B.Sc. Horticulture III Year Semester-II
2020
Prepared by
Dr. Rahul Chopra
Assistant Professor, Soil Science
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
COLLEGE OF HORTICULURE AND FORESTRY
AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY, KOTA, RAJASTHAN
ORGANIC FARMING
(NRM-321)
2
Organic farming- Introduction, concept, relevance in present context
Introduction-
Organic farming is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances
agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It
emphasizes, the use of management practices in preference to the use of off –farm inputs, taking
into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by
using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using
synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system (FAO, 1999).
Defination-
As per the definition of the USDA study team on organic farming “organic farming is a system
which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides,
hormones, feed additives etc) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop
residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological
system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection”.
In another definition FAO suggested that “Organic agriculture is a unique production
management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-
farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm
inputs”.
Concept-
Nature is the best role model for farming, since it does not use any inputs nor demand
unreasonable quantities of water.
The entire system is based on intimate understanding of nature's ways. The system does not
believe in mining of the soil of its nutrients and do not degrade it in any way for today's needs.
The soil in this system is a living entity
The soil's living population of microbes and other organisms are significant contributors to its
fertility on a sustained basis and must be protected and nurtured at all cost.
The total environment of the soil, from soil structure to soil cover is more important.
Components of Organic Farming:
Major components of organic farming are crop rotation, maintenance and enhancement of soil
fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, addition of organic manure and use of soil
microorganisms, crop residues, bio-pesticide, biogas slurry, waste etc. Vermiculture has become
a major component in biological farming, which is found to be effective in enhancing the soil
fertility and producing large numbers of horticultural crops in a sustainable manner. The various
components of organic farming have been discussed in details below:
1. Crop rotation:
It is a systematic arrangement for the growing of different crops in a more or loss regular
sequence on the same land covering a period of two years or more. The selection of optimal crop
rotation is important for successful sustainable agriculture. Crop rotation is very important. Soil
fertility management, weed, insect and disease control. Legumes are essential in any rotation and
should 30 to 50 percent of the land. A mixed cropping, pasture and livestock system is desirable
or even essential for the success of sustainable agriculture.
2. Crop Residue:
In India there is a great potential for utilization of crop residues/ straw of some of the major
cereals and pulses. About 50% of the crop residues are utilized as animal fed, the rest could be
very well utilized for recycling of nutrients. Adequate care is required to use the residues after
proper composting with efficient microbial inoculants. While the incorporation of crop residues
e.g. Wheat and Rice straw, as such or inoculated with fungal species had beneficial effects on
crop yields and important in physico-chemical properties of soil.
3. Organic manure:
The organic manure is derived from biological sources like plant, animal and human residues.
Organic manure act in many ways in augmenting crop growth and soil productivity. The direct
effect of organic manure relates to the uptake of humic substances or its decomposition products
affecting favourably the growth and yield of plants. Indirectly, it augments the beneficial soil
microorganisms and their activities and thus increases the availability of major and minor plant
nutrients.
a) Bulky organic manure: It generally contains fewer amounts of plant nutrients as compared to
concentrated organic manure. It includes FYM, compost and Green manure.
FYM: It refers to the well-decomposed mixture of dung, urine, farm litter and left over or
used up materials from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle. The waste material of cattle
shed consisting of dung and urine soaked in the refuse is collected and placed in trenches
about 6 m long, 2 m wide and 1 m deep. Each trench is filled up to a height of about 0.5
m above the ground level and plastered over with slurry cowdung and earth. The material
is allowed to decompose undisturbed 3-4 months for anaerobic microorganism for
completion of fermentation. FYM becomes ready to apply after 3-4 months. Well-rotted
FYM contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P205 and 0.5% K2O.
Compost: Large quantities of waste material are available as vegetable refuse, farm litter,
such as weeds, stubble, bhusa, sugarcane trash, Sewage sludge and animal waste in
houses and in areas like human and industrial refuse; therefore, excreta can be converted
into useful compost manure by conserving and subjecting these to a controlled process of
anaerobic decomposition. Compost is used in the same way as FYM and is good for
application to all soils and all crops.
Green Manuring: It is a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undercomposed
green plant tissues for the purpose of improving physical structure as well as fertility of
the soil. From the time immemorial the turning in a green crop for improvement of the
conditions of the soil has been a popular farming practice. Green Manuring, wherever
feasible, is the principal supplementary means of adding organic matter to the soil. It
consists of the growing of quick growing crop and ploughing it under to incorporate it
into the soil. The green manure crop supplies organic matter as well as additional
nitrogen, particularly if it is a legume crop, which has the ability to fix nitrogen from the
air with the help of its root-nodule bacteria. A leguminous crop producing 25 tones of
green matter per hectare will add about 60 to 90 kg of nitrogen when ploughed under.
This amount would equal an application of 3 to 10 tones of FYM on the basis of organic
matter and its nitrogen contribution. The green manure crops also exercise a protective
action against erosion and leaching. The most commonly used green manuring crops
are: Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea), Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), Cluster
bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), Senji (Melilotus parviflora), Cowpea (Vigna catjang,
Vigna sinensis), Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium).
b) Concentrated Organic Manure: Concentrated organic manures are those materials that are
organic in nature and contain higher percentage of essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorous and potash, as compared to bulky organic manures. These concentrated manures are
made from raw materials of animal or plant origin. The concentrated organic manures commonly
used are oilcakes, blood meal, fishmeal, meat meal and horn and hoof meal.
