesintheforeground
(Fig.73).78Allpersonspictured,inadditiontotheirserviceinthepostcolonial
government,werealsoimportantfigureswithinSWAPOpriortoindependence,and
many,suchasHageGeingob,continuetoholdofficerpositionswithintheparty.The
inclusionofthisportraitwithinthenewstatehouseeffectivelyequatesmembersofthe
SWAPOelitewiththerealizationofthenew,postcolonialgovernment.Referencesto
Resolution435orotherNamibiansinvolvedintheinternationally‐mediatedtransferof
powerfromSouthAfricaareabsentwithinstatehousedecoration,privilegingthe
effortsofSWAPOeliteinthenarrativeofthenation’sfoundingoverlessglamorous
diplomaticefforts.
AthemeofthenewNamibianStateHousewassaidtobetheWelwitschiaplant,
apeculiarplantspecies,knownlocallyas“n’tumbo,”or“onionofthedesert,”uniqueto
theNamibDesertinnorthwesternNamibia(Fig.74).79AnadultWelwitschiaconsistsof
onlytwoleaves,astembaseandroots,butcangrowtooverametertallandeight
meterswide.TheWelwitschialeavesarethelongest‐livedintheplantkingdom,withan
averagelifespanbetween500‐600yearsandthelargestspecimensupto2000yearsof
78Sibeene,Petronella.“Namibia:StateHouseInauguratedinStyle.”NewEra,March25,2008.79Senters,AnnaE.“WelwitschiamirabilisCultivation.”AERGENewsletter,Vol.10(2)Summer1997p.5.
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age.80Thelong‐lifeandenduranceoftheWelwitschiaaswellasitsendemismtothe
NamibDesertmaketheWelwitschiaanidealbotanicalsymbolforthenewnation.
Theideaofintegratingasymbolicplantintothestatehousedesignmaywell
havecomefromNorthKoreawhereemblematicplantssuchasthemagnoliaandazalea
areubiquitousinthedesignsoftheofficialMansudaeprojectsinPyongyang.For
instance,theKimilsunigaandthemagnoliaareincludedinthecarvedbasketsofflowers
thatdecoratethebothsidesoftheJucheTower,representingthepeople’sdesireto
bringtheJucheideaintobloom(Fig.75).81
TheomnipresenceoftheWelwitschiaintheNamibianStateHouseismost
clearlyobservedinthegoldenemblemsadorningtheexteriorfencesandwalls,and
cabinetdoors(Fig.76–Fig.79).TheWelwitschiaplantalsofeaturesprominentlyina
paintingintheStateHousebanquethall(Fig.80andFig.81).Situatedbehindthehead
table,thispaintingincludesthreedifferent‐sizeddepictionsoftheplant,withthelargest
extendingthelengthofthewall.Theplantsareisolatedfromanyparticularcontext,set
againstastarkbluebackground,whichpushesthemforwardwithinthepictureplane.
Theseparationoftheplantspeciesfromitsnaturaldesertenvironmentsuggestsits
interpretationasarecognizableemblemoftheNamibiannation.Again,whilethe
WelwitschiaplantisspecificallyNamibian,itsuseasarecurringmotifrecallsNorth
KoreanpracticeandrepresentsanotherwayinwhichthevisualcultureofPyongyang
wasabsorbedandrecastforNamibia.
80Notten,Alice.“Welwitschiamirablis.”KirstenboschNationalBotanicalGarden.
Kirstenbosch:CapeTown,March2003.81JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,92;44.
