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1 PowerPoint Slides English Text Spanish Translation Oncologic Emergencies: Part 1 VideoTranscript Emergencias Oncológicas: Parte 1 Transcripción del video Professional Oncology Education Oncologic Emergencies: Part 1 Time: 35:04 Educación Oncológica Profesional Emergencias Oncológicas: Parte 1 Duración: 35:04 John Patlan, M.D. Associate Professor General Internal Medicine The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center Dr. John Patlan Profesor Asociado Medicina Interna General MD Anderson Cancer Center de la Universidad de Texas Oncologic Emergencies: Part I Oncologic Emergencies: Part I Oncologic Emergencies: Part I Oncologic Emergencies: Part I Oncologic Emergencies: Oncologic Emergencies: Part I Part I John Patlan, M.D. Associate Professor General Internal Medicine Welcome! My name is John Patlan. I am a physician here at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center in the Department of General Internal Medicine, and I am going to talk to you today about oncologic emergencies. Our talk will be divided into two parts. This will be part 1, and please stay tuned for part 2. And we are going talk about the classic oncological cancer-related emergencies. ¡Bienvenido! Mi nombre es John Patlan. Soy médico del MD Anderson Cancer Center de la Universidad de Texas, en el Departamento de Medicina Interna General, y hoy voy a hablar sobre las emergencias oncológicas. Nuestra charla se dividirá en dos partes. Esta será la parte 1 y hablaremos de las emergencias oncológicas clásicas relacionadas con el cáncer.
Transcript
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PowerPoint Slides English Text Spanish Translation

Oncologic Emergencies: Part 1 VideoTranscript

Emergencias Oncológicas: Parte 1 Transcripción del video

Professional Oncology Education Oncologic Emergencies: Part 1 Time: 35:04

Educación Oncológica Profesional Emergencias Oncológicas: Parte 1 Duración: 35:04

John Patlan, M.D. Associate Professor General Internal Medicine The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center

Dr. John Patlan Profesor Asociado Medicina Interna General MD Anderson Cancer Center de la Universidad de Texas

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Oncologic Emergencies:Oncologic Emergencies:

Part IPart I

John Patlan, M.D.

Associate Professor

General Internal Medicine

Welcome! My name is John Patlan. I am a physician here at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center in the Department of General Internal Medicine, and I am going to talk to you today about oncologic emergencies. Our talk will be divided into two parts. This will be part 1, and please stay tuned for part 2. And we are going talk about the classic oncological cancer-related emergencies.

¡Bienvenido! Mi nombre es John Patlan. Soy médico del MD Anderson Cancer Center de la Universidad de Texas, en el Departamento de Medicina Interna General, y hoy voy a hablar sobre las emergencias oncológicas. Nuestra charla se dividirá en dos partes. Esta será la parte 1 y hablaremos de las emergencias oncológicas clásicas relacionadas con el cáncer.

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Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

ObjectivesObjectivesObjectivesObjectives

• Be able to differentiate cancer-related and

non-cancer-related emergency problems

• Understand the common oncologic emergencies:

structural, infectious, hematologic and metabolic

problems

• Overview of the diagnosis and treatment of cancer-

related emergencies

Now, in our talk, I want to emphasize that all --- not all emergency problems are cancer-related. And I want you to be able to differentiate between cancer-related or oncologic emergencies and non-cancer-related emergency problems, which may also occur in cancer patients. But the focus of our talk will remain on oncologic or cancer-related emergencies, which are classically divided into structural problems, infectious problems, hematologic problems, and metabolic problems. And we will touch on each of those in turn, and I am going to give you an overview of how to diagnose and manage these problems in the emergency setting.

Quiero destacar que no todas las emergencias se relacionan con el cáncer, y deben diferenciarse las emergencias oncológicas de los problemas de emergencia no relacionados con el cáncer, que también pueden ocurrir en pacientes con cáncer. Nos enfocaremos en las emergencias oncológicas, que clásicamente se dividen en problemas estructurales, infecciosos, hematológicos y metabólicos. Voy a referirme a cada uno de ellos y daré una visión general de cómo diagnosticar y tratar estos problemas en condiciones de emergencia.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Emergency Problems in Cancer PatientsEmergency Problems in Cancer PatientsEmergency Problems in Cancer PatientsEmergency Problems in Cancer Patients

• Don’t always assume that symptoms or

acute decompensation are due to the cancer

or its treatment

• Non-cancer-related problems

– Acute coronary syndromes, congestive heart failure,

arrhythmias (e.g. atrial fibrillation), COPD exacerbation,

GI bleeding

• Signs/symptoms may be blunted/masked

– Steroid use, neutropenia, advanced age

– Have a high pre-test probability of “badness”

Now, I do want to emphasize that you should not assume that the symptoms that the patient presents with, or whatever acute decompensation prompts their emergency room visit, is because of the cancer or its treatment. Cancer patients have all the same comorbid medical conditions that non-cancer patients do. So they present to the emergency center with chest pain, which may not be related to lung cancer. It could be an acute coronary syndrome. They may come in with shortness of breath, which is not because of pleural effusion, a malignant pleural effusion. It may be congestive heart failure. They come in with COPD exacerbations, cardiac arrhythmias, GI bleedings, all of the same non-cancer emergency problems that other patients present with. It is important to keep in mind. The other caveat that I want you to remember is that in cancer patients, the signs and symptoms of disease may be blunted or masked. The things that are you classically taught to look for

También quiero resaltar que no se debe suponer que los síntomas que el paciente presenta, o que cualquier descompensación aguda que motiva su visita a la sala de emergencias, se deben al cáncer o a su tratamiento. Los pacientes con cáncer tienen las mismas condiciones de comorbilidad médica que los pacientes sin cáncer. Se presentan al centro de emergencias con dolor en el pecho, que puede no tener relación con el cáncer de pulmón, sino ser un síndrome coronario agudo. Pueden concurrir con falta de aliento, que no se debe a un derrame pleural maligno, sino posiblemente a insuficiencia cardíaca congestiva. Se presentan con COPD exacerbada, arritmias cardíacas, hemorragias gastrointestinales, los mismos problemas de emergencia ajenos al cáncer que otros pacientes presentan. Es preciso tener esto en cuenta. También quiero que recuerden que en los pacientes con cáncer, los signos y síntomas pueden estar mitigados o enmascarados. Las cosas

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to try to rule in or rule out some diagnosis may be difficult to find in cancer patients, and this happens for a lot of reasons. One – steroid use. A lot of the patients receive corticosteroids as part of their treatment, which blunts the inflammatory response, which mediates a lot of the signs and symptoms you are taught to look for. For instance, patients with an acute abdomen may come in and have very little of its classical guarding or rebound that you may be expecting. Neutropenia similarly blunts the inflammatory response, and so patients could have fairly significant infections yet have very little objective findings to suggest that. They may have pneumonias with minimal or absent infiltrate on chest x-ray, for example. Also, cancer happens more often in elderly patients. So, all patients with advanced age may present with more subtle signs and symptoms of disease. So, one thing I ask all practitioners to remember is that you should have a higher pre-test probability of badness, and by that I mean whatever the worst diagnosis that this that could be leading to this symptom or this presentation, have a higher pre-test probability for that. So, if you think some test is indicated to evaluate for that, you might go ahead and order the test, because it is harder to figure out in cancer patients without that.

clásicas que se buscan para confirmar o descartar un diagnóstico pueden ser difíciles de encontrar en los pacientes con cáncer por muchas razones. Una, el uso de esteroides. Muchos pacientes reciben corticosteroides como parte de su tratamiento, lo que mitiga la respuesta inflamatoria y encubre muchos signos y síntomas que se nos enseña a buscar. Por ejemplo, los pacientes con abdomen agudo pueden presentar en muy escasa medida los clásicos signos de defensa y rebote que usted espera. La neutropenia debilita la respuesta inflamatoria, por lo cual los pacientes pueden tener infecciones bastante considerables y presentar resultados muy poco objetivos que lo sugieran. Pueden tener neumonías y mostrar una mínima o ninguna infiltración en la radiografía de tórax. Además, el cáncer suele aparecer con más frecuencia en pacientes mayores. Todos los pacientes de edad avanzada pueden presentar signos y síntomas más sutiles. Por eso es preciso tener una mayor probabilidad de malignidad antes de las pruebas, es decir, mayor probabilidad del peor diagnóstico al cual esta situación pueda conducir. Si piensa que alguna prueba está indicada para evaluar esa condición, podría solicitarla, porque sin ella la determinación es más difícil en los pacientes con cáncer.