4. Waste:
1. Industrial waste: Among the industrial by products, spent wash from ditilisers and
molasses and pressmud from sugar industry have good manurial value. It is important to
use only well decomposed pressmud at 10 tones/ha. Addition of pressmud improves the
soil fertility and enhances the activity of microbes. Coir waste is the by-product from coir
industry and can be used as manure after proper decomposition.
2. Municipal and Sewage waste: It also forms an important component of organic waste.
In India, the total municipal refuse is about 12 mt/annum containing about 0.5% N, 0.3%
P2O5 and 0.3% K2O. Sewage sludge is available to an extent of 4 million tones per
annum containing 3% N, 2% P and 0.3% K (Bharadwaj and Gaur, 1985). Sewage sludge
particularly from industrialized cities is contaminated with heavy metals and these pose
hazards to plants, animals and human beings. Separation of the toxic waste at the source
will minimize the concentration of such elements in the sludge.
5. Biofertilizers:
It has been observed that there is decline in crop yield due to continuous apply of inorganic
fertilizers. Therefore, increasing need is being felt to integrate nutrient supply with organic
sources to restore the health of soil. Bio-fertilizer offers an economically attractive and
ecologically sound means of reducing external inputs and improving the quality and quantity of
internal sources. Bio-fertilizer is microorganism's culture capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen
when suitable crops are inoculated with them. The main inputs are microorganisms, which are
capable of mobilizing nutritive elements from non-usable form to usable form through biological
process. These are less expensive, eco-friendly and sustainable. The beneficial microorganisms
in the soil that are greater significance to horticultural situations are biological nitrogen fixers,
phosphate solubilisers and mycorrhizal fungi.
The Biofertilizers containing biological nitrogen fixing organism are of utmost important in
agriculture in view of the following advantages:
They help in establishment and growth of crop plants and trees.
They enhance biomass production and grain yields by 10-20%.
They are useful in sustainable agriculture.
They are suitable organic farming.
They play an important role in Agroforestry / silvipastoral systems.
Types of Biofertilizers: There are two types of bio-fertilizers.
1. Symbiotic N-fixation: These are Rhizobium culture of various strains which multiply in roots
of suitable legumes and fix nitrogen symbiotically. Almost 50% demands of N are met by these
microorganisms in legumes.
Rhizobium: It is the most widely used biofertilizers, which colonizes the roots of
specific legumes to form tumours like growths called rot nodules. It is these nodules that
act as factories of ammonia production. The Rhizobium legume association can fix upto
100-300 kg N/ha in one crop season.
2. Asymbiotic N-fixation: This includes Azotobacter, Azospirillium, BGA, Azolla and
Mycorrhizae, which also fixes atmospheric N in suitable soil medium. They grow on
decomposing soil organic matter and produce nitrogen compounds for their own growth and
development, besides that they leave behind a significant amount of N in surroundings.
Azotobacter: Application of Azotobactor has been found to increase the yields of wheat,
rice, maize, pearl millet and sorghum by 0-30% over control. The beneficial effect of
Azotobactor biofertilizers on cereals, millets, vegetables, cotton and sugarcane under
both irrigated and rainfed field conditions have been substantiated and documented
(Pandey and Sushil Kumar, 1989). Apart from nitrogen this organism is also capable of
producing antibacterial and anti-fungal compounds, hormones and siderophores.
Azospirillium: It is an important bacterium, which colonize the root zones and fix
nitrogen in loose association with plants. The crops which response to Azospirillum is
maize, barley, oats, sorghum, pearl millet and forage crop. Azospirillum applications
increase gain productivity of cereals by 5-20%, of millets by 30% and of fodder by over
50%.
Blue Green Algae: The utilization of blue-green algae as biofertilizers for rice is very
promising. Recent researches have shown that algae also help to reduce soil alkalinity
and this opens up possibilities for bio-reclamation of such inhospitable environments.
Azolla: A small floating fern, Azolla is commonly seen in low land fields and in shallow
fresh water bodies. This fern harbours blue-green algae, anabaena azollae. The Azolla
anabaena association is a live floating nitrogen factory using energy from photosynthesis
to fix atmospheric nitrogen amounting to 100-150 kg N/ha/year from about 40-64 tones
of biomass (Hamdi, 1982; Singh, 1988).
Mycorrhizae: Mycorrhizae are the symbiotic association of fungi with roots of Vascular
plants. The main advantage of Mycorrhizae to the host plants lies in the extension of the
penetration zone of the root fungus system in the soil, facilitating an increased
phosphorous uptake. In many cases the Mycorrhizae have been shown to markedly
improve the growth of plants. In India, the beneficial effects of Vascular-arbuscular
Mycorrhizae (V AM) have been observed in fruit crops like citrus, papaya and litchi.
Recent studies showed the possibility of domesticating Mycorrhizae in agricultural
system (Hayman, 1982; Tilak, 1987).