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LawrenceVale,inhisdiscussionofpostcolonialcapitaldesigns,acknowledges
thatforeignarchitects,inadaptingtheirdesigns“tothechallengesofculturalpluralism”
mustoftenmake“visibleassumptionsaboutthesocialandculturalpreferencesoftheir
clients.”82InsinglingouttheWelwitschiaasasignifieroftheNamibiannation,the
MansudaedesignforegroundsaesthetictropescommontoNorthKoreanvisualculture,
andindoingso,formulatesculturallyspecificsymbolsthathavelittlerelationto
contemporaryNamibianculture.FredericFreschidescribesthe“incorporationof
regionalelementsascodingdevices”asan“attempttoengageasenseofplace,”yet
acknowledgesthatalltoooften,thisresultsinclichédportrayalsofan“‘African
aesthetic’”insteadofindigenousreferences.Thispracticeisexemplifiedthroughthe
indiscriminate,widespreadintegrationoftheWelwitschiaplantsintheStateHouse
design,andalsothroughtheanimalsculpturesadorningthegroundsthatencirclethe
building.Sculpturesofelephants,zebras,oryxandothercommonAfricanmammals,in
anattempttoculturallylocatetheNamibianStateHouse,endupdrawingattentionto
thetouristicartificeofthesymbolicprogramcharacterizingtheNorthKoreandesign.
OtherparallelsbetweentheinteriordecorationoftheNamibianStateHouseand
MansudaeprojectsinPyongyangincludethemosaicoftheNamibianflag(Fig.82and
Fig.83),andextravagantchandeliers(Fig.84).ThemosaicdepictingtheNamibianflag
thatadornsthewalloftheCabinetRoommightbecomparedtomanymosaicmurals
decoratingPyongyangbuildings.MosaicsareaspecialtyoftheMansudaeArtStudio,
82 Vale,Architecture,PowerandNationalIdentity,322
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andfigureprominentlywithinthevisualcultureofPyongyang,includingtheMetro.83
Also,thedomedceilinginthecabinetchambersandtheornamentalchandeliersinthe
cabinetareasaswellasbanquethallrecallthelightingdesigninMansudaebuildings
suchastheGrandPeople’sStudyHouse(Fig.85)andthePyongyangsubwaystations.
AnothercharacteristicofthePyongyangbuildingssharedbytheStateHouseisthe
extensiveuseofcostlypolishedstonefloors,pillarsandwalls.IntheNamibianState
House,theMansudaedesignersuseddifferentcolorsofgranite–back,greenand
maroon–foreachfloorofthebuilding.84Theseexamplesattesttobreadthof
correlationsbetweeninteriordesignmotifswithintheNamibianStateHouseandwith
otherprojectscompletedbytheMansudaeArtStudioinPyongyang.
Takentogether,thenumerouswaysthattheHeroes’AcreMonumentandthe
newNamibianStateHouserecastthevisualcultureofPyongyangtosuittheNamibian
contextarestriking.BothNamibianprojectsareofparticularnationalsignificance:the
StateHouseemblematicofthenewnationanditsindependentgovernment,andthe
Heroes’AcremonumentatributetoNamibia’sstruggleforself‐rule.Theaesthetic
outsourcingoftheirdesignswasacontroversialdecision,andultimatelyrepresentsa
concertedefforttoreplicatethepowerofPyongyang’svisualcultureinNamibiaforthe
purposesofimprintingtheauthorityandlegitimacyofthepost‐colonialgovernment
withinthepublicsphereandbyextensionthepublicconsciousness.
83JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,148.84CatherineSasman,“Namibia:NewStateHouseforNewNation,”NewEra,March20,2008.
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IV.IndependenceMemorialMuseum
ThemostrecentNamibiancommissiongiventotheMansudaeOverseasProjectisthe
IndependenceMemorialMuseum,whichisscheduledtobecompletedintheSummer
of2011(Fig.86).85Thisgrandioseconcretetower,identifiedbytheNamibianMinistryof
PublicWorksasthesecondphaseoftheoftheHeroes’Acreproject,wasoriginally
plannedtoopeninMarchof2010incommemorationofthetwentiethanniversaryof
Namibia’sIndependencefromSouthAfrica,butconstructionwasputonholddueto
budgetaryconcerns.86
BoththeHeroes’AcreandthenewNamibianStateHousevisuallyassertthe
authorityoftherulingSWAPOpartythroughtheuseofaestheticprogramsborrowed
frommonumentsandbuildingsinPyongyang,butthisprocessisevenmoreovertinthe
IndependenceMemorialMuseum.Whiletheformeremployelementsoftheimported
visualculture,theynonethelessincorporateNamibianreferencesintotheirsubject
matterandasserttheauthorityoftherulingSWAPOpartyinclear,yetnuancedways.