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Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Oncologic (CancerOncologic (CancerOncologic (CancerOncologic (Cancer----related) Emergenciesrelated) Emergenciesrelated) Emergenciesrelated) Emergencies

• Problems due to the underlying malignancy

or its treatment:

– Structural problems

– Metabolic problems

– Hematologic problems

– Infectious problems

Now, the remainder of our talk will be focused on the classic oncological cancer-related emergencies. As I mentioned, the --- this topic is classically divided into four sections: structural problems, metabolic problems, hematologic problems, and infectious problems. So, all of the rest of the talk at this point will be talking about emergency problems that are due to the cancer, the underlying cancer, or its treatment.

El resto de nuestra charla se centrará en las clásicas emergencias oncológicas relacionadas con el cáncer. Este tema se divide en cuatro secciones: problemas estructurales, problemas metabólicos, problemas hematológicos y problemas infecciosos. Me referiré entonces a los problemas de emergencia que se deben al cáncer, al cáncer subyacente o a su tratamiento.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Structural ProblemsStructural ProblemsStructural ProblemsStructural Problems

• Compression, obstruction, or invasion of

vital structures:

- Spinal cord compression

- Superior vena cava syndrome

- Brain metastases/cerebral edema

Now, structural problems are fairly easy to understand. A cancer mass lesion can compress or obstruct or invade some vital structure. The things that are typically included in the oncologic emergencies lecture are spinal cord compression, superior vena cava syndrome, and [I will] also talk about cerebral metastasis with associated edema, because that is a fairly common and urgent problem as well.

Los problemas estructurales son bastante fáciles de entender. Una lesión con masa cancerígena puede comprimir, obstruir o invadir una estructura vital. Una disertación sobre emergencias oncológicas suele mencionar la compresión de la médula espinal, el síndrome de vena cava superior, y yo incluyo la metástasis cerebral con edema asociado, ya que también es un problema bastante común y urgente.

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Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Spinal Cord Compression: EtiologySpinal Cord Compression: EtiologySpinal Cord Compression: EtiologySpinal Cord Compression: Etiology

• Metastatic tumor from any primary site, most

from tumors with tendency to metastasize to

spinal column

• Breast, lung, and prostate cancer most common

• Usually from tumor with spread to vertebral

body and direct extension into epidural space,

compression of thecal sac

• Radiologic definition: indentation of thecal sac

So, spinal cord compression is a fairly common problem. And this is usually occurs because patients have metastatic disease, which can really be from any primary site. But breast cancer, lung cancer because they are very common, prostate cancer because it is also common, and all of which tend to have bony metastasis, are the most common causes of this. And so what happens is that the patient develops a bony metastasis to --- usually to the vertebral body that extends directly into the epidural space and then compresses the spinal cord. If you see radiologically that you have epidural extension of tumor and indentation of the thecal sac, that is a radiologic definition of spinal cord compression whether or not the patient has associated clinical symptoms.

La compresión de la médula espinal es un problema bastante común, y esto ocurre generalmente porque los pacientes tienen enfermedad metastásica, que puede provenir de cualquier sitio primario. Las causas más comunes son el cáncer de mama, el cáncer de pulmón, el cáncer de próstata, cánceres muy comunes que tienden a tener metástasis ósea. El paciente desarrolla una metástasis ósea, por lo general en el cuerpo vertebral que se extiende directamente al espacio epidural, y comprime la médula espinal. Si comprueba radiológicamente que hay extensión epidural del tumor e indentación del saco tecal, esa es la definición radiológica de la compresión de la médula espinal, tenga el paciente o no síntomas clínicos asociados.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Spinal Cord CompressionSpinal Cord CompressionSpinal Cord CompressionSpinal Cord Compression

• MRI preferred imaging mode

• Arrows indicate metastatic

disease at T5 and T12

extending posteriorly into

spinal canal, compressing

the cord (C)

Now, this is going to require a radiologic study to diagnose this. The MRI is the preferred imaging mode. On this sample MRI, you can see that the arrows indicate two vertebral bodies, which are markedly different than the others. They are less dense. There is a compression fracture in the higher vertebral body. And you can see where the spinal cord is labeled C that there is some compression of the spinal cord by the tumor, which is indenting the thecal sac. So, that is radiologic spinal cord compression.

Para hacer este diagnóstico se requiere un estudio radiológico. La resonancia magnética es el estudio de imágenes por elección. En esta resonancia magnética o MRI, las flechas indican dos cuerpos vertebrales notablemente diferentes de los demás. Son menos densos y hay una fractura por compresión en el cuerpo vertebral superior. En el punto indicado con “C” se advierte que hay compresión de la médula espinal por el tumor y que hay indentación del saco tecal. Esta es la compresión de la médula espinal comprobada radiológicamente.

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Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Spinal Cord Compression: Symptoms and SignsSpinal Cord Compression: Symptoms and SignsSpinal Cord Compression: Symptoms and SignsSpinal Cord Compression: Symptoms and Signs

• Range of presentations

• Asymptomatic with radiologic findings

• Back pain at affected level without neurologic

compromise

- 70% thoracic

- 20% lumbosacral

- 10% cervical

- Pain worse with recumbency, valsalva

Now, clinically, there can be a whole range of presentations. It is hard to imagine, but some patients can be fairly asymptomatic, yet have that same kind of radiologic presentation that I just showed you. They may have a little bit of back pain, but it may not be striking, but an asymptomatic patient with that kind of MRI is uncommon, but possible. What is more common is that patients will present with back pain. Almost all of them will present with back pain. One clue that this is different than the typical garden-variety low back pain, which is one of the most common causes for any patient to seek medical attention, is that this is typically located in thoracic vertebral column. Some will be lumbosacral. Some will be cervical. Another clue this is a different kind of back pain is that this pain may be worse with recumbency or with valsalva, which is not typical for ordinary lumbosacral sprain.

A nivel clínico, puede haber una serie de presentaciones. Si bien es difícil de imaginar, algunos pacientes pueden estar casi asintomáticos y tener una presentación radiológica como esta. Tal vez puedan tener un poco de dolor de espalda, pero no muy marcado. Un paciente asintomático con ese tipo de resonancia magnética es poco frecuente, pero posible. Lo más común es que los pacientes se presenten con dolor de espalda. Casi todos se presentan así. Una indicación de que es un dolor de espalda diferente del habitual —una de las causas más comunes por las que un paciente solicita atención médica— es que este se encuentra normalmente en la columna vertebral torácica. Algunos se localizan en la región lumbosacra, otros en la región cervical. Otra indicación de que es un dolor diferente es que puede empeorar al decúbito o con maniobra de Valsalva, algo no habitual en el típico esguince lumbosacro.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Spinal Cord Compression: Symptoms and SignsSpinal Cord Compression: Symptoms and SignsSpinal Cord Compression: Symptoms and SignsSpinal Cord Compression: Symptoms and Signs

• Motor weakness below level of compression

• Sensory deficits less common

- Sensory level may be 1-5 levels below level

of compression

• Bowel and bladder dysfunction - usually

urinary retention

Now, as things progress, they may develop neurologic compromise. So, they can find --- they can have motor weakness below the level of compression. An even more advanced sign of cord compression would be the development of sensory deficits. It is very difficult sometimes to localize a level of compression, and your objective sensory level may be several levels below where the cord is actually compressed. A very late sign would be bowel or bladder dysfunction. The thing that you would usually find will be urinary retention.

A medida que la condición avanza se puede desarrollar compromiso neurológico. El paciente puede presentar debilidad motora por debajo del nivel de compresión. Una señal de compresión de médula aún más avanzada sería el desarrollo de déficits sensoriales. A veces es muy difícil localizar un nivel de compresión, y el nivel sensorial objetivo puede estar varios niveles por debajo del lugar de compresión real. Una señal muy tardía sería la disfunción intestinal o de la vejiga. Lo que normalmente se encuentra es retención urinaria.

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Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Spinal Cord Compression: Diagnosis Spinal Cord Compression: Diagnosis Spinal Cord Compression: Diagnosis Spinal Cord Compression: Diagnosis and Treatmentand Treatmentand Treatmentand Treatment

• Rapid radiologic diagnosis and initiation of treatment

is necessary to preserve neurologic function

- Initiate corticosteroids - EX: dexamethasone 10-20

mg IV then 4-6 mg Q6hrs

• MRI of affected spinal region

• CT myelogram is option if MRI contraindicated

Vecht CJ et al. Neurology 1989 39(9):1255

So, once you suspect this diagnosis, because of new or worsening back pain that is atypical or the patient is developing some neurologic compromise, it is urgent that you perform a radiologic study to establish the radiologic diagnosis. And, even when the diagnosis is suspected, even before the MRI is performed, it is reasonable to initiate corticosteroids to try to preserve neurologic function. Dexamethasone is the usual steroid that we choose. The optimal dose is really not defined. There has never really been any randomized control trial to give us the optimal dose. Standard dosing, however, usually is somewhere between a 10 to 20 mg bolus. Some people have used up to 100 mg or higher in patients with severe neurologic compromise and then some scheduled divided dose after that. You will need to get an urgent MRI as I mentioned. If patients can’t get an MRI because they have got a pacemaker or they have metal in their body or there is some other contraindication, you can get a CT myelogram.