6. Bio-pesticide:
Bio-pesticides are natural plant products that belong to the so-called secondary metabolites,
which include thousands of alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics and minor secondary chemicals.
These substances have usually no known function in photosynthesis, growth or other basic
aspects of plant physiology; however, their biological activity against insects, nematodes, fungi
and other organisms is well documented.
Botanical insecticides are ecologically and environmentally safer generally affect the behaviour
and physiology of insects rather than killing them. Among the botanical pesticides investigated.
Neem (Azadirachta indica) has justifiably received the maximum attention. All parts of the
Neem tree possess insecticidal property but seed kernel is most active.
Biopesticides and other preparations of plant origin used in agriculture seem to have a good
scope especially in view of the environmental problems being faced with the synthetic
agrochemical. Some of the commonly used botanical Insecticides are Nicotine, Pyrethrum,
Rotenone, Subabilla, Ryanin, Quassia, Margosa, Acorus etc. Their used need to be promoted
under the Integrated Pest management Programmes.
7. Vermicompost:
It is organic manure produced by the activity of earthworms. It is a method of making compost
with the use of earthworms that generally live in soil, eat biomass and excrete it in digested form.
It is generally estimated that 1800 worms which is an ideal population for one sq. meter can feed
on 80 tones of humus per year. These are rich in macro and micronutrients, vitamins, growth
hormones and immobilized microflora. The average nutrient content of vermicompost is much
higher than that of FYM. It contains 1.60% N, 5.04% P2O and 0.80% K2O with small quantities
of micronutrients. Application of vermicompost facilitates easy availability of essential plant
nutrients to crop.
Objectives of organic farming (as per IFOAM)
To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity.
To work with natural system rather than seeking to dominate them.
To encourage and enhance biological cycles within farming system-involving
microorganisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals.
To maintain and increase long term fertility of soil.
To use, as far as possible, the renewable resources.
To work as much as possible, within a closed system, with regard to organic matter and
nutrient elements.
To give all livestocks, conditions of life that allow them to perform all aspects of their
innate behavior.
To avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural techniques
To maintain the genetic diversity of agricultural system and its surroundings, including
the plants and wild life habitats.
To allow agricultural producers an adequate returns and satisfaction from their work
including safe drinking water
Characteristics of organic farming
Maximum but sustainable use of resources.
Minimal use of purchased inputs, only as complementary to local resources.
Ensuring the basic biological functions of soil-water-nutrients-human continuum
Maintaining the diversity of plant and animal species as a basis for ecological balance
and economic stability.
Creating an alternative overall landscape which give satisfaction to the local people
Status of organic farming in India
The task force of GOI under the chairmanship of Shri Kunwarji Bhai suggested need for
alternative to modern conventional agriculture.
Ministry of Commerce, GOI, has launched national programme for organic production in
March, 2000
National Standards for organic products (NSOP) have been standardized during May,
2001 and all the products sold under the logo “India Organic”
Natioanal Accreditation Policy Programme (NAPP) has been formulated with the
accreditation regulations announced in May, 2001.This made it mandatory that all
certification bodies engaged in inspection andcertification of organic crops and products
should be accredited by an accreditation agency.
Accreditation agencies: APEDA, Coffee Board, Tea Board, Spice Board etc.,
Certification and inspection agencies: Institute of Marketology (IMO), SKAL India,
INDOCERT, ECOCERT International, SGS India Pvt. Ltd, APOF Bangalore etc.,
National Institute of Organic Farming (NIOF) established at Ghaziabad. The purpose of
this institute is to formulate rules, regulations and certification of organic farm products
in conformity with International standards.
Indian Organic farming overview
NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR ORGANIC PRODUCTION (NPOP), 2000
Organic products are grown under a system of agriculture without the use of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides with an environmentally and socially responsible approach. This is a method of
farming that works at grass root level preserving the reproductive and regenerative capacity of
the soil, good plant nutrition, and sound soil management, produces nutritious food rich in
vitality which has resistance to diseases.
India is bestowed with lot of potential to produce all varieties of organic products due to its
various agro climatic regions. In several parts of the country, the inherited tradition of organic
farming is an added advantage. This holds promise for the organic producers to tap the market
which is growing steadily in the domestic and export market.
As per the available statistics, India’s rank in terms of World’s Organic Agricultural land
was 9th (Australia ranked I and Argentina ranked II)and in terms of total number of
producers was 1st as per 2018 data (Source: FIBL & IFOAM Year Book 2018).
AREA
As on 31st March 2018, total area under organic certification process (registered under
National Programme for Organic Production) is 3.56 million Hectare (2017-18). This
includes 1.78 million ha (50%) cultivable area and another 1.78 million Hectare (50%) for
wild harvest collection.
Among all the states, Madhya Pradesh has covered largest area under organic certification
followed by Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.
During 2016, Sikkim has achieved a remarkable distinction of converting its entire cultivable
land (more than 76000 ha) under organic certification.
PRODUCTION
India produced around 1.70 million MT (2017-18) of certified organic products which
includes all varieties of food products namely Oil Seeds, Sugar cane, Cereals & Millets,
Cotton, Pulses, Medicinal Plants, Tea, Fruits, Spices, Dry Fruits, Vegetables, Coffee etc.