TheIndependenceMuseum,however,isfirstandforemostanaggressivesymbolof
nascentnationalismandtheNamibiangovernment’striumphoverthecolonialregime.
ThesitechosenforthismuseumisthehighestpointincentralWindhoek,atthe
intersectionofRobertMugabeandFidelCastrostreetsadjacenttotheiconicGerman
colonialChristuskirche.Theplacementofthemuseuminthislocationnotonlyspeaksto
thegovernment’sdesirenotonlytoestablishnewvisualidentitiesfortheyoungNation,
85“Namibia:MemorialMuseumGettingOfftheGround,”NamibiaEconomist,11September2009.86“IndependenceMemorialMuseum.”http://visitwindhoek.net/menu‐seedo/menu‐museums/menu‐independence(accessedonOctober19,2010).
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butalsoconstitutesametaphoricalconfrontationwithiconsofthecolonialperiod.The
museumcanbeseenthroughoutthecity,anditsstark,solidformforcefullychallenges
thecurvaceousfaçadeofthechurch(Fig.87).87Thistypeoficonoclasticpractice
directedatcolonialstructureshasampleprecedentoutsideofNorthKorea,nonetheless
thevisualforceMansudaedesignisaparticularlyeffectivemeansofachievingthisaim.
AlongwiththeIndependenceMuseum’saggressivejuxtapositionwiththe
GermancolonialChristuskirche,thechoiceofsitealsorepresentsanassertionof
authoritybycurrentregimeovertheformercolonizers.Inordertobuildthemuseumon
thisspot,officialshadtodismantleandrelocateanotablesculpturecommemorating
Germanwarvictory,the“Reiterdenkmal.”Thesculpture,amanwithoutstretchedarm
mountedonahorseoverlookingthecityofWindhoek,wasinauguratedinJanuaryof
1912asaremembrancetotheGermanSchutztruppesoldiersthatdiedduringthewar
againsttheHereroandNamapeoplesofnorthernNamibia(Fig.88andFig.89).88
Althoughformanymovingthisstatuethiswasareprehensibleactagainstamonument
thatwaspartofmodernNamibianhistory,89forothersitrepresentedawelcomephase
87NamibianarchitectJacobWasserfalloriginallytookpartinthegovernmentmeetingsreviewingthedesignproposalfromtheMansudaeOverseasProjectfortheIndependenceMuseum.AthissuggestionthatthegovernmentconsiderusinganexistingstructureacrosstheroadfromtheMuseum’scurrentlocationWasserfallwastoldbySamNujomathattheIndependenceMuseumwastobetallerthananycolonialstructure,andassuchhissuggestionwasnotadequateforthecommission.JacobWasserfall,PersonalCommunication,13August2010.88ChristofMaletsky,“CityIcontoTakeLastRide,”TheNamibian,October6,2008.89NamibiamaintainscloseandcordialrelationswiththeGermangovernmentandtheresomefearedthatthisactionagainstthestatuewouldbeviewedunfavorablybyGermanofficialsandperhapsmoreimportantly,Germantourists.See:BrigitteWeidlich,“Let’sNotMoveHistory,DTALeaderProposes,”TheNamibian,December6,2008.
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ofthedecolonizationprocess.90Ultimately,themonumentwasmoved,butnotfar.It
nowstandsabout100yardstothenorthinfrontofthestateAlteFestehistorymuseum,
anotherstructureerectedbyGermancolonizers(Fig.90andFig.91).Nonetheless,the
symbolicvalueofitsdisplacementtomakewayfortheIndependenceMuseum,in
concertwiththedwarfingoftheemblematicChristuskirche,wasaboldrepudiationof
thepast.