Si se sospecha este diagnóstico, debido a la aparición o el empeoramiento del dolor de espalda atípico, o porque el paciente presenta algún tipo de compromiso neurológico, debe hacerse un estudio con urgencia para establecer el diagnóstico radiológico. Cuando se sospecha el diagnóstico, incluso antes de hacer la resonancia magnética, es razonable administrar corticosteroides para tratar de preservar la función neurológica. La dexametasona es el esteroide habitual. La dosis óptima no está definida, ya que nunca se realizó un ensayo aleatorio controlado que nos indicara la dosis óptima; sin embargo, la dosis estándar suele ser de 10 a 20 mg en bolo. Se han administrado hasta 100 mg o más en pacientes con compromiso neurológico grave, con una dosis dividida y programada posterior. Habrá que hacer una resonancia magnética con urgencia. Si no es posible hacerle una MRI al paciente porque tiene un marcapasos, algún elemento metálico en el cuerpo u otra contraindicación, se puede hacer una mielografía.

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Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Spinal Cord Compression: TreatmentSpinal Cord Compression: TreatmentSpinal Cord Compression: TreatmentSpinal Cord Compression: Treatment

• Radiation therapy for most

• Neurosurgical decompression

- If previously irradiated, or if spinal

stabilization is needed

- Decompression + RT superior

to RT alone

• Chemotherapy may be option for extremely

chemosensitive tumors

Now, once you have diagnosed this, once you have gotten your radiologic study, you see that there is indentation of the thecal sac, they will require some urgent treatment. Hopefully, you have already initiated corticosteroid therapy. Most patients will be treated with radiation treatment. A neurosurgeon should always be involved for consultation, and if the patient has been previously irradiated because of known vertebral metastasis, or if their spine is unstable, they will probably require neurosurgical intervention. You will see listed in various textbooks that chemotherapy is an option for very chemosensitive tumors such as germ cell tumors or lymphomas. In real life, most patients will receive steroids and radiation treatment up front.

Una vez realizado el diagnóstico con el estudio radiológico, si se comprueba indentación del saco tecal, es preciso administrar un tratamiento urgente. Es de esperar que ya se haya iniciado la terapia con corticosteroides. La mayoría de los pacientes son tratados con radioterapia. Siempre debe consultarse a un neurocirujano, y si el paciente fue irradiado antes por una metástasis vertebral conocida, o si la columna es inestable, probablemente se requerirá una intervención neuroquirúrgica. En varios libros de texto se menciona que la quimioterapia es una opción para los tumores quimiosensibles, como los de células germinales o los linfomas. La mayoría de los pacientes recibirá directamente esteroides y radioterapia.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Spinal Cord Compression: PrognosisSpinal Cord Compression: PrognosisSpinal Cord Compression: PrognosisSpinal Cord Compression: Prognosis

• Prognosis depends on neurologic status at time of diagnosis

• If ambulatory, 80-100% chance of retaining ambulation

• If paretic, 1/3 may walk; only 6% if paraplegic

• Pain symptom often precedes onset of neurologic deficits by weeks

– Consider MRI in high-risk patients with new/worsening back pain

Helweg-Larsen S et al. Eur J Cancer 1994 30A(3):396

Now, the prognosis depends upon whatever the neurologic status is at the time of diagnosis and when treatment is initiated. If the patients are ambulatory, there is a very good chance that they will be able to walk out of the hospital if they walked into your emergency room. If they do have some weakness, some lower extremity weakness, however, only about a third of them will remain ambulatory after we finish their treatment. If they are completely paraplegic, the prognosis is not good, only 6% will regain locomotion. Now, as I have described it to you, I mentioned that there is a whole range of symptoms from very little symptoms with radiologic cord compression, to back pain, to the development of motor weakness, to the development of sensory deficits, and finally to bowel and bladder dysfunction. This process from pain to neurologic compromise develops typically over a period of weeks. In one study, patients who are ultimately diagnosed with cord compression were

El pronóstico depende del estado neurológico en el momento del diagnóstico y de cuándo se inicie el tratamiento. Si los pacientes son ambulatorios, es muy probable que salgan del hospital caminando si llegaron de igual modo a la sala de emergencias. Si tienen alguna debilidad, debilidad en las extremidades inferiores, sólo un tercio de ellos seguirá siendo ambulatorio una vez finalizado su tratamiento. Si están completamente parapléjicos, el pronóstico no es bueno: sólo el 6% recuperará la locomoción. Mencioné que hay una serie completa de síntomas: desde muy pocos con compresión de médula radiológica hasta dolor de espalda, desarrollo de debilidad motora, desarrollo de déficits sensoriales y, finalmente, disfunción intestinal y de vejiga. Este proceso, desde el dolor hasta el compromiso neurológico, suele desarrollarse en cuestión de semanas. En un estudio se pidió a los pacientes ya diagnosticados con compresión de médula que identificaran cuándo experimentaron

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asked to identify when did they develop new and worsening back pain and, on average, it was probably six to seven weeks when the back pain started. Now, that is good news and bad news. The bad news is patients were developing cord compression and it took six or seven weeks to be able to figure that out. The good news is that, in general, this is a kind of a subacute process, and so, you have time to work with. So, if you have a high-risk patient, say a patient with metastatic prostate cancer, known vertebral metastasis, or a patient with some other high risk cancer with known bony metastasis and they have some suspicious clinical sign or symptom, new or worsening back pain, even if they don’t yet have neurologic compromise, consider getting an MRI. It is not an emergency. You don’t have to do it immediately, but if you can get it within the next 24-48 hours as long as they are neurologically intact, that would be reasonable.

dolor de espalda inicialmente y cuándo empeoró este y, en promedio, esto ocurrió de seis a siete semanas luego del inicio del dolor. Esta es una noticia mala y una noticia buena. La mala noticia es que los pacientes estaban desarrollando compresión de médula y llevó seis o siete semanas determinarlo. La buena noticia es que, en general, es un tipo de proceso subagudo y hay tiempo para actuar. Si usted tiene un paciente de alto riesgo, por ejemplo, con cáncer de próstata metastásico, metástasis vertebral conocida u otro cáncer de alto riesgo con metástasis ósea conocida, y presenta alguna señal clínica o síntoma sospechoso, aparición o empeoramiento de dolor de espalda, aun cuando no presente compromiso neurológico, hay que hacerle una resonancia magnética. No es una emergencia. No hay por qué hacerla inmediatamente, pero es razonable hacerla en las próximas 24 a 48 horas, mientras el paciente está neurológicamente intacto.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: EtiologySuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: EtiologySuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: EtiologySuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: Etiology

• Obstruction of the venous drainage from the

head and upper extremities

• Invasion or external compression of the SVC

by tumor or lymph nodes, and/or by thrombosis

within the SVC

• Thoracic malignancy cause of 60-85% of

cases – others due to intravascular devices

• SVC obstruction as presenting symptom of

undiagnosed tumor in 60% of cases

Now, the next structural emergency we are going to talk about is superior vena cava syndrome. I will tell you superior vena cave syndrome, while it is always presented in the classic oncologic emergencies lecture, strictly speaking is not a real emergency. It is an urgent problem, but also a subacute problem that develops over a period of at least weeks. Now, this happens because you have, usually because you have some tumor that is causing obstruction of venous drainage from the head and upper extremities. Usually, there is a mass or lymphadenopathy in the mediastinum that causes external compression or sometimes invasion and thrombosis of the superior vena cava. And because this is a thoracic or mediastinal problem, thoracic malignancies, such as lung cancers or sometimes

La siguiente emergencia estructural que analizaremos es el síndrome de vena cava superior. Este síndrome, si bien siempre se presenta en la clásica disertación sobre emergencias oncológicas, no es estrictamente una emergencia. Es un problema urgente, un problema subagudo que se desarrolla en un período de al menos semanas. Esto sucede generalmente porque hay algún tumor que está causando obstrucción del drenaje venoso de la cabeza y las extremidades superiores. Por lo general, hay una masa o linfoadenopatía en el mediastino que causa la compresión externa o, a veces, la invasión y la trombosis de la vena cava superior. Como se trata de un problema torácico o del mediastino, la principal causa suele ser una condición maligna torácica, como cáncer de pulmón