The production is not limited to the edible sector but also produces organic cotton fiber,
functional food products etc.
Among different states Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer followed by Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. In terms of commodities Oil seeds are the single largest
category followed by Sugar crops, Cereals and Millets, Fiber crops, Pulses, Medicinal, Herbal
and Aromatic plants and Spices and Condiments.
EXPORTS
The total volume of export during 2017-18 was 4.58 lakh MT. The organic food export
realization was around INR 3453.48 crore (515.44 million USD). Organic products are exported
to USA, European Union, Canada, Switzerland, Australia, Israel, South Korea, Vietnam, New
Zealand, Japan etc.
In terms of export value realization Oilseeds (47.6%) lead among the products followed by
Cereals and millets (10.4%), Plantation crop products such as Tea and Coffee (8.96%), Dry fruits
(8.88%), Spices and condiments (7.76%) and others
Relevance of organic farming
The relevance and need for an eco-friendly alternative farming system arose from the ill effects
of the chemical farming practices adopted worldwide during the second half of the last century.
The methods of farming evolved and adopted by our forefathers for centuries were less injurious
to the environment. People began to think of various alternative farming systems based on the
protection of environment which in turn would increase the welfare of the humankind by various
ways like clean and healthy foods, an ecology which is condusive to the survival of all the living
and non-living things, low use of the non-renewable energy sources, etc. Many systems of
farming came out of the efforts of many experts and laymen. However, organic farming is
considered to be the best among all of them because of its scientific approach and wider
acceptance all over the world.
25% of the India’s population can’t get three square meal a day.
Green revolution (GR) was only concentrated in areas having fertile soil and adequate water
supply. This 30% of the GR area contributed 60% of the food production while, 70% of the area
contributed only 40%.
In intensive farming systems, organic agriculture (OA) decreases yield. In the GR areas
(irrigated land and well endowed water regions), conversion to organic usually leads to almost
identical yields.
In traditional rainfed areas (with low external inputs) OA has shown the potential to increase the
yields. Under restricted water availability or rainfed condition, difference in crop yield between
organic and conventional production narrow down to between 10 to 15%.
In earlier period, farmers used to choose crops depending on the climate and soil conditions.
Alexander Walker (at Baroda) (1829) –Green fodder was being grown throughout the year;
intercropping, crop rotation, fallowing, composting and maturing were practiced.
Technical team constituted by the ministry of Agriculture made the following observations.
The country at present is not in a position to completely eliminate the use of chemicals especially
the fertilizer.
Fertilizers can gradually be reduced.
Control on commercial sale of organic manures.
IPM is the solution.
ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF ORGANIC FARMING
ADVANTAGE-
1. Nutritional, poison-free and tasty food.
2. Lower growing cost.
3. Enhances soil fertility.
4. Carbon sequestration
5. Reduce environmental pollution
6. Environment-friendly practices
7. Generate employment
8. Energy conservation
Disadvantage
1. Lower productivity.
2. Requires skill.
3. Time-consuming.
4. More labour intensive
5. More expensive
Nutrient management in organic farming
The first task in OF is to protect the soil fertility and health. Use of organic manures, crop
rotation, use of crop residues, green manures, intercropping with legumes, use of biofertilizers
etc., are resorted to.
Limiting nutrient losses
Better recycling of wastes
Handling of organic wastes
Application of organic matter at right time, method and quantity
Reducing run off by following conservation practices
Conservation of organic matter by decreasing burning of crop residues
In wet land, deceasing denitrification losses of nutrients
Nutrient release and time of uptake must be synchronized
Cropping pattern
Pumping of nutrient by hedge row planting
Minimizing the exports of nutrients from the farm
Manures
Manures
Manures are organic materials (plant, animal or human origin) containing small amount of plant
nutrients and thus may aptly be called as the low analysis organic fertilizers. It was the only
source of replenishing soil fertility until the manufacture of fertilizers. In India, its use declined
with the advent of Green Revolution due to introduction of fertilizer-responsive high yielding
varieties and decline in the manures' availability due to replacement of the farm animals by the
machinery. Because of realization on their favorable effects on physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil, renewed interest in integrating organic manures with fertilizers has developed.
Manures are broadly classified as:
(i) Bulky organic manures: These are bulky or voluminous in nature and contain small
concentrations of plant nutrients and large quantities of organic matter e.g. farmyard manure
(FYM), compost, green manure (GM) and crop residues, etc.
(ii) Concentrated organic manures: These contain relatively higher percentage of plant
nutrients than bulky organic manures and can be of plant (e.g. oilcakes) or animal origin (e.g.
blood meal, fish meal, meat meal, hoof meal).
