Date post: | 06-May-2015 |
Category: |
Education |
Upload: | radio4freak |
View: | 770 times |
Download: | 1 times |
Money, get away Get a good job with more pay and your O.K.
Money, it's a gas Grab that cash with both hands and make a stash
New car, caviar, four star daydream, think I'll buy me a football team
Money get back,I'm all right Jack keep your hands off my stack.
Money, it's a hit Don't give me that do goody good bullshit
I'm in the hi-fidelity first class travelling set and I think I need a Lear jet
Money, it's a crime Share it fairly but don't take a slice of my pie
Money, so they sayIs the root of all evil today
But if you ask for a rise it's no surprise that they're giving none away
Pink Floyd (1973)
individuals at work: motivation
Why do we do something and not something else?
Why do we put effort into some things and not others?
Why do we persist in achieving some things and not others?
Three aspects of motivation
• Direction – what an individual chooses when they have a number of
alternatives
• Level– how much effort they will put into a given action
• Persistence– how long they will maintain focusing on the action
Today
Content Theories Why people work• Focus on peoples needs to understand what motivates• Focuses on why people have different needs at different times
Process Theories What factors affect motivation• Focus on understanding how and why people are motivated• Describes the process through which needs are translated into behaviour
Theories of motivation
Content Theories• Focus on peoples needs to understand what motivates• Focuses on why people have different needs at different times
Process Theories• Focus on understanding how and why people are motivated• Describes the process through which needs are translated into behaviour
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• What could organisations do to satisfy each need?
ChallengeAutonomyEducational opportunities
Self-Actualization
Job challenge and skill usagePayLeadership positionsAuthority
AchievementCompetencePower
Autonomy on the jobResponsibilityPay (as a symbol of status)Job TitlePrestige office location
Esteem
Coffee breaksSports teams and other extracurricular activitiesWork teams
Belongingness/Relatedness
Company housing or health benefitsCompany benefits planPensionsLife-long employment plansInsurance schemes
Safety / Security
PayMandatory breakfast or lunch
Physiological
Organisational conditionsNeed
Drawn from Furnham (2005)
ERG theory
– Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
– Collapses Maslow’s five categories into three categories
– Adds a frustration-regression hypothesis.
– More than one need category may be activated at the same time.
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
ERGTheory
Needs HierarchyTheory
Desire for physiological and material well-being.
Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships
Desire for continued personal growth and development
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
Satisfaction-Progression Frustration-Regression
ERG theory
– Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
– Collapses Maslow’s five categories into three categories
– Adds a frustration-regression hypothesis.
– More than one need category may be activated at the same time.
Research evidence on ERG theory.
– Supporting evidence is encouraging.
– Addition of frustration/regression hypothesis is a valuable
contribution.
– Offers a more flexible approach to understanding human needs.
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
No Satisfaction Satisfaction
Herzberg's view
Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
Herzberg (1966)
Traditional View
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
Herzberg (1966)
Necessary, but not sufficient, for healthy adjustment Extrinsic factors; context of work
Improving hygiene factors prevent people from being dissatisfied but do not contribute to
satisfaction.
Motivators - the sources of satisfaction Intrinsic factors; content of work
Enables people to be satisfied.Absence results in low satisfaction, low motivation, and low performance.
Hygiene Factors
Herzberg (1966)
Necessary, but not sufficient, for healthy adjustment Extrinsic factors; context of work
Improving hygiene factors prevent people from being dissatisfied but do not contribute to
satisfaction.
Examples
PayStatusJob securityFringe benefitsPolicies and administrative practicesHuman Relations
Motivators
Herzberg (1966)
Motivators - the sources of satisfaction Intrinsic factors; content of work
Enables people to be satisfied.Absence results in low satisfaction, low motivation, and low performance.