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lymphomas, are the primary cause of this. Occasionally, we will also see it as a complication of the presence of a central venous catheter causing some intraluminal stenosis or thrombosis. Now, one problem that you will encounter is that vena cava obstruction, when patients present with this --- this is the presenting sign or symptom of their diagnosis in about 60% of the time. In other words, about 60% of patients with superior vena cava syndrome do not yet have a tissue diagnosis. This is the presenting feature of their disease, and this becomes a problem, as you will see in just a minute.

o linfoma. A veces, también lo comprobamos como una complicación por la presencia de un catéter venoso central que causa cierta estenosis o trombosis intraluminal. Un problema es que la obstrucción de la vena cava es el signo o síntoma de presentación para el diagnóstico en el 60% de los casos. Es decir, un 60% de los pacientes con síndrome de vena cava superior aún no tienen un diagnóstico de tejido. Esta es la característica de presentación de la enfermedad, y esto se convierte en un problema, como se verá en un instante.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: Symptoms and SignsSymptoms and SignsSymptoms and SignsSymptoms and Signs

• Dyspnea most common symptom

• May report facial swelling (worse with lying down),

cough, arm edema

• May see venous distension of neck and chest

wall, facial edema and/or plethora

• Rarely, obtundation or stridor

So, when they come in, they can have a variety of symptoms, they may complain of shortness of breath, more specifically, they may have some facial swelling, some cough, some edema of the upper extremities. Since this process develops over a subacute period of time or period of weeks, you develop collateral vessels over the anterior chest wall and the neck. They frequently have some edema or plethora of the face. Very rarely, if the patients are very, very advanced, they may be obtunded if they have complete obstruction of the cerebral venous drainage, or, if they have airway compromise, they can have stridor. But that is very rare and you will likely never see that in clinical practice.

Cuando los pacientes llegan, pueden tener una variedad de síntomas: falta de aire, más específicamente, hinchazón facial, tos, edema de las extremidades superiores. Como este proceso evoluciona durante un período subagudo de varias semanas, se desarrollan vasos colaterales sobre la pared anterior del tórax y el cuello. Con frecuencia los pacientes presentan edema o plétora en la cara. En casos muy raros, si la condición está muy avanzada, el paciente puede estar obnubilado si hay obstrucción completa del drenaje venoso cerebral o, si hay compromiso de las vías aéreas, puede tener estridor. Pero estos casos son muy raros y probablemente nunca los vean en la práctica clínica.

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SVC Syndrome: BeforeSVC Syndrome: BeforeSVC Syndrome: BeforeSVC Syndrome: Before

So, here is a picture of a man with superior vena cava syndrome. I will show you later an after picture after treatment. But I think in this picture you can appreciate that his face is kind of plethoric and ruddy, and when I show you the after picture, you will also appreciate how puffy, swollen, and edematous his face is.

Este es un hombre con síndrome de vena cava superior. Luego mostraré una fotografía después del tratamiento, pero aquí se puede apreciar que el rostro está pletórico y colorado, y cuando vean la fotografía posterior, comprobarán también cuán inflamado, hinchado y edematoso está.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: DiagnosisSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: DiagnosisSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: DiagnosisSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: Diagnosis

• Chest CT with contrast can define level and extent

of venous obstruction, presence of SVC thrombosis,

and cause of obstruction

• MRI for patients with contrast allergy

So, when a patient comes in, they have got these kinds of signs or symptoms, you probably have already had a chest x-ray showing some kind of mediastinal mass. What you will need to get is a chest CT with contrast so that you can understand the level and extent of the venous obstruction and see whether there is any associated thrombosis of the superior vena cava. If patients have an iodinated contrast allergy, you get an MRI with gadolinium.

Cuando el paciente llega y tiene todas estas señales o síntomas, es probable que ya le hayan hecho una radiografía de tórax que muestre una masa mediastínica. Debemos hacerle una tomografía computada con contraste para comprobar el nivel y la extensión de la obstrucción venosa, y ver si hay alguna trombosis asociada de la vena cava superior. Si los pacientes son alérgicos al contraste yodado, se solicita una resonancia magnética con gadolinio.

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Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: TreatmentSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: TreatmentSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: TreatmentSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: Treatment

• Tissue diagnosis is necessary to choose optimal therapy

• Prebiopsy radiation can obscure histology

• Intraluminal stents can provide rapid relief of symptoms, does not preclude subsequent therapy

Now, the problem, as I mentioned to you, is that most of these patients do not yet have a tissue diagnosis. They may have a non-small cell lung cancer. They may have a lymphoma. Those will both be treated very differently, and optimal therapy really is going to depend upon the treatment of the underlying cancer. So, you are going to need to get a tissue diagnosis. Now, when they come in and they have got this clinical problem, what was frequently done in the past was to do urgent radiation treatment. The problem with that, is that if you get radiation before you have obtained a biopsy and establish a tissue diagnosis, that can obscure your histology and really limit your ability to treat the patient effectively in the future. So, if the patient requires rapid relief of their symptoms, they have got fairly significant vena cava obstruction, you can put in an intraluminal stent to open up the vena cava and provide some venous drainage and that will not preclude any subsequent therapy that you are able to do.

El problema es que la mayoría de estos pacientes todavía no tienen un diagnóstico de tejido. Pueden tener un cáncer de pulmón de células no pequeñas, o un linfoma. Ambos serán tratados de manera muy diferente, y la terapia óptima dependerá del tratamiento del cáncer subyacente. Entonces, se debe obtener un diagnóstico de tejido. Anteriormente, cuando un paciente llegaba con este problema clínico, se solía administrar con urgencia un tratamiento con radiación. El problema es que, si se administra radiación antes de haber obtenido una biopsia y establecido un diagnóstico de tejido, la histología puede quedar oculta y limitar la capacidad para tratar al paciente de manera efectiva en el futuro. Si el paciente necesita un alivio rápido de los síntomas y tiene una obstrucción bastante importante de la vena cava, puede ponerle un stent intraluminal para abrir la vena cava y proporcionar cierto drenaje venoso, ya que esto no impedirá ningún tratamiento posterior que pueda administrársele.

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SVC Stenting by Interventional RadiologySVC Stenting by Interventional RadiologySVC Stenting by Interventional RadiologySVC Stenting by Interventional Radiology

This is a picture of a stent being placed by an interventional radiologist. On the left-hand picture, you can see a catheter being threaded from below and a blush of contrast is being injected to outline the superior vena cava and the venous circulation. On the right-hand side, you see the stent that has been deployed.

Este es un stent que está siendo colocado por un radiólogo intervencionista. A la izquierda puede verse un catéter que se coloca desde abajo y el contraste que se inyecta para señalar la vena cava superior y la circulación venosa. A la derecha puede verse el stent desplegado.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

SVC Syndrome: AfterSVC Syndrome: AfterSVC Syndrome: AfterSVC Syndrome: After

And here is the after picture of that same patient. So, you see on the right-hand picture, his face is much less red. He is much less puffy, and although he is not smiling in that picture, I am sure he is very, very happy that you have helped him and made him feel much better by relieving his obstruction.

Esta es la fotografía posterior del mismo paciente. En la fotografía derecha el rostro está mucho menos colorado. Está mucho menos hinchado y, aunque no está sonriendo, estoy seguro de que el paciente está sumamente complacido por la ayuda recibida y se siente mucho mejor al haberse aliviado su obstrucción.

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Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: TreatmentSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: TreatmentSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: TreatmentSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: Treatment

• Lymphoma, germ cell tumors, small cell lung

cancer usually responsive to chemotherapy +/-

radiation therapy

• Non-small cell lung cancer - poor prognosis -

treatment aimed at palliation of symptoms

(endovascular stent or RT)

• Questionable efficacy of RT to re-establish SVC

patency

So, as I mentioned, because this is a thoracic problem, it is caused by thoracic tumors, lymphomas, germ cell tumors, small cell lung cancers. Those are usually very chemosensitive. And so chemotherapy with or without radiation is going to be the mainstay of treatment. Unfortunately, the majority of patients will probably have a non-small cell lung cancer. It is a poor prognostic sign when patients present with non-small cell lung cancer and superior vena cava syndrome. So, really you are going to be aimed at treating --- palliating their symptoms. Now, there have been questions raised recently about how effective radiation treatment really is at re-establishing SVC patency, but even when it does not re-establish full patency, it does provide significant relief of symptoms, so it is still frequently done.