Farmyard Manure (FYM) It is the decomposed product of dung, urine, litter and left-over
fodder fed to the cattle. The nutrient content of FYM depends on the source of dung (cow or
bullock or horse), quality of food fed to the animal, nature of litter and manner of storage. It is
prepared either in pits or trenches or heaps having an ideal size of 6 m (length) a 2 m (breadth) a
1 m (height). Each morning, the dung and urine-soaked litter from the cattle-shed is dumped till
the heap reaches 0.5 m above the ground. It is then made dome-shape and plastered with a slurry
of mud and cow dung. The FYM becomes ready for use in 4-6 months and, on an average,
contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P2O5 and 0.5% K20. Application of 10 tonnes FYM to the soil gives 50
kg N, 20 kg P205 and 50 kg K20. Out of this 30% of N, 60-70% of P205 and 75% of K20 is
available to the crop in the first year of application and the rest of the nutrients is available in
subsequent years. Considerable amount of N in FYM is lost during preparation and storage
mainly as NH3 volatilization and/or NO3 leaching. The losses of N in FYM can be minimized by
following improved methods or use of biogas (gobar gas) plant or by using chemical
preservatives (e.g. gypsum or SSP). Unfortunately, in India most of the cattle dung (>50%) is
used for preparation of cakes and burnt as fuel (for cooking) in rural homes and little is applied
to soil.
Biogas plant produces a combustible gas called methane (CH4) which can be used for cooking
and lighting purposes. Huge quantity of biogas slurry is also produced during the process which
is a very good source of plant nutrients and can supplement 25% of the fertilizers. It is richer in
plant nutrients compared to FYM and compost having 1.6-1.8% N, 1.0-1.2% P205 and 1.2-1.8%
K20. The main limitation is its excessive water content. Thus, it should be dried before use.
Alternately, the slurry can be directly used through irrigation.
Compost Composting is the process of converting organic residues of plant and animal origin
into organic manure, rich in humus and plant nutrients by a variety of microorganisms in a warm,
moist, aerobic or anaerobic environment. Composting is basically a biological process in which
aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms decompose organic matter and narrow down the C/N ratio
of substrate used. The final product formed is an amorphous, brown to dark brown, humified
material known as compost. It is more stable and richer in nutrients than FYM. The difference in
FYM and compost is the substrate used. In FYM the substrates are dung, urine and litter whereas
in compost, the substrates are diverse waste organic materials (straw, stalk, stubble, husk, weeds,
biodegradable households, factory waste, etc). in the entire area of waste recycling composting
emerges as the most widely applicable process for handling wide variety of diverse waste.
Compost can be of rural origin or urban origin. Urban or solid waste composting is followed in
big cities using mechanical compost plants and modern technology.
Depending on the oxygen usage during decomposition, composting can be categorized as aerobic
or anaerobic. Aerobic composting takes place in presence of oxygen (e.g. Indore method) and is
characterized by high temperature, presence of aerobic microorganisms, • optimum moisture and
hence is a rapid process. On the other hand, anaerobic composting takes place in absence of air
or oxygen (e.g. Bangalore method) and is characterized by low temperature, foul smell,
production of intermediate products and is a slow process. Moisture content, temperature, pH,
C/N ratio, aeration and inoculation are some of the factors that affect composting process. Well-
decomposed compost should have a neutral pH, C/N ratio < 20 and contain more than 16% C,
0.5% N, 0.5% P205 and 1% K20 (on w/w basis). The nutrient content of compost is low. Hence,
enriched-compost can be prepared by adding nitrogen, low-grade minerals like rock phosphate
and waste mica during composting to increase the nutrient value of the final product. Phosphate
solubilizing bacteria such as Bacillus polymyxa, Pseudomonas striata, and fungi such as
Aspergillus awamori can be introduced into the composting mass to solubilise the rock
phosphate. Similarly, potassium solubilizing bacteria like Bacillus mucilaginosus can be used to
solubilize waste mica. In order to hasten the composting process, some. cellulolytic and
lignolytic microorganisms like Trichoderma viride, Trichurus spiralis, Paecthomyces fusisporus
and Phaenerocheate crysosporium are used as compost accelerators.
The details on different methods of composting are given below:
Indore Method
This method is known as 'heap' or 'aerobic' method of composting. During the early days of
organic gardening/farming, the Indore method was the only systematic way to convert waste
materials to mature compost. This method developed at the Institute of Plant Industry, Indore,
India between 1924 and 1931, was described by Sir Albert Howard, known as the father of
modern organic farming, in his dissertation on organic agriculture "An Agricultural Testament
(1940)". In this method, animal dung is used as the catalytic agent along with different types of
organic wastes available on the farm.
The steps followed for preparation of compost by Indore method are given below:
• A compost heap or trench or pit of suitable size say, 3 m x, 1.5 m, x 1 m (length x width x
depth) is prepared. The site selected for the compost heap should be near the cattle-shed and
water source and at an elevated site so that no rain water floods into the composting pit during
rainy season.
• Organic wastes of different sources available on a farm, such as weeds, stalks, stems, fallen
leaves, prunings, chaff and fodder leftovers, a ,are accumulated near the trench and mixed
thoroughly. Hard woody material such as cotton and pigeonpea stalks and stubble are crushed
before being piled. Such hard materials should not exceed 10% of the total plant residues. Green
materials, which are soft and succulent, are allowed to wilt for two to three days in order to
remove excess moisture before stacking; these tend to pack closely when stacked in the fresh
state. The mixture of different kinds of organic material/ residues ensures a more efficient
decomposition.