TheNamibianInstituteofArchitects(NIA)wasoneofthemanyvoicesin
oppositiontothemoveoftheReiterdenkmaltomakewayfortheIndependence
Museum.Thearchitectsassociationbelievedthattheselectionofasiteinthe
Windhoekbusinessdistrictwasinappropriateforamuseumdedicatedto
commemoratingthenation’sindependence.ThePresidentoftheNIA,PaulMunting,
speakingonbehalfoftheInstitute,urgedthegovernmenttoconsideranalternative
locationoutsideofdowntownWindhoek:
“TakingthemuseumtoKatutura,Mondesa(Swakopmund)orKuisebmond(WalvisBay)91wouldmeanitwouldformpartofthedailylivesofthosewhowereinthestruggle.AtpresenttherearefewincentivesavailabletodrawtouriststoKatuturaandasaconsequencethetouristexpenditureinWindhoekisconcentratedinthecentralbusinessdistrictandsurrounds.”92
Thearchitect’sfeelingsregardingthismatterwerealsorepresentedbyothersinthe
publicmedia.Oneeditorial,writteninresponsetothearticlepublishedinTheNamibian
90See:PhanuelKaapama,“MemoryPolitics,TheReiterdenkmalAndTheDe‐colonizationoftheMind”TheNamibianAugust22,2008.91SwakopmundandWalvisBayarecitiesontheNamibiancoast;MondesaandKuisebmondarebothtownships(informalsettlementareas)withinthesecities.92ChristofMaletsky,“ArchitectsSayMoveofMonument‘flawed’”,TheNamibian,July
17,2008.
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thatoutlinedthearchitect’sobjections,states:“[themuseum]isrightinthemiddleof
thegovernmentandadministrativearea,awayfromtheverypeoplewhosefreedomit
issupposedtorepresent.”93Asprecedentforthelocationofculturallysignificant
monumentsinhistoricallydisadvantagedareas,thearchitectscitedtwomuseumsin
SouthAfrica:theRedLocationMuseumintheNelsonMandelaMunicipality(Port
Elizabeth)andtheHectorPietersenMuseuminSoweto,Johannesburg.94
Thearchitectsalsovoicedconcernovertheprocessthroughwhichthe
museum’sdesignwaschosen.TheNIAmembersandmanyothersobjectedtothe
absenceofanopenarchitecturalcompetitionforthedesign,andfailuretosolicit
qualifiedNamibianarchitects.Moreover,thesecrecysurroundingthedesignplansuntil
theywereapprovedwas,formany,anaffronttothespiritoftheproposedproject.
Localarchitects,suchasNinaMaritz,pointtothenewlyerectedConstitutional
CourtinSouthAfricaasanexampleofhowtheNamibiangovernmentmighthave
awardedofthecommissionfortheIndependenceMuseum.Inthiscase,thedesign
submittedbyateamofSouthAfricanarchitectswaschosenfromapoolofinternational
anddomesticproposalsinanopencompetition.Informationaboutthenationalitiesof
thearchitectswasnotmadeavailabletothepanelofjudgespriortotheirselection,and
finalistswerechosensolelyonthemeritsoftheirdesign.Oncethefinalistshadbeen
pickedthedesignsweresubmittedtothepublicforcomment,andtheirinputwas
93“AppropriateMemorial,InappropriateSite”TheNamibian,June13,2008.94Ibid.