Examples
Meaningful and challenging workRecognition for accomplishmentsFeeling of achievementIncreased responsibilityOpportunity for growthOpportunity for advancement
Source: Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?” Harvard Business Review 81, no. 1 (January 2003), p. 90. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved.
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
Motivator--HygieneTheory
Motivators
Hygienes
ERGTheory
Needs HierarchyTheory
McClelland’s Need Theory
Need for Achievement (n Ach)
Need for Power (n Pow)
Need for Affiliation (n Aff)
McClelland’s Need Theory
Need for Achievement (n Ach)
– Want to take personal responsibility for solving problems.– Goal oriented; set moderate, realistic, attainable goals.– Seek challenge, excellence, and individuality.– Take calculated, moderate risk.– Desire concrete feedback on their performance.– Willing to work hard.
McClelland’s Need Theory
Need for Power (n Pow)
– Want to control the situation.– Want influence of control over others.– Enjoy competition and winning; do not like to lose.– Willing to confront others.
McClelland’s Need TheoryNeed for Affiliation (n Aff)
– Seek close relationship with others.– Want to be liked by others.– Enjoy lots of social activities.– Seek to belong; join groups and organizations.
Content Theories of Motivation
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
Motivator--HygieneTheory
Motivators
Hygienes
Need forAchievement
Need forPower
Need forAffiliation
McClelland’sLearned Needs
ERGTheory
Needs HierarchyTheory
Content Theories of Motivation
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
Motivator--HygieneTheory
Motivators
Hygienes
Theory Y
Theory X
ERGTheory
Needs HierarchyTheory
McGregor
Jahoda’s Latent Needs
Jahoda’s Latent Needs
Psychological distress in unemployed can inform us about needs employment satisfies
Jahoda’s (1982) Latent Needs
Work…• structures time• provides regular shared experience• provides experience of creativity, mastery, purpose• is a source of identity and personal status• is a source of activity
This week
Content Theories Why people work
• Focus on peoples needs to understand what motivates
• Focuses on why people have different needs at different times
Process Theories What factors affect motivation
• Focus on understanding how and why people are motivated
• Describes the process through which needs are translated into behaviour
Adams’ (1965) Equity Theory
• Drawn from economics
• Rational model of employee
• People strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges
• Perception of fairness affects behaviour
• Requires understanding of inputs and outputs
Equitably rewarded– Inputs and outputs are perceived as being equal– Satisfied and motivated
Adams’ (1965) Equity Theory
Under-rewarded (angry)– Efforts to reduce inequity by trying to increase
output (get a raise)– Reducing inputs (working less, absenteeism, etc.)– Rationalising (creating an explanation for the
inequity)– Changing other’s inputs or outputs– Leaving– Changing the object of comparison.
Adams’ (1965) Equity Theory
Over-rewarded (guilty)–Increasing inputs (working more, longer hours, etc.)
–Reducing output (taking a pay cut)
–Rationalising (I’m worth it)
–Increasing other’s outputs
Adams’ (1965) Equity Theory
Equity Theory
• Distributive Justice: The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed.
• Procedural Justice: The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions.
• Interactional Justice: The perceived fairness of the decision maker’s behavior in the process of decision making.
Lessons from Equity Theory
• Pay attention to what employees’ perceive to be fair and equitable
• Allow employees to have a “voice”
• Employees should have opportunity to appeal
• Organisational changes, promoting cooperation, etc. can come easier with equitable outcomes
• Failure to achieve equity could be costly
• Climate of justice
Goal Commitment
Goal Acceptance
Direction
Intensity
Persistence
Strategies
Goal Specificity
Ability
PerformanceKnowledge of
Results
Goal Theory (Locke & Latham, 2002)
goal
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Timely
What are the next actions required to move you closer?
What skills do you have and enjoy participating in those activities that
challenge and use those skills?