• The compost heap is built in layers. First, a layer of refuse/organic wastes like weeds, crop
residue, grass clippings or leaves of about 15-20 cm (6-8 inch) thick is spread at the base of the
heap. Next a 7 cm (2-3 inch) layer of slurry of cattle dung and water is added onto the refuse. A
third layer (15-20 cm) of organic wastes is then spread followed by a layer of slurry of cattle
dung and water. The layering is continued till the heap is raised to a height of 50 cm above the
ground level. The top is then covered with a thin layer of soil and the heap is kept moist. • The
filling of heap is completed within 6 to 7 days to fill the 3/4th length of the trench, leaving 1/4th
length empty to facilitate subsequent turnings.
• Water is added so as to raise the moisture content to about 60 to 80%.
• Turning is done three times, approximately at 15, 30 and 60 days of composting in order to
allow air to penetrate so that the heap will heat up properly. At each turning the whole mass is
mixed thoroughly. This can be done manually or mechanically.
The main advantage of this method is that the finished compost is ready within 4 to 5 months for
application to the soil. The compost prepared by this method contains, on an average, 0.8% N,
0.3 to 0.5% P2O5 and 1.0 to 1.5% K2O. Periodic turning of composting mass is essential for
completing the process. Turning helps the process to remain aerobic throughout the
decomposition and facilitate faster decomposition by bringing in substrates which are
undecomposed or partially decomposed with the microorganisms and air. As it requires extra
labour for 2-3 turnings, the cost of preparation of compost is more. During the decomposition
process, heat is generated inside the compost pit which helps in destroying most of the pathogens
and weed seeds. During rainy seasons or in the regions with heavy rainfall the compost may be
prepared in heaps above ground level. When sufficient nitrogenous material is not available a
green manure or leguminous crop like Sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea) may be grown on the
fermenting heap after the first turning. The green matter is then turned in at the second mixing.
Bangalore Method This method is an anaerobic process. The method was developed at the
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore by Late Dr. C.N. Acharya in 1939. It is recommended
where night soil and refuse are used for preparing the compost. This method overcomes many of
the disadvantages of the Indore method, such as the problem of heap protection from adverse
weather, nutrient losses from intensive rains and strong sun, frequent turning requirements, and
fly-nuisance. However, the time taken for the production of finished compost is much longer.
The method is suitable for areas with scanty rainfall. The composting is done in the trenches of
9.1 m x 1.8 m x 0.9 m 302' X 62' x 32') or in the pits of 6.1 m x 1.8 m x 0.9 m (= 202' x 62' x32').
This method saves on labour-cost because there is no need of turning and regular sprinkling of
water.
This method includes following steps:
• The mixed farm residues are spread at the bottom of a trench or pit of a convenient size,
similar to that of Indore method. Generally, trenches or pits about 1 m deep are dug; the breadth
and length of the trenches can vary according to the availability of land and the type of material
to be composted. Site-selection is as per the Indore method. The trenches should preferably have
slopping walls and floor to prevent waterlogging.
• Organic residues and night soil are put in alternate layers. The trench or pit is filled layer-wise
till the raw material reaches about 50 cm above the surface.
• The pit is covered with 15-20 cm thick layer of refuse and then plastered with a 2-5 cm layer of
a mixture of mud and cattle dung.
• The materials are allowed to remain in the pit without turning and watering for three months.
During this period the material settles down due to reduction in the volume of biomass. Under
such conditions, decomposition is largely anaerobic and high temperatures do not develop. The
C/N ratio of the finished product drops to a value below 20:1, indicating that the compost is
ready to use.
Organic nitrogenous compounds gradually become soluble and the carbonaceous matter breaks
down into CO, and H2O. The loss of ammonia is negligible because in high concentrations of
CO2, forming ammonium carbonate which is stable. The material undergoes anaerobic
decomposition at a very slow rate and it takes about 6 to 8 months to obtain the finished product.
Plastering of pit also prevents the loss of moisture and fly nuisance. This method effectively
controls foul smell and kills pathogenic organisms. The anaerobic process is particularly suited
for use by gardeners in or near cities and towns. The well-decomposed compost contains 0.8-
1.0% N. The recovery of the finished product is greater as compared to aerobic composting.
Labour requirements are less than for the Indore method as turning of material is not done;
labour is needed only for digging and filling the pits. A uniform high temperature is not assured
in the biomass. Problems of the odour and fly breeding need to be taken care of. After 8-9
months all the material decomposes and compost becomes ready for application.
NADEP Composting This method of composting was developed by Shri Narayan Deorao
Pandharipande, an old Gandhian worker (also popularly known as "Nadep kaka") from
Maharashtra (hence called as "NADEP compost"). He worked for 25 years at the Dr. Kumarappa
Gowardhan Kendra at Pusad to perfect the NADEP composting technique. This is one process
which facilitates aerobic decomposition of organic matter. This method takes care of all the
disadvantages of heaping of farm residues and cattle shed wastes in the open condition. This
method envisages lot of composting through minimum use of cattle dung. It requires composting
materials like dung, farm residues, soil, waste products of agriculture, etc. Decomposition
process follows the 'aerobic' route and it requires about 90-120 days for obtaining the finished
product.