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weighedheavilyintheeventualawardingofthecommissiontotheSouthAfrican
architectsAndrewMakin,JaninaMasojadaandPaulWygers.95
ThedesignoftheSouthAfricanConstitutionalCourtincorporatesportionsofa
notoriousApartheideraprison,andindoingsoreferencesthestrugglesagainstpast
injusticesatthesametimeasitlookstowardsabrighterfuture.TothispointLaw‐
Viljoennotes:
ItistherealizationofthedreamofmanytohaveabuildinginthenewSouthAfricathatwouldcelebratetheidealsofaprogressiveConstitution,commemoratethesufferingandstrugglesofthecountry’spastwithoutslavishlydoingobeisancetohistoryandgivevisibleformtothebeliefthatallareequalbeforethelaw.96
ForarchitectssuchasMaritztheIndependenceMemorialMuseumlackssuchabalance
betweenrecognitionofthepastandcommemorationofthehopefulpresent,and
missesanopportunitytogiveNamibiancitizensachancetoengageincivicdiscourse
aboutthemeaningoftheirindependence,andtohelphealthelingeringwoundsofthe
apartheidpast.97Effectively,intheawardingofthecommissiontotheMansudaefirm,
Namibialostachancetobringitsdiversecitizenstogetherandinvolvetheminthe
processofcreatingamonumentrepresentativeoftheirpost‐colonialunity.
95BronwynLaw‐Viljoen,LightonaHill:BuildingtheConstitutionalCourtofSouthAfrica(Parkwood,SouthAfrica:DavidKrut,2006):796ibid.97NinaMaritz,PersonalCommunication,August112010.
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V.Conclusion
InMarchof2008KimYongNampaidanofficialstatevisittoWindhoekontheoccasion
oftheeighteenthanniversaryofNamibia’sindependenceandtoattendthe
inaugurationofthenewStateHouse.Asanhonoredguest,KimYongNamgavea
speech,andtogetherwithSamNujomaandcurrentPresidentHifikepunyePohamba,
unveiledatabletofpeacetoofficiallyopenthenewseatofthenationalgovernment.98
InhisaddressKimYongNampraisedthecontinuedpositiverelationsbetweenNorth
KoreaandNamibiaanddescribedthenewStateHouseasasymboloffriendship
betweenthetwocountries.99Hecontinued,declaringthattheStateHousehadsprung
fromthegoodrelationsfirstbegunbetweenKimIlSungandSamNujomaduringthe
Liberationstruggle.Reflectingthesesentiments,NamibianPresidentHifikepunye
PohambapraisedtheableNorthKoreantechniciansanddeclaredthattheStateHouse
wouldactasasymbolofthesovereigntyanddignityoftheNamibianpeople.Pohamba
alsoexpressedhisthankstotheNorthKoreaforitsmoralsupportandmaterialaid
duringNamibia’sstruggleforindependence.100
AjointcommuniquéfromthetwonationsdetailstheremainderoftheNorth
Koreanleader’sgoodwillvisit.ItnotesthatKimYongNamandhisdelegationvisitedthe
HeroesMonumentandlaidaceremonialwreathatthefootofthestatueofthe
98BBCMonitoringAsiaPacific–Political.“NorthKorea’sKimYongNamAttendsNamibiaEvents.”March21,2008.99JointCommunique.“JointcommuniqueissuedontheoccasionoftheofficialvisittotheRepublicofNamibiabyhisexcellency,KimYongNam,PresidentofthePresidiumoftheSupremePeople’sAssemblyoftheDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea.”100BBCMonitoringAsiaPacific–Political.“NorthKorea’sKimYongNamAttendsNamibiaEvents.”March21,2008.
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unknownsoliderandtraveledtoothersitesinWindhoek.101Inaddition,the
communiquéexpressesthatthevisitwasasuccessandrelaysKimYongNam’s
convictionthatthevisitmarksanimportantmilestoneindeepeningthefeelingsofthe
twopeoplesandgivinga“freshimpetustothebilateralrelations.”102Anofficial
invitationtovisitPyongyangwasalsoextendedtoPresidentPohamba.103
ThisaccountofrelationsbetweenNamibiaandNorthKoreaontheoccasionof
theStateHouseinaugurationrepresentsacommitmentonthepartofbothnationsto
strengthenthetiesthatbeganduringNamibia’syearsofstruggletoattain
independence.ThesenseofobligationfeltonthepartoftheNamibianleaderstowards
NorthKorealendssupporttotheargumentthatthecommissionoftheMansudae
OverseasProjectforthebuildingoftheHeroes’AcreMonument,StateHouseand
IndependenceMuseumrepresentsanactofcalculateddiplomacy.Yet,theremarkable
fidelitybetweentheNamibianworksandextantMansudaeworksinPyongyang
suggeststhatmotivationsforcommissioningtheNorthKoreanfirmextendedbeyond
fosteringfavorablerelationsandmoreclearlydemonstratedthegovernment’sdesireto
establishacollectivenationalidentitythrougharchitecturalworks,basedonasetof
memoriesfavorabletothepostcolonialgovernmentandapartfromWesternreferences.