• Born in Hungary
• BA and PhD from University of Chicago
• Now at Claremont Graduate University
• Director of Quality of Life Research Centre
• Research:– Happiness
– Creativity
– Well-being
– “Optimal Experience”
– Flow
• Part of Positive Psychology movement
Flow
MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI
• Study of strengths and virtues
• Focus on development, thriving, flourishing & meaning
• 3 main concerns– Positive Emotions
• Contentment (past)
• Happiness (present)
• Hope (future)
– Positive Individual Traits• Strengths & Virtues
• E.g. Creativity, Resilience, Courage, etc.
– Positive Institutions• Focus on tolerance, fairness, ethics, teamwork, engagement, etc.
• In communities & Institutions (e.g., parenting, businesses, etc.)
Positive Psychology
The pleasant life
(well-being and positive affect)
The good life (identification and celebration on personal strengths & skills)
The meaningful life (participation in activities, greater good)
Positive Psychology
MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI
(1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience.
(1998). Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement With Everyday Life.
And many more…
Most people’s
live at two extremes
anxiety Boredom
Being in the zone
Effortless Action
Absorption
In the groove
Immersion
flow
At one
Flow - A state of optimal experience. Flow activities are done for their own sake and not for extrinsic rewards.
Flow is enjoyment, not pleasure.
It does not seem to be true that work necessarily needs to be unpleasant. It may always have to be hard, or at least harder than doing nothing at all. But there is ample evidence that work can be enjoyable, and that indeed, it is often the most enjoyable part of life.
Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience.
When?
23% several times a day - 15% Never
ESM (Experience Sampling Method)
Occurs during favourite activity (e.g., gardening, listening to music, cooking, work, driving, etc.)
Rarely occurs during passive leisure activities (e.g., watching TV, relaxing)
When?
More often during work than during free time!Work: Has goals, feedback, encourages concentration, matches skill (hopefully)
Where?
It is not what you do that counts, but how you do it.
Activities themselves are not intrinsically enjoyable or not, but you can do it in a way that is intrinsically rewarding
What?
Anxiety, Boredom and Flow (Csikszentmihalyi 1990 - Dots and text added: van Gorp 2006)
Attention:
Focus on taskLack of full attention results in- lack of appreciation of experience- missed opportunities for creativity & development
Creative favourable circumstancesReduce distraction
harn
ess
ing
flow
9 Components
1. Clear goals2. High degree of concentration on limited field of attention3. Loss of self-consciousness, the merging of action and
awareness4. A distorted sense of time5. Direct and immediate feedback, behaviour can be adjusted
accordingly6. Balance between ability level and challenge7. A sense of personal control over the situation8. Intrinsically rewarding action resulting in effortlessness of
action9. Focus of awareness is narrowed down to the activity itself h
arn
ess
ing
flow
Work Engagement
Work engagement• Vigor
(energy, persistence, effort)
• Dedication(enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, challenge)
• Absorbtion(engrossed, time passes, flow)
Schaufeli & Bakker (2004)
Burnout• Exhaustion
(draining of mental energy)
• Cynicism(negative attitude to work)
• Reduced professional efficacy(belief that one is no longer effective in fulfilling ones job responsibilities)
Lee & Ashforth (1996)
Intrinsic Motivation
• flow fits with Intrinsic Motivation research
• IM related to Job satisfaction
• EM related to depression
• Mastery Goals enhance IM
• Performance Goals reduce IM
Summary
• Motivation is complicated
• Competing models – but…
“…the recommendations to raise and sustain motivation look alarmingly common-sensical: reinforce performance, create supportive social environments, have clear attainable goals, provide enough resources to do the job, and make sure there is a fit between employee’s and employer’s motives and values.”
Furnham (2005: 278)
The science of motivation
Strategy 1. Remove sources of de-motivation, and treat people fairly
Strategy 2. Ensure an abundance of valued outcomes of work
Strategy 3. Set people goals and objectives
Strategy 4. Give people feedback
Strategy 5. Design jobs in ways that make them rewarding to people