This method includes following steps:
• A brick structure measuring 3m x 2m x lm is prepared with perforated holes in all the side
walls to ensure adequate supply of air during composting. It is carried out in specially
constructed tanks with walls built like 'honeycombs' through which water is sprayed to prevent
the compost from becoming dry. The above ground-perforated structure facilitates passage of air
for aerobic decomposition. The floor of the tank is laid with bricks. The tank is covered above
with a thatched roof. This prevents loss of nutrients by seepage or evaporation and the contents
are not exposed to sunshine and rain.
• The brick tank is plastered with cattle dung slurry to facilitate bacterial culture for
decomposition of biodegradable wastes. The brick tank is then filled layer-wise first with a thick
layer (10-15 cm) of fine stick or stems of pigeon pea or cotton stalks which help in providing
aeration, followed by a layer (10-15 cm) of farm wastes or dry and green biomass or any other
biodegradable material to be composted.
• Slurry is then prepared by mixing cattle dung (5 to 10 kg) with water (100 liters) and sprinkled
thoroughly on the biodegradable mass in order to facilitate bacterial culture for faster
decomposition. A layer of soil is then spread over the composting mass in order to compress the
volume of the wastes. Addition of soil also facilitates retention of moisture, provides
microorganisms and acts as buffer and controls pH of the compost during decomposition. The
nutrients produced in the manure are absorbed by the soil layers thus preventing their loss.
• The whole tank is thus filled completely with about 10-12 layers having 1-3 sub-layers in each
layer. After 2 to 4 weeks, the volume of the composting mass is reduced to almost two-third of
original. At this stage, additional layers of composting mass are done over it. Finally, the whole
biomass is plastered and sealed with slurry of cattle dung and mud. In this condition, the tank is
allowed to decompose the biodegradable wastes for three months. However, water is added to
maintain the moisture content between 60-75% throughout the composting period.
• It is advisable to sprinkle microbial cultures like Trichoderma, Azotobacter, Rhizobium and
phosphate solubilizing microorganisms in layers to enhance the speed of composting process.
• Compost becomes ready for use within 110-120 days. One tank can be used three times in a
year. With production of 3 to 3.5 tonnes of compost per about 9 to 10 tonnes of compost can be
made annually from one tank.
• The compost can be stored for future use, preferably in a thatched shed after air-drying and
maintaining it at about 20% moisture level by sprinkling water whenever needed. By following
this procedure the compost could be preserved for about 6 to 8 months.
• Difficulties experienced by the farmers in adopting NADEP method of composting include
problems in following the recommended filling procedure, higher labour requirement as
compared to traditional methods, and inconvenience faced in filling during rainy season.
Vermicompost Compost prepared using earthworms is called vermicompost. Earthworms
consume all type of organic matter, retain 5-10% for their growth and excrete the mucous-coated
undigested matter called vermicast that has undergone physical and chemical breakdown by the
activity of muscular gizzard present in their intestine. It is a cost-effective and efficient process
of recycling non-toxic animal, agricultural and industrial wastes. Vermicasts are rich in N, P, K,
Ca, Mg, vitamins, enzymes and growth-promoting substances. In addition, the worms do the
turning and no additional turning of the compost heap is required. The efficient species of
earthworms are Eisenia foetida, Pheritima elongata, Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus.
For preparation of a good quality of vermicompost, a number of steps are followed as mentioned
below:
• Selection of earthworm: The locally available earthworm native to a particular soil may be
used for vermicomposting.
• Size of pit: Any convenient dimension such as 2 m x 1 m x 1 m may be prepared. This can
hold 20,000 - 40,000 worms giving one tonne manure per month.
• Preparation of vermibed: A thick layer of 15-20 cm of good loamy soil above a thin layer (5
cm) of broken bricks and sand should be made. This layer is made to inhabit the earthworms.
• Inoculation of earthworms: About 100 earthworms are introduced as an optimum inoculating
density into a composite pit of about 2m x 1m x1m, provided with a vermibed.
• Organic layering: It is done on the vermibed with fresh cattle dung. The compost pit is then
levered to about 5 cm with dry crop residues. Carbonaceous substance as sawdust, paper and
straw can be mixed with N-rich materials such as sewage sludge and biogas slurry to obtain a
near optimum C:N ratio. A varied mixture of substances produces good quality compost, rich in
macro- .and. micro- nutrients. Decomposition can be accelerated by shredding raw materials into
small pieces. Moisture content of the pit is maintained at 50-60% of water holding capacity.
Aeration can be maintained by mixing with fibrous N-rich materials. The temperature of the
piles should be around 28-30°C. Higher or lower temperatures reduce the activity of microflora
and earthworms. The pH of the raw material should not exceed 6.5-7.0.
• Wet organic layering: It is done after one month with moist/green organic waste, which can
be spread over it to a thickness of 5 cm. This practice can be repeated every 3-4 days. Mixing of
wastes periodically without disturbing the vermibed ensures proper vermicomposting. Wet
layering with organic waste can be repeated till the compost pit is nearly full.
• Harvesting of vermicompost: In order to facilitate the separation of worms from
vermicompost, the moisture content in the compost is brought down by stopping the addition of
water for 3-4 days before maturation that ensures drying of compost and migration of worms into
the vermibed. This forces about 80% of the worms to the bottom of the bed. The remaining
worms can be removed by hand. The mature compost, a black, fine loose, granular humus rich
material is removed out from the pit, dried and packed. The vermicompost is then ready for
application.