101KoreanCentralNewsAgency.“WreathLaidbeforeHeroesCemeteryinWindhoek”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2008/200803/news03/24.htm102JointcommuniquéJointCommunique.“JointcommuniqueissuedontheoccasionoftheofficialvisittotheRepublicofNamibiabyhisexcellency,KimYongNam,PresidentofthePresidiumoftheSupremePeople’sAssemblyoftheDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea.”103Ibid.
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AsLawrenceValedescribes,edificesandmonumentsthataretoutedasbeing
representativeanation’sidentity,aretypicallyameansoffulfillingthreeotherneeds:
“theneedtore‐assertthesub‐nationalityofthesponsoringregimebyequatingitsown
specificethnicheritagewith‘thenational’;theneedtoextendinternationalidentity
throughstakingsomenewclaimtonoteworthymodernity;andtheneedtodevelopa
personalidentityoftheclientordesigner,whoviewsanysinglebuildingprojectasa
highlyindividualizedimprintofself.”104ViewedinrelationtotheNamibiancommissions,
hiringtheMansudaeOverseasProjectmaybeseenasanattempttomeetthefirsttwo
“needs”describedbyVale.TheforegroundingoftheSWAPOnarrativeinachieving
NamibianindependenceintheHeroes’Acreandthemural‐sizedportraitofSWAPOelite
againstanaturalized,NamibianlandscapeintheStateHouseportraitbothspeaktothe
desireforasub‐nationalentitytoequateitselfwiththe‘national.’Theerectionofanew
StateHouse,distinctfromoneusedduringthecolonialera,repletewithinnocuous,
clichédiconsintendedtoconveyasenseofNamibianidentityspeakstotheneedfora
commonmeansofforgingidentityandlegitimacywithinthedomesticaswellas
internationalspheres.Similarly,theindependencemuseum,whosedesignmakesitfirst
andforemostametaphoricalaffronttocolonialstructures,servesasadeclarativevoice
forthepowerandmightofthenewregimeinthepostcolonialera.
Insum,thispaperhasspeculatedonthemotivationsbehindtheawardingof
commissionsforthreeofthemostculturally‐significantbuildingsinWindhoektothe
MansudaeOverseasProject.Ihaveidentifiedtheuniquewaysinwhichthemonuments
104 Vale,Architecture,PowerandNationalIdentity,99.
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echothereverentialvisualcultureofPyongyang,andarguedthatthishadaprofound
impactonSamNujoma.Givenhisfamiliaritywiththecity,itispossibletoviewthe
monumentsinWindhoekasconsequencesofhisdesiretorealizeasimilarvisualregime
forhisownnation.Byexaminingthemechanismsthroughwhichthecommissionsare
realized,howthesitesarechosen,andhowthedesignswereselected,wecanseehow
worksinspiredbyNorthKoreaandproducedbyNorthKoreanartistsarebeingusedto
assertthepowerandauthorityofthepost‐colonialgovernmentinthepublicsphereas
wellasanationalisticsentimentbasedontheactionsoftheSWAPOelite.
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Figure 1: Independence Museum, viewed from Robert Mugabe Avenue, Windhoek. Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 2: View of Heroes’ Acre Memorial central “Unknown Soldier” sculpture, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 3: Aerial view of Namibian State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 4: Portrait of current President Hifikepunye Pohamba (left) and Founding President Sam Nujoma at Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Portraits of the two leaders appear together frequently in offices throughout the capital city of WindhoekSource: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 5: Sam Nujoma greets North Korean citizens during a diplomatic visit to North Korea. Accompanying caption read: “President Sam Nujoma on a visit to North Korea meets female soldiers, 1983.” Source: Namibian National Archives.