Dado que este es un problema torácico, es causado por tumores torácicos, linfomas, tumores de células germinales o cáncer de pulmón de células pequeñas. Estos son generalmente muy sensibles a la quimioterapia. El pilar del tratamiento será quimioterapia con o sin radiación. Desafortunadamente, la mayoría de los pacientes probablemente tendrá un cáncer de pulmón de células no pequeñas. Es un signo de mal pronóstico que los pacientes presenten cáncer de pulmón de células no pequeñas y síndrome de vena cava superior. En realidad, lo que se va a intentar hacer es paliar sus síntomas. Recientemente se ha cuestionado la eficacia de la radioterapia para restablecer la permeabilidad de la vena cava superior, pero incluso cuando no la restablezca por completo, sí proporciona un alivio considerable de los síntomas, por lo que todavía se la administra con frecuencia.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: PrognosisSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: PrognosisSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: PrognosisSuperior Vena Cava Syndrome: Prognosis

• Unless tracheal obstruction, not immediately

life-threatening

• Mortality related to underlying malignancy

The prognosis is really related to the underlying malignancy. If it is a good prognosis cancer, such as a curable lymphoma or a germ cell tumor, then the prognosis may be very good. If it is an advanced but incurable disease, like a metastatic or locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer, prognosis is not so good. One of the take-home messages that I want you to leave with though, is that, although it is always discussed in the oncologic emergencies lecture, this is not really an emergency problem. It is usually not immediately life-threatening unless there is tracheal obstruction or severe cerebral edema with mental status changes. But as I mentioned, that is very rare, so again a subacute problem, you have time to do your job.

El pronóstico está relacionado con la malignidad subyacente. Si se trata de un cáncer de buen pronóstico, como un linfoma o un tumor de células germinales curables, el pronóstico puede ser muy bueno. Si es una enfermedad avanzada incurable, como un cáncer de pulmón de células no pequeñas con metástasis o localmente avanzado, el pronóstico no es tan bueno. Uno de los principales mensajes que deseo transmitirles es que, aunque esto siempre se analiza en disertaciones de emergencias oncológicas, no es realmente una emergencia. Por lo general, no es un riesgo inmediato para la vida, a menos que haya obstrucción de la tráquea o edema cerebral severo con cambios de la condición mental. Esos casos son muy raros. Es un problema subagudo, y hay tiempo para trabajar.

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Cerebral Metastases/EdemaCerebral Metastases/EdemaCerebral Metastases/EdemaCerebral Metastases/Edema

• Patients may present with headache, focal

neurologic symptoms, seizures, or sometimes

idiopathic nausea/vomiting

• Tumors produce vasogenic edema

• Diagnosis: imaging by CT or MRI

• Initiate corticosteroids to decrease edema

The next structural problem we are going to talk about is cerebral metastasis, unfortunately, a very common problem and sometimes not easy to diagnose. Patients can present with a whole range of symptoms: headaches, sometimes focal neurologic symptoms, sometimes intermittent or transient neurologic symptoms. Patients may have a suspected transient ischemic attack when really it is a tumor that is causing this problem. They may have seizures, occasionally sometimes just idiopathic nausea and vomiting, which is likely related to cerebral edema. So, if patient --- if a patient with a cancer comes in and they have got nausea or vomiting and there is no good reason for it, they are several weeks out from chemotherapy, they are not hypercalcemic, consider cerebral metastasis is a cause. Now, a lot of this --- in general, the symptoms that are produced by the tumors are in large part mediated by the vasogenic edema of the tumor, so relief of that edema is going to help you with symptom management. When you have a patient and you suspect that this may be the problem, you are going to need to get an imaging study. If you don’t have much time to work, you can get a CT scan. A more definitive study would be an MRI. And it will be important to initiate corticosteroids to reduce edema to try to get control of their symptoms.

El siguiente problema estructural es la metástasis cerebral; lamentablemente, es un problema muy común y a veces no es fácil de diagnosticar. Los pacientes pueden presentar una amplia variedad de síntomas: dolores de cabeza, a veces síntomas neurológicos focales, o síntomas neurológicos intermitentes o transitorios. Los pacientes pueden presentar un presunto ataque isquémico transitorio, cuando en realidad el problema es causado por un tumor. Pueden tener convulsiones, ocasionalmente náuseas y vómitos idiopáticos, que es probable que se relacionen con el edema cerebral. Si un paciente con cáncer se presenta con náuseas o vómitos y no hay ninguna razón que lo justifique, han transcurrido varias semanas desde la quimioterapia y no tiene hipercalcemia, debemos pensar que la causa es la metástasis cerebral. En general, muchos síntomas producidos por los tumores son en gran medida causados por el edema vasogénico del tumor, por lo cual aliviar el edema contribuirá a controlar los síntomas. Cuando se sospecha que este puede ser el problema, es necesario obtener un estudio por imágenes. Si no hay mucho tiempo para actuar, puede obtener una tomografía computada, aunque la MRI es más definitoria. Es importante iniciar la administración de corticosteroides para reducir el edema y controlar los síntomas.

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• MRI T1 unenhanced image

(upper left) showing edema

• Contrast-enhanced images

(other 3) showing enhancing

lesions (w/ arrows)

• Distinguish from other

CNS lesions?

Cerebral Metastases/EdemaCerebral Metastases/EdemaCerebral Metastases/EdemaCerebral Metastases/Edema

So, this is an MRI showing a patient with multifocal brain metastasis. On the upper left-hand view, this is --- that is non-contrast enhanced lesions, and I think even the non-radiologists among us can appreciate there is some asymmetry between the two sides. There is some hypodensity on one side that is not seen on the other. And on the other three images, which are enhanced with gadolinium contrast, you see the arrows pointing to the multifocal enhancing lesions. So this is unfortunately a --- unfortunately a patient with multifocal brain metastasis.

Esta es la resonancia magnética de un paciente con metástasis cerebral multifocal. En el extremo superior izquierdo hay lesiones no señaladas con contraste, y creo que incluso quienes no somos radiólogos podemos notar una cierta asimetría entre las dos partes. Hay cierta hipodensidad en un lado que no se ve en el otro. En las otras tres imágenes, que se realzan con contraste de gadolinio, es posible ver las flechas apuntando a las lesiones multifocales. Lamentablemente, este es un paciente con metástasis cerebral multifocal.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

• Corticosteroids reduce edema/improve symptoms

within hours

• Dexamethasone preferred due to lack of

mineralocorticoid activity, lower side effect profile

• 10 mg bolus, followed by 16 mg divided BID-QID

Vecht CJ et al. Neurology 1994 44(4):675

Cerebral Metastases/EdemaCerebral Metastases/EdemaCerebral Metastases/EdemaCerebral Metastases/Edema

Now, what you are going to do is, in the immediate emergency phase, you are going to start them on corticosteroids to try to reduce the edema, improve their symptoms. They can work very dramatically and very quickly. Just within a few hours patients can feel much, much better. We generally use dexamethasone because of its lack of mineralocorticoid activity. If patients have cerebral edema and some increased intracranial pressure, you would not want to give them a steroid that could potentially further raise their blood pressure, intracranial pressure. And again, as in spinal cord compression, the optimal dosing is not really defined, but, in general, a 10 to 20 mg dose as a bolus followed by a divided dose over a period of time.

Lo que debe hacerse en la fase de emergencia inmediata es iniciar la administración de corticosteroides para tratar de reducir el edema y mejorar los síntomas. Estos pueden actuar de manera muy drástica y rápida. En pocas horas los pacientes se sienten mucho mejor. Por lo general utilizamos dexametasona debido a que no posee actividad mineralocorticoide. Si los pacientes tienen edema cerebral y un poco de presión intracraneal, no le administramos un esteroide que podría elevar aún más su presión arterial, su presión intracraneal. Como en el caso de la compresión de médula espinal, la dosis óptima no está definida, pero en general se administran de 10 a 20 mg en bolo, seguidos de una dosis dividida durante un período determinado.

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Corticosteroids for Cerebral EdemaCorticosteroids for Cerebral EdemaCorticosteroids for Cerebral EdemaCorticosteroids for Cerebral Edema

• Prevent complications of corticosteroid therapy

(GI prophylaxis, manage hyperglycemia)

• Be aware of side effects (mental status changes,

myopathy, risk of infection, e.g. PCP)

• Subsequent dosing lowest possible dose to control

edema, minimize side effects

• If significantly increased ICP, need other measures

(mannitol, BP control, fluid restriction)

Now, because your patient with cerebral metastasis is going to remain on corticosteroids for some period of time, it is going to be important for you to try to remember to try to prevent the complications of corticosteroid therapy. Prevent ulcer formation with some acid suppression. You are going to be aware and look for hyperglycemia should it occur and it occurs very commonly. And you should be aware that corticosteroids can have less commonly recognized side effects, mental status changes. Sometimes patients just feel sort of wired and excited. Sometimes they can be frankly psychotic. Over a long period of time, they can develop some steroid myopathy. Unfortunately, the only treatment for that is withdrawal of steroids, and, if patients are maintained on steroids for a longer period of time, they have an increased risk of opportunistic infections such as pneumocystis carinii, so they may require some prophylaxis for that. So, because of these problems, we will try to minimize --- or lower the dose as we can to try to control their edema, yet minimize these side effects. And, if in the emergency setting, patients have very significantly increased intracranial pressure, they are developing some focal neurologic findings, their mental status is declining, you are going to need more urgent measures to control their intracranial pressures such as mannitol, fluid restrictions, and neurosurgical consultation.

Dado que el paciente con metástasis cerebral continuará recibiendo corticosteroides por un tiempo, hay que tratar de prevenir las complicaciones de la terapia con estos fármacos. Prevenimos la formación de úlceras con supresores de ácido. Es preciso observar si hay hiperglucemia —ya que ocurre con mucha frecuencia— y tener en cuenta que los corticosteroides pueden tener menos efectos secundarios comúnmente reconocidos, alteraciones del estado mental. A veces los pacientes sólo se sienten algo nerviosos y excitados, y a veces pueden estar francamente psicóticos. Durante un largo período pueden desarrollar cierta miopatía esteroide. Desafortunadamente, el único tratamiento en ese caso es suspender los esteroides y, si los pacientes se mantienen con esteroides durante mucho tiempo, tienen un mayor riesgo de infecciones oportunistas como Pneumocystis carinii, y pueden requerir profilaxis para tratarlas. Por estos problemas procuraremos reducir la dosis según sea posible para tratar de controlar el edema, mientras minimizamos estos efectos secundarios. Si, en condiciones de emergencia, los pacientes tienen un aumento importante de la presión intracraneal, desarrollan algunas señales neurológicas focales y su estado mental se deteriora, será necesario tomar medidas más urgentes para controlar su presión intracraneal, como manitol, restricciones de líquidos y consulta neuroquirúrgica.

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Cerebral Metastases: PrognosisCerebral Metastases: PrognosisCerebral Metastases: PrognosisCerebral Metastases: Prognosis

• Depends on age, performance status, extent

of extracranial disease

• Favorable prognosis: survival 7.1 months

• Poor prognosis: survival 2.3 months

Gaspar LE et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phy 2000 47(4):1001

So, the prognosis is not good. This is a bad place to have your cancer, so it really depends upon the patient’s overall status, their age, their performance status, and how likely it is that their treating oncologist is going to be able to get control of their extracranial disease. And in general, patients are divided into favorable or poor prognosis. If they have favorable prognosis, based on those factors that I mentioned, survival is about seven, a little over seven months. Poor prognosis, they have more advanced age, poor performance status, very widespread systemic disease, then survival is only about two months.

El pronóstico no es bueno. Este es un mal lugar para tener un cáncer, así que realmente depende de la condición general del paciente, su edad, su desempeño y cuán probable es que el oncólogo a cargo del tratamiento pueda controlar la enfermedad extracraneal. En general, los pacientes se dividen en si tienen un pronóstico favorable o desfavorable. Si tienen un pronóstico favorable, según los factores mencionados, la supervivencia es de aproximadamente siete meses o poco más. Si el pronóstico es desfavorable o tienen edad más avanzada, mal estado general o enfermedades sistémicas muy extendidas, la supervivencia es de sólo dos meses.

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Metabolic ProblemsMetabolic ProblemsMetabolic ProblemsMetabolic Problems

• Hypercalcemia

• Hyperuricemia/tumor lysis syndrome

• Hyponatremia

- Paraneoplastic SIADH

• Hyperkalemia

- Spurious elevation if high WBC

- Renal insufficiency/tumor lysis

So, next we are going to talk about metabolic problems. We see a lot of metabolic problems, both in and out of the hospital in cancer patients. Common problems include hypercalcemia, hyperuricemia, or Tumor Lysis Syndrome, hyponatremia, which is probably the most common electrolyte disturbance of --- in any hospital, and hyperkalemia, which can happen for variety of reasons. We are really going to focus our discussion on hypercalcemia and Tumor Lysis Syndrome.

Ahora hablaremos de los problemas metabólicos. Observamos muchos problemas metabólicos en los pacientes con cáncer, tanto dentro como fuera del hospital. Los problemas comunes incluyen hipercalcemia, hiperuricemia o síndrome de lisis tumoral, hiponatremia (que es probablemente el trastorno electrolítico más común en cualquier hospital) e hiperpotasemia (que puede ocurrir por varias razones). Centraremos nuestra discusión en la hipercalcemia y el síndrome de lisis tumoral.

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HypercalcemiaHypercalcemiaHypercalcemiaHypercalcemia: Etiology: Etiology: Etiology: Etiology

• Common in cancer pts 10-20% of cases

• May occur in solid tumors or leukemia,

lymphoma, myeloma

• Most common in myeloma, breast, lung CA

• Increased bone resorption, release of Ca++

– Paraneoplastic: release of PTH-related

protein (PTHrP)

– Osteolytic metastases

So, hypercalcemia is a very, very common problem. It occurs in up to 20% of all cancer patients and can occur across a whole range of tumor types: leukemia patients, lymphoma patients, a variety of solid tumor patients such as breast cancer, lung cancer patients. And it can happen for variety of reasons. Intuitively, it can happen because the patient may have osteolytic metastases and then release of calcium that has been locked up in the bones there. But more commonly it happens through paraneoplastic means, because the tumor can produce a parathyroid-related protein, which is sort of a false hormone, which then causes release of calcium from the bone into the circulation.

La hipercalcemia es un problema sumamente común. Se presenta en hasta un 20% de todos los pacientes con cáncer y puede ocurrir en una amplia gama de tumores: pacientes con leucemia, pacientes con linfoma y una variedad de pacientes con tumores sólidos, como cáncer de mama o pulmón. Puede ocurrir por varias razones. Intuitivamente, puede ocurrir porque el paciente puede tener metástasis osteolíticas y luego se libera el calcio que ha quedado encerrado allí en los huesos. Más comúnmente ocurre por medios paraneoplásicos, ya que el tumor puede producir una proteína relacionada con las paratiroides, una especie de hormona falsa, que a su vez provoca la liberación de calcio de los huesos en la circulación.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Hypercalcemia: SymptomsHypercalcemia: SymptomsHypercalcemia: SymptomsHypercalcemia: Symptoms

• Generalized weakness, lethargy, fatigue

• Nausea/vomiting, constipation, anorexia

• Mental status changes, sedation,

cognitive dysfunction

• Polyuria/polydipsia, dehydration

• Hypertension, shortened QT interval

The symptoms early on are kind of nonspecific and more --- as the hypercalcemia progresses they become more pronounced. In general, patients complain of kind of generalized weakness, they are lethargic. They are fatigued and they may have some nausea, vomiting, constipation, and anorexia. This is all very nonspecific, and this is probably the typical symptom profile of any cancer patient that is getting active treatment. As things get more advanced and the serum calcium gets higher and higher, they may start to develop some mental status changes; may be very sedated, sleeping, you know, 12 to 18 hours a day, and may have some cognitive dysfunctions: difficulty concentrating, saying things that don’t make sense, maybe hallucinating. And because hypercalcemia impairs your ability to repair --- to reabsorb free water, patients develop polyuria and polydipsia and virtually all patients who have clinically significant hypercalcemia are significantly volume-depleted

Los primeros síntomas son inespecíficos y, a medida que la hipercalcemia avanza, se hacen más pronunciados. En general, los pacientes se quejan de debilidad generalizada y están letárgicos. Están cansados y pueden tener náuseas, vómitos, estreñimiento y anorexia. Todo esto es muy inespecífico, y probablemente estos son los síntomas típicos de cualquier paciente con cáncer que está recibiendo un tratamiento activo. A medida que la condición avanza y el calcio sérico es cada vez más alto, el paciente puede comenzar a desarrollar alteraciones mentales: puede estar muy sedado, dormir de 12 a 18 horas al día, y presentar algunas disfunciones cognitivas: dificultad para concentrarse, decir cosas sin sentido, quizás hasta tener alucinaciones. Dado que la hipercalcemia afecta la capacidad de reabsorber el agua libre, los pacientes desarrollan poliuria y polidipsia, y prácticamente todos los pacientes con hipercalcemia clínicamente significativa presentan

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and dehydrated by the time they present to you. In various textbooks, you will also see hypertension as a manifestation of hypercalcemia and shortened QT interval and a predisposition to arrhythmias as a risk. Although, in clinical practice, this is virtually never seen.

una importante reducción de volumen y deshidratación para el momento en que estos se presentan. Varios libros de texto también mencionan la hipertensión como una manifestación de la hipercalcemia, así como el acortamiento del intervalo QT y el riesgo de predisposición a las arritmias, aunque esto no se observa casi nunca en la práctica clínica.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Hypercalcemia: TreatmentHypercalcemia: TreatmentHypercalcemia: TreatmentHypercalcemia: Treatment

• Increase urinary calcium excretion

- Isotonic saline (lots of it)

- Loop diuretics?

- Replace other electrolyte loss (K+, Mg++)

- Will lower calcium quickly

Suki et al. N Engl J Med 1970 283(16):836

Now, what you should do when the patient comes in, you have identified them as having significant hypercalcemia for which they are symptomatic. If they have kidneys that work, you are going to need to increase their urinary calcium excretion. As I mentioned, virtually all of these patients are volume-depleted, so they are going to require a lot of volume replacement. So just give them lots and lots of isotonic saline. This will facilitate some calcium uresis. Now, traditionally, we have also used loop diuretics in conjunction with saline. This is one of the very few indications for concomitant administration of both saline and diuretics. There is actually very little evidence for that. There are really no randomized controlled trials. The use of this is based on some old studies from the 1960s. We still do it, but if you do do it, be sure to try to replace other electrolytes which may be depleted such as potassium or magnesium. Now, saline calciuresis will help you quickly and in the short term, but it is not a very potent treatment. So, it will bring down your calcium, but it will not bring you down close to normal just yet.

Veamos qué es preciso hacer con un paciente sintomático en el cual se ha identificado hipercalcemia importante. Si los riñones funcionan, es necesario aumentar la excreción urinaria de calcio. Casi todos estos pacientes presentan reducción de volumen, por lo cual tendrán que reponerlo en gran medida. Sólo se administra una gran cantidad de solución salina isotónica, que facilitará la calciuresis. Tradicionalmente se han utilizado también diuréticos de asa junto con solución salina. Esta es una de las muy pocas indicaciones para la administración concomitante de solución salina y diuréticos. Existe muy poca evidencia en cuanto a esto, pues no se dispone de ensayos aleatorios controlados y el uso de esta combinación se basa en estudios de la década de 1960. Aún se administra, pero hay que reemplazar otros electrolitos que pueden agotarse, como el potasio o el magnesio. La calciuresis salina ayudará de forma rápida y en el corto plazo, pero no es un tratamiento muy potente. Bajará el nivel de calcio, pero no lo llevará a un nivel normal.

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Hypercalcemia: TreatmentHypercalcemia: TreatmentHypercalcemia: TreatmentHypercalcemia: Treatment

• Inhibit bone resorption

• SQ Calcitonin Q6-12hrs

- Onset within 4-6 hours

- Duration 48 hours (development of tachyphylaxis)

• Bisphosphonates: IV zoledronic acid > pamidronate

- Quicker infusion over 15 min (vs 2-24 hours)

- Onset 24-72 hrs, duration 3-4 weeks

- Caution in renal insufficiency, all bisphosphonates associated with osteonecrosis of jaw with chronic usage (1-15%?)

You may require some other treatment, which is to --- which is really going to try to turn off the problem at its source. As I mentioned to you, the problem is usually paraneoplastic, because you have excessive bone reabsorption and release of calcium from the bone where most of it is stored. The most potent treatment you have available to you is at the bottom of the page here, which is bisphosphonate therapy. A variety of bisphosphonates are available. The one that is probably most commonly used these days is zoledronic acid or Zometa

®. The reason it is

popular is because it can be used --- it can be infused quickly over about 15 minutes or so as opposed to pamidronate, which is one of the older bisphosphonates, which required a much longer infusion up to 24 hours. The problem with all the bisphosphonates though is they have a slow onset of action. You are really not going to get any peak onset for several days, but they will last for a long time, in general for about 3 to 4 weeks. So, saline diuresis gives you a quick treatment, but not very potent. Bisphosphonates give you a potent treatment, but not very quick. What you can use, sort of in between, is calcitonin. This is delivered subcutaneously and has an onset of action of just a few hours. It will only last for maybe 24 to 48 hours. After that, you will develop --- the patients will develop tachyphylaxis and it will no longer work. And, in the patients with very severe hypercalcemia, you will probably require all three of these modes of therapy.

Es posible que se requiera otro tratamiento, básicamente para desactivar el problema en su origen. Mencioné que el problema suele ser paraneoplásico, porque hay una reabsorción ósea excesiva y liberación de calcio del hueso donde está alojado en su mayoría. El tratamiento más potente es la terapia con bifosfonatos, disponibles en variedad. El más común en estos días es el ácido zoledrónico o Zometa

®, que es popular

porque se puede infundir durante unos 15 minutos, a diferencia del pamidronato, uno de los bifosfonatos más antiguos, que requiere una infusión de hasta 24 horas. El problema de todos los bifosfonatos es que tienen un inicio de acción lento. No se obtendrá un pico durante varios días, pero el efecto se prolongará, en general, durante unas 3 a 4 semanas. La diuresis salina ofrece un tratamiento rápido, pero no muy potente. Los bifosfonatos ofrecen un tratamiento potente, pero no muy rápido. Algo intermedio que puede utilizarse es la calcitonina. Esta se administra por vía subcutánea y comienza a actuar en pocas horas. El efecto dura sólo de 24 a 48 horas, al cabo de las cuales los pacientes desarrollan taquifilaxia y deja de actuar. En los pacientes con hipercalcemia muy severa, es probable que se requieran las tres modalidades de terapia.

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Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Tumor Tumor Tumor Tumor LysisLysisLysisLysis Syndrome: DefinitionSyndrome: DefinitionSyndrome: DefinitionSyndrome: Definition

• Group of metabolic derangements that result from

high tumor burden/rapid cell turnover, release of

intracellular contents:

– Hyperkalemia

– Hyperphosphatemia

– Hypocalcemia (due to precipitation of CaPO4)

– Hyperuricemia (purine metabolite)

– Acute renal failure

Now, the next metabolic problem we are going to talk about is really only seen in cancer patients, and this is Tumor Lysis Syndrome. And by the name syndrome, obviously we are referring to a group of problems that tend to occur together. The basic underlying pathophysiology is that you have some bulky tumor with a high tumor burden and you have a rapid cell turnover and release of intracellular contents. So, you will have release of potassium, which is a primarily intracellular ion, release of phosphate, which is also primarily intracellular. And if patients have significant hyperphosphatemia that can then precipitate with calcium and so you have a secondary hypocalcemia. You have release of nucleic acids and purines, and that is metabolized to uric acid, so you develop hyperuricemia, and ultimately this can produce acute renal failure.

El siguiente problema metabólico que analizaremos sólo se ve en los pacientes con cáncer, y es el síndrome de lisis tumoral. Al decir “síndrome” obviamente nos estamos refiriendo a un grupo de problemas que tienden a ocurrir de manera conjunta. La fisiopatología básica subyacente es que existe un tumor de gran volumen con una alta carga tumoral, y un rápido recambio celular y liberación del contenido intracelular. Habrá liberación de potasio (que es más que nada un ión intracelular) y de fosfato (que también es principalmente intracelular). Si los pacientes tienen una hiperfosfatemia importante que puede precipitarse con el calcio, estamos frente a una hipocalcemia secundaria. Se produce liberación de los ácidos nucleicos y las purinas, que se metaboliza a ácido úrico, por lo cual se desarrolla hiperuricemia y finalmente puede generarse una insuficiencia renal aguda.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Tumor Tumor Tumor Tumor LysisLysisLysisLysis Syndrome: EtiologySyndrome: EtiologySyndrome: EtiologySyndrome: Etiology

• Most common with poorly differentiated lymphomas (Burkitt’s) and leukemias, ALL > AML

- Usually occurs after cytotoxic treatment

- May occur spontaneously

- Insoluble uric acid crystallizes in acidic urine, obstructs

renal tubules

• Has also been described in patients with myeloma, various solid tumors

So, as I mentioned, this is common in patients with high tumor burden. We typically see this in poorly differentiated lymphomas, like Burkitt’s and some leukemia patients with very high tumor burden, more commonly in acute lymphoblastic lymphoma, then acute myeloblastic lymphoma. Usually, this is something that occurs after treatment. This is usually a post-treatment problem. Rarely, but possibly, it can occur spontaneously. The classic would be a Burkitt’s patient. And what is happening is that you have this rapid cell turnover, release of intracellular contents, the purines get metabolized to uric acid, the uric acid is insoluble in acidic urine. And normal urine is acidic, so these uric acid crystals crystallize in the renal tubules and then start to obstruct the tubules and cause renal failure.

Esto es común en los pacientes con alta carga tumoral. Lo observamos en los linfomas escasamente diferenciados, como el de Burkitt, y en pacientes con leucemia con carga tumoral muy alta, más comúnmente en casos de linfoma linfoblástico aguda que de linfoma mieloblástico agudo. Esto por lo general ocurre después del tratamiento, es decir, suele ser un problema posterior, y en raras ocasiones puede ocurrir espontáneamente. El caso clásico sería un paciente con linfoma de Burkitt. Lo que ocurre es que se produce una renovación celular rápida, se libera el contenido intracelular, las purinas se metabolizan a ácido úrico y el ácido úrico es insoluble en la orina ácida. La orina normal es ácida, por lo cual el ácido úrico se cristaliza en los túbulos renales y comienza a obstruirlos, causando insuficiencia renal.