The nutrient content of vermicompost varies depending on the raw materials as well as different
species of earthworms used. Thus, the final product is not a single standard product. The average
nutrient content of vermicompost is: 0.6-1.2% N, 0.13- 0.22% P205, 0.4-0.7% K20, 0.4% CaO
and 0.15% MgO. On an average, it contains more N and P, but less K and micronutrients than
FYM, while it contains comparable N and wide C:N ratio as in FYM. On the whole,
vermicompost cannot be described as being nutritionally superior to other organic manures. Yet
the unique way in which it is produced, even in the field condition and at low cost makes it very
attractive for practical application. Unique feature of vermicompost is its rapid process of
composting which takes about 2-3 months depending on the environmental conditions. The
excess worms that have been harvested from the pit can be used in the other pits, sold to other
farmers for compost inoculation, and may be used as animal and poultry feed or fish food.
Green Manuring Green manuring is the practice of enriching soil by growing of a crop and
ploughing in-situ or turning it into the soil as undecomposed green plant materials for the
purpose of improving physical properties as well as fertility of the soil. The crops grown for
green manuring are called green manure crops. The green manure crop supplies organic matter
as well as nutrients, particularly N, if it is a legume crop.
Green manuring can be of two types:
(i) In-situ green manuring: When the green manure crop is grown and buried in the same field,
it is called in-situ green manuring. Most important in-situ green manuring crops are sunnhemp
(Crotalaria juncea), dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), cowpea (Vigna sinensis), berseem (Trifolium
alexandrinum) and lucerne (Medicago sativa).
(ii) Green leaf manuring: These are the plants grown elsewhere and green leaves and tender
twigs are brought to the field for incorporation. Popular green leaf manuring plants are Leucaena
leucocephala (Subabul), Glyricidia maculata, Sesbania speciosa, Pongamia pinnata (Karanj),
Pongamia glabra, and Cassia tora. In general, a green manuring crop should be a legume with
good nodulation (N2- fixing capacity), fast growing, deep-rooted, having a low water
requirement, short duration (4-6 weeks) with tender leafy habit permitting rad decomposition.
Incorporation of green manure crop should be done before or at flowpiering stage because these
are easily decomposed at this stage after which these become fibrous and take more time for
decomposition.
Concentrated Organic Manures Concentrated organic manures contain higher percentages of
major essential plant nutrients (N, P and K) compared to bulky organic manures (FYM and
compost). The concentrated organic manures are derived from raw materials of either plant or
animal origin, such as oilcakes, fish manure, dried blood, bone meal, etc. Oilcakes are the
residues left after oil is extracted from oil-bearing seeds. Generally, edible oilcakes are used for
animal feed, while non-edible oilcakes are used as manures. Oilcakes contain higher amounts of
N compared to P205 and K20; thus these are commonly referred to as the organic nitrogenous
fertilizers. Bones or bone meal consists of calcium phosphate together with fats and proteins.
These are good sources of lime, phosphate and N. Bone meal is a slow acting organic P-fertilizer
and suitable for acid soils. Fish manure is a quick-acting manure and suitable for all soils and
crops. It is available as either dried fish or fish-meal or powdered fish. Sometimes, the whole fish
or small pieces are pushed into the soil i while transplanting. However, its use is restricted
mainly to coastal areas where it is available easily. Guano (dried excreta of sea birds), is another
concentrated organic manure, containing substantial amount of nutrients, particularly N and P205;
but it is not produced in India.
The average nutrient content of some concentrated organic manures is presented in Table.
Source -This chapter adopted from Fundamentals of soil science, ISSS
Classification of organic manure
Biofertilizers
A bio-fertilizer is a substance which contains living microorganisms which, when applied to
seed, plant surfaces, or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes
growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant (Vessey,
2003).
Bio-fertilizers add nutrients through the natural processes of nitrogen fixation,
solubilising phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of growth promoting
substances. Bio-fertilizers can be expected to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides. The microorganisms in bio-fertilizers restore the soil’s natural nutrient cycle and
build soil organic matter.
Classification of Biofertilizers: There are three type of Biofertilizers –
A Nitrogen fixing
B Phosphate Solubilizing
C Organic matter decomposer
A Nitrogen Fixing Biofertilizers:- The nitrogen fixing bacteria work under two conditions,
Symbiotically and as free living bacteria (non-symbiotic).
The symbiotic bacteria make an association with crop plants through forming nodules in their
roots. Example- Rhizobium (fast growing) and Brady Rhizobium (Slow growing)
The free living bacteria do not form any association but live freely and fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Example- Azotobactor chrococcum, Azospirillum, Clostridium Etc
Rhizobium- This is the most common biofertilizer as stated earlier. Rhizobium lives in the root
hairs of the legumes by forming nodules. First time, Beijirinck from Holland isolated this
bacterium from nodules of a legume in 1888. A new classification has been established for
Rhizobium. That is 'slow growing rhizobia' known as Bradyrhizobium and the other group is
'fast growing rhizobia' called Rhizobium.
Rhizