PowerPoints prepared by

Brian L. Delahaye, Queensland University of

Technology, & Tony Delahaye

CHAPTER 7: INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• INTERVIEWING

• THE FOCUS GROUP

• ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA

• THE BEGINNING OF LEARNING

CHAPTER 7: INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• INTERVIEWING

• THE FOCUS GROUP

• ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA

• THE BEGINNING OF LEARNING

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Interviews and focus groups are qualitative research methods. The data gathered with these methods have to be an accurate representation of the phenomenon being investigated. Further, the research should be able to be replicated.

While accuracy and replicability are ideals, and difficult to achieve fully, the good investigator attempts to come as close as possible to this utopian state.

This is achieved by considering a number of research options and through sampling.

The researcher should consider the following options:

trustworthiness

verification and triangulation

acknowledging subjectivity and bias

process and sequence

RESEARCH OPTIONS

interpretation

referential adequacy

paint the path

Gathering data from entire populations is usually too costly and therefore a representative sample is taken. There are various types of sampling designs:

• simple random sampling• systematic sampling• stratified random sampling• convenience sampling

SAMPLING

• purposive sampling• convergence sampling• snowball sampling.

The above list moves from probability to non-probability sampling. Each has its advantages and disadvantages.

CHAPTER 7: INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• INTERVIEWING

• THE FOCUS GROUP

• ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA

• THE BEGINNING OF LEARNING

Successful interviewing is the result of the complex interaction of high-level skills, empathy and understanding of others and an abundant curiosity. Key interviewing skills include:

the pattern of the interview

listening

questioning

paraphrasing

INTERVIEWING

probing

summarising

non-verbal behaviour.

THE PATTERN OF THE INTERVIEW

which includes a ritual,

where the interviewer uses the skills of

which allows the interviewee

Stage 1: Entrance investment time,a pass time, explaining reasons for the interview, stating the rules, previewing and activity no.1.

Stage 2: Activity no.2,questioning, paraphrasing and probing.

Stage 4: Exit investment time,to prepare to return to the outside world and includes final comments, a summary, future actions, final questions, pass time and a ritual.

A well-patterned interview removes communication barriers and encourages the flow of information. A typical pattern of a good interview is shown in Figure 7.1 on page 179 of the textbook. There are four stages.

where complexity, uncertainty andStage 3: Intimacy,emotions are encountered.

THE PATTERN OF THE INTERVIEW

LISTENING

Listening is THE most important skill of the interviewer. There are two levels of listening:

• listening to the substance of what the interviewee is saying

• listening for the ‘unstated’ message.

Further, the interviewer must be comfortable with silence and withstand the inclination to rush in and contaminate the outcome.

It should always be remembered that the interviewee’s answers are the raw data for the investigation.

QUESTIONING

There are two types of questions:

In an interview the first question on a topic is called a primary question and the other questions secondary questions. A question sequence usually starts with an open question, followed by a less open question, followed by a fairly closed question and then a closed question. This is called a funnel sequence.

Open questions have a ‘stem-plus-query’ structure and allow the interviewee a wide choice of possible answers. ‘I am interested in the concerns you may have about the new financial system. Would you tell me about some of these concerns, please?’ Closed questions are used to identify explicit facts. ‘How many customers have complained?’

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PARAPHRASING

From the interviewee’s perspective, the most important part of the interview are the answers. The interviewee is often concerned whether the message is being heard and if it is being interpreted correctly.

To help the interviewee, the interviewer paraphrases the answer back to the interviewer. In paraphrasing, the interviewer repeats back to the interviewee, in a concise form, the essential message of the interviewee’s reply.

A special form of paraphrasing is reflection of feelings.

PROBING

Probing combines the funnel sequence of questioning with paraphrasing and allows the interviewer to delve into the memories of the interviewee.

For an example of probing, see ‘A closer look 7.1’ onpage 185 of the textbook.

SUMMARISING

A summary is a restatement of ideas, facts, themes and/or feelings the interviewee has expressed. A summary usually occurs at the end of a section of an interview before going on to a new topic.

An example of summarising is shown in ‘A closer look 7.2’ on page 186 of the textbook.

NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR

Interviewers need to be aware of their own non-verbal behaviour as well as that of the interviewee. A robust model for checking nonverbal behaviour is the SOLER model.

• quare on

• pen posture• ean forward• yes

The interviewer can check the interviewee’s non-verbal behaviours to see if they are in the rapport zone as well as checking their own behaviour.