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Figure 6: Sam Nujoma with Kim Il-Sung in North KoreaSource: Namibian National Archives.
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Figure 8: View of Juche Tower from below.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaru-ka/2945684478/in/set-72157608060704314.
Figure 7: View of Juche Tower towards Grand People’s Study House.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaru-ka/3560068203/.
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Figure 9: Entrance to Martyr’s Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRKSource: http://www.flickr.com/photos/kernbeisser/424812977/.
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Figure 9: Entrance to Martyr’s Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRKSource: http://www.flickr.com/photos/kernbeisser/424812977/.
Figure 10: View of Entrance Gate, Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365871.
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Figure 11: View towards Cemetery, Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365874.
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Figure 12: Sculpture Group at Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365879.
Figure 13: Detail, Sculpture group at Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365877.
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Figure 14: Inscription from Kim Il Sung, Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365881.
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Figure 15: View of Martyr’s Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRKSource: http://www.flickr.com/photos/kernbeisser/424815605/.
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Figure 16: Side view of granite sculptures depicting revolutionary heroes, Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK
Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/2982123644/sizes/l/in/set-72157608451672128/.
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Figure 17: View of gravestones at Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK. Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365888.
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Figure 18: View of Kumsusan Memorial Palace, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365852.
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Figure 18: View of Kumsusan Memorial Palace, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365852.
Figure 19: Kim Il Sung statue at Kumsusan Memorial Palace, Pyongyang, DPRK. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/mytripsmypics/2520830134/.
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Figure 20: View of Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRK. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rawbean/180734835/.
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Figure 21: Interior, Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/stiofandebrun/3696810219/.
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Figure 23: View of gravestones, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia. Source: Photograph taken by Author.
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Figure 24: Bronze mural depicting Namibia’s struggle for independence, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia. Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 25: Entrance to Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 26: View of sculpture flanking entrance to Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 27: Stone sculpture symbolizing youth. Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 28: View of stadium seating, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 29: View of Heroes’ Medal, Eternal Flame and obelisk, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 30: View of graves from behind, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.
Source: Photograph taken by author.
Figure 31: Grave, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.
Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 32: View of Unknown Statue overlooking desert, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 33: Statue of the Unknown Solider, holding grenade an AK-47, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pyrex/2159653362/in/photo-stream/.
Figure 34:Side view of Unknown Soldier statue, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 35: Victory Monument, Victorious Fatherland Liberation War Memorial, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/langsx2/5104311451/sizes/z/in/photostream/.
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Figure 36: Rear view, Victory Monument, Victorious Fatherland Liberation War Memorial, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116357212.
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Figure 37: Victory Monument, Victorious Fatherland Liberation War Memorial, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116357218.
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Figure 38: Plaque reading “Glory to the Fallen Heroes and Heroines of the Motherland Namibia, Sam Nujoma, 26th August, 2002,” Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 39: View of the Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/3118941172/sizes/z/in/set-72157611400240356/.
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Figure 40: View of the Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/3118941354/sizes/z/in/set-72157611400240356/.
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Figure 41: View of interior relief, Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/3118941260/sizes/z/in/set-72157611400240356/.
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Figure 43: View of interior relief, Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/4037987541/sizes/z/in/set-72157611400240356/.
Figure 42: View of interior relief, Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116357440.
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Figure 44: First half of bronze mural depicting Namibia’s struggle for independence, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph taken by author.
Figure 45: Last half of bronze mural, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 46: First scene in bronze mural depicting Namibia’s independence struggle, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph taken by author.
Figure 47: Second scene in bronze mural depicting Namibia’s independence struggle, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 48: View of third scene, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph taken by the author.
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Figure 49: View of end of fourth scene and beginning of final scene, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by the author.
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Figure 50: Final scene of bronze mural depicting Namibia’s inpependence struggle, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia. Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 51: Entrance to State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 52: Animal sculptures in State House grounds, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Rebublikein.