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TLS: CairoTLS: CairoTLS: CairoTLS: Cairo----Bishop DefinitionBishop DefinitionBishop DefinitionBishop Definition

• Laboratory TLS: any 2 of the following…

– Uric acid > 8.0 mg/dL

– K > 6.0 mEq/L

– PO4 > 4.5 mg/dL

– Ca < 7 mg/dL

• Clinical TLS: Above, plus…

– Cr > 1.5 ULN, arrhythmia, seizure

Coiffier B et al. J Clin Oncol 2008 26(16):2767

Now, because all of these parameters, serum uric acid, potassium, phosphorous, calcium, they all exist on a continuum, we have criteria for diagnosing Tumor Lysis Syndrome. The criteria that I am showing you here is the Cairo-Bishop definition, which is the most commonly used definition for Tumor Lysis Syndrome. Patients are said to have Tumor Lysis, laboratory Tumor Lysis, if they satisfy any two of these criteria: the uric acid is above 8, potassium above 6, phosphorous greater than 4.5, or a calcium less than 7. Now, they are said to have clinical Tumor Lysis if they have any of those two plus the development of renal failure, and the usual criteria is creatinine is greater than 1.5 times the upper limit of normal, or because of hypocalcemia, they are developing arrhythmias or seizures.

Con todos estos parámetros (ácido úrico sérico, potasio, fósforo, calcio…) en un contexto integral, tenemos criterios para diagnosticar síndrome de lisis tumoral. Estos son los criterios de Cairo-Bishop, la definición más comúnmente utilizada para el síndrome de lisis tumoral. Se considera que un paciente tiene lisis tumoral de laboratorio si cumple dos de estos criterios: nivel de ácido úrico superior a 8, potasio superior a 6, fósforo mayor de 4.5, o calcio inferior a 7. Se establece que tiene el síndrome de lisis tumoral clínica si presenta dos de esos niveles más el desarrollo de insuficiencia renal; el criterio habitual es creatinina más de 1.5 veces el límite normal superior, o si la hipocalcemia provoca en el paciente arritmias o convulsiones.

Oncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part IOncologic Emergencies: Part I

Tumor Tumor Tumor Tumor LysisLysisLysisLysis Syndrome: TreatmentSyndrome: TreatmentSyndrome: TreatmentSyndrome: Treatment

• After acute renal failure has occurred:

– Wash out obstructing uric acid crystals

– IV fluids and loop diuretics

– Use of recombinant uricase to catalyze insoluble uric acid to water-soluble allantoin

– Sodium bicarbonate not helpful at this stage to

alkalinize urine

– Hemodialysis if diuresis cannot be induced

• Best Treatment of TLS is Prevention

Now, the treatment of Tumor Lysis is difficult. If patients don’t present, don’t begin to receive treatment until after renal failure has occurred, then this is very difficult. You can try to hydrate them, give them some diuresis or some saline to try to wash out the obstructing uric acid crystals. This is another case where frequently we will give intravenous fluids and loop diuretics to try to facilitate washing out these crystals. You can also use a recombinant uricase, for instance rasburicase, to try to catalyze the destruction of the insoluble uric acid. And it will then form a water-soluble substance called allantoin. What is not helpful at this stage is administration of sodium bicarbonate. Recall that I mentioned to you that the uric acid crystals are insoluble in the normal acidic urine. What is intuitive is that, well, maybe if we alkalinize the urine by giving the patients sodium bicarbonate, that can help present --- prevent the formation of these uric

El tratamiento del síndrome de lisis tumoral es difícil. Si los pacientes no comienzan a recibir tratamiento sino hasta después de que aparece la insuficiencia renal, es muy difícil. Se puede intentar hidratarlos, provocarles cierta diuresis o administrarles solución salina para tratar de eliminar la obstrucción de los cristales de ácido úrico. Este es otro caso en el que solemos administrar fluidos y diuréticos de asa por vía intravenosa para tratar de facilitar el lavado de estos cristales. También se puede utilizar una uricasa recombinante (por ejemplo, rasburicasa) para tratar de catalizar la destrucción del ácido úrico insoluble y generar una sustancia soluble en agua llamada alantoína. Lo que no es útil en esta etapa es administrar bicarbonato de sodio. Ya mencionamos que los cristales de ácido úrico son insolubles en la orina ácida normal. Intuitivamente podemos pensar que si alcalinizamos la orina administrando al paciente

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acid crystals and treat this problem. Unfortunately, once renal failure has also --- is already occurred, this is not helpful and just buys you more metabolic problems. So, I would not recommend it at this phase. If patients have very advanced disease and are not responding to the treatment that you have instituted so far, sometimes they will require hemodialysis. So really the best treatment of Tumor Lysis is prevention.

bicarbonato de sodio se puede ayudar a prevenir la formación de estos cristales de ácido úrico y tratar este problema. Lamentablemente, una vez que aparece la insuficiencia renal, esto no es útil y sólo genera más problemas metabólicos. No recomiendo esta medida en esta fase. Si los pacientes tienen una enfermedad muy avanzada y no responden al tratamiento administrado, en ocasiones requerirán hemodiálisis. El mejor tratamiento es prevenir el síndrome de lisis tumoral.

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Tumor Tumor Tumor Tumor LysisLysisLysisLysis Syndrome: PreventionSyndrome: PreventionSyndrome: PreventionSyndrome: Prevention

• At-risk patients, before treatment

– Allopurinol for 2 days (xanthine oxidase inhibitor,

reduces production of uric acid)

– Consider recombinant uricase (rasburicase) for very

high risk pts

– Hydration +/- mannitol to maintain urine output >

2.5 L/day

– Urinary alkalinization to pH ≥ 7.0 with sodium bicarbonate controversial: no proven benefit vs

hydration alone

So, for high-risk patients like the ones that I have mentioned to you: leukemias, lymphomas, Burkitt’s patients; they generally get allopurinol before they begin treatment. This is a xanthine oxidase inhibitor. So, what will happen is that it will shunt the purines to a different pathway to reduce production of uric acid. Patients who are very high risk may be candidates for prophylactic administration of rasburicase, which is this recombinant uricase enzyme that I mentioned. They will also reduce the uric acid level. Patients who are coming in for treatment will --- who are considered to be high risk, will receive a lot of hydration, sometimes with mannitol to increase a very brisk urine output, at least 2 to 2.5 liters per day. The faster your urine flow is, the less likely it is that uric acid crystals will form. And, at this point, if you want to use bicarbonate to alkalinize the urine, this is the point when --- where it may be helpful to try to keep the urine pH above 7.0. To be honest with you though, there is no proven benefit for alkalinization versus hydration alone.

En el caso de los pacientes de alto riesgo como los que mencionamos, con leucemias, linfomas, linfoma de Burkitt, generalmente es preciso administrar alopurinol antes de iniciar el tratamiento. Este es un inhibidor de la xantina oxidasa, que derivará las purinas a una vía diferente para reducir la producción de ácido úrico. Los pacientes de muy alto riesgo pueden ser candidatos para la administración profiláctica de rasburicasa, la enzima uricasa recombinante que he mencionado. También reducirán el nivel de ácido úrico. Los pacientes que se presentan para su tratamiento y se consideran de alto riesgo deben recibir mucha hidratación, a veces con manitol, para aumentar la producción de orina, por lo menos de 2 a 2.5 litros por día. Cuanto más rápido sea el flujo de orina, tanto menos probable es que se formen cristales de ácido úrico. Este es el momento en que puede utilizarse bicarbonato para alcalinizar la orina, para tratar de mantener el pH de la orina por encima de 7.0. Para ser franco, no existe ningún beneficio comprobado de la alcalinización frente a la hidratación exclusiva.

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Oncologic (CancerOncologic (CancerOncologic (CancerOncologic (Cancer----related) Emergenciesrelated) Emergenciesrelated) Emergenciesrelated) Emergencies

• Problems due to the underlying malignancy or

its treatment:

– Structural problems

– Metabolic problems

– Hematologic problems

– Infectious problems

So, in summary, the oncologic emergencies include structural problems, which we have discussed, metabolic problems, which we have discussed. And, in Part 2 of this lecture, we will talk about hematologic problems and infectious problems. I thank you for your attention.

En resumen, las emergencias oncológicas incluyen problemas estructurales y problemas metabólicos, que ya hemos analizado. La parte 2 de esta disertación se referirá a los problemas hematológicos e infecciosos. Muchas gracias por su atención.


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