• elax

(S)

(O)

(L)(E)

(R)

STRUCTURED vsUNSTRUCTURED

An unstructured interview commences with a broad, open question and then relies on the interview skill of probing to manage the process and the direction of the interview. These interviews require a very experienced interviewer.

Structured interviews use standardised, pre-prepared questions that are carefully worded and ordered. These questions are usually based on previously gathered information. These interviews do not necessarily needan experienced interviewer.

Interviews can be considered as highly structured or highly unstructured.

THE THREE LEVELS

The content level is where the interviewer listens to, and records, the information.

The process level is where the interviewer uses the skills of questioning, paraphrasing, probing and attending to control the direction of the interview.

The executive level is where the interviewer controls the time and is aware of other issues such as the interviewee’s energy levels.

The interviewer operates on three levels.

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CHAPTER 7: INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• INTERVIEWING

• THE FOCUS GROUP

• ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA

• THE BEGINNING OF LEARNING

THE FOCUS GROUPThe focus group collects data through group interaction with a number of respondents simultaneously. There are a number of similarities with an interview. The facilitator operates at the same three levels – content, process and executive – and uses the same six factors – the overall pattern, listening, questioning, paraphrases, probes, and uses non-verbal.

Structured and unstructured focus groups

Logistics

Group composition

Conducting the focus group.

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There are four other factors to be considered:

STRUCTURED vs UNSTRUCTURED

In a similar fashion to the interview, a decision has to be made on whether the focus group will be structured or unstructured.

LOGISTICS

A focus group brings together a number of people, at a common time, in a relatively large space that is comfortable, quiet and free from interruptions. Associated equipment such a chairs, tables, video equipment, visual aids and writing material is usually needed.

This takes quite a deal of planning!

GROUP COMPOSITION

The investigator has to give careful consideration to the membership of the groups, including:

• representation

• homogeneity

• strangers vs acquaintances

• size of group.

There are five considerations that need attention:

Facilitator team

Use of visual aids

Thinking time

Group dynamics

Recording

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CONDUCTING THE FOCUS GROUP

The facilitator must be aware of the task roles and relationship roles that occur within a group (see Table 7.1 on page 194 and Table 7.2 on page 195 of the textbook).

CONDUCTING THE FOCUS GROUP

CONDUCTING THE FOCUS GROUP

CHAPTER 7: INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• INTERVIEWING

• THE FOCUS GROUP

• ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA

• THE BEGINNING OF LEARNING

ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA

The overall purpose of analysing qualitative data is to identify the themes and sub-themes in the raw data which will provide an understanding of the issue, opportunity or problem being investigated. Themes can be identified in two ways:

by using the pre-planned questions as themes for the analysis. This is usually only an option in the structured interviews and focus groups.

by using content analysis.

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CONTENT ANALYSIS

Read through notes and other evidence.

When a second theme is found, compare it with the first, and so on. If it is different, start a new code.

Maintain a list of the abbreviations of the main themes identified.

At reasonable intervals, transfer the indicated passages to a file. This transferring classifies the data into specific categories.

Code themes as they surface. Highlight the full passage containing the theme.

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Content analysis is the process of identifying, coding and categorising the primary patterns in the qualitative data.

Steps 1 to 5 are called open coding – the first pass through the raw data.

In the third reading, selective coding occurs – looking for evidence that illustrates or justifies identified codes; and making comparisons and contrasts between themes and sub-themes.

Write the report.

The second reading of the raw data is for axial coding – to look for new ideas; to review and examine initial codes and themes; to look for causes and consequences.

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CONTENT ANALYSIS

Six important comments can be made about analysing qualitative data:

It is a messy process.

The decisions are yours.

Gathering data, analysing data and writing the report are not mutually exclusive.

The best instrument to analyse qualitative data is the human brain.

Computer programs (e.g. NVIVO) can be used.

There are two levels of data. The manifest data is the data that is physically present and accountable. The latent data is the symbolism underlying the physical data.

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ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA(Continued)

CHAPTER 7: INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• INTERVIEWING

• THE FOCUS GROUP

• ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA

• THE BEGINNING OF LEARNING

THE BEGINNING OF LEARNING

The HRDNI is the beginning of the learning process for the individual and the organisation. This is particularly so with the qualitative research methods. The interaction between the investigator and the participants is the epitome of communicative learning.

In addition, both parties are involved in the knowledge creating processes of externalisation and internalisation.

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