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Figure 54: Animal sculptures (Oryx), State House entrance, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Rebublikein.
Figure 53: Animal sculptures at State House entrance, Windhoek, Namibia. Source: Courtesy of Die Rebublikein.
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Figure 55: Media Briefing Room, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Rebublikein.
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Figure 56: Credential Area, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 57: Floor, Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRKSource: Photo courtesy of Dr. Marsha Haufler.
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Figure 58: Pyongyang Maternity Hospital, Pyongyang, DPRK.Photo courtesy of Dr. Marsha Haufler.
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Figure 59: Kim Il Sung Statue, Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: Photography courtesy of Dr. Marsha Haufler
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Figure 60: President Bill Clinton and his delegation with Kim Jong Il.Source: http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/2009/08/09/2009-08-09_n_korea_leader_uses_bill_visit_to_groom_minikim.html.
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Figure 61: Accompanying caption read: “President Sam Nujoma establishing ties for the future SWAPO with North Korean leader (to his right), the late Kim Il Sung in Pyongyang, North Korea, 1986”Source: Namibian National Archives.
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Figure 62: Fish River Canyon Painting, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.
Figure 63: Fish River Canyon Painting, full view, State House, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 64: Epupa Falls Painting, State House,Windhoek, Namibia.
Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.
Figure 65: Epupa Falls Painting, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 66: Painting of the Namibian Spitzekopfe, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 67: Adolph Jentsch, Swarte Kuppe, 1941. Oil on canvas Collection of the National Gallery of Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
Figure 68: Adolph Jentsch, Landscape with Trees, 1941. Oil on canvas. Collection of the National Gallery of Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 69: Painting of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/langsx2/5126629140/sizes/z/in/set-72157625181417574/.
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Figure 70: Picture of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il in field of Kimilsungia and Kimjongilia flowers.Source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_dhZOqRGa-uA/RlyErOGbe4I/AAAAAAAAAAM/RLmf1hE_Et8/s1600-h/kimilsungia.
Figure 71: Kimjongilia flower.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pric-ey/478837511/sizes/z/in/photostream/.
Figure 72: Kimilsungia flower.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pric-ey/478837291/sizes/z/in/photostream/.
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Figure 73: Portrait of Namibian cabinet, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 74: Welwitschia, Namib desert, Swakopmund, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 75: View of carved Kimilsungia and magnolia flowers carved into side of Juche tower.Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.uriminzokkiri.com/Newspaper/english/JucheIdeaTower/PHOTO.HTM.
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Figure 76: Welwitschia adornments on exterior State House fence, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
Figure 77: View of exterior wall and Welwitschia adornments, State House,Windhoek, Namibia.
Source: Photograph taken by author.
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(Above) Figure 78: View of Cabinet Room, State House, Windhoek, Namibia
Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein
Figure 79: Welwitschia adornments on State House paneling, State House, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein
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Figure 80: Banquet Hall, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.
Figure 81:Wall Painting, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.
Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 82: View of mosaic of Namibian flag, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.
Figure 83:View of Cabinet Chamber Room, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 84: Chandelier in Cabinet Chamber Room, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.
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Figure 85: Chandelier, Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/stiofandebrun/3696810219/.
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Figure 86: View of Independence Museum in relation to the Christuskirche, Robert Mugabe Avenue, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 87: View of the Independence Museum from Independence Avenue, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
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Figure 88: Reiterdenkmal monument in its original location.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/53741353@N05/4970912133/sizes/z/in/photo-stream/.
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Figure 89: View of Reiterdenkmal monument in relation to the Christuskirche, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: http://www.flickr.com/photos/globe-photography/4244195080/sizes/z/in/photo-stream/.
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Figure 91: Reiterdenkmal in new location in front of Alte Feste Museum, Windhoek.Source: Photograph taken by author.
Figure 90: View of the Reiterdenkmal in its new location in front of the Alte Feste mu-seum, Robert Mugabe Avenue, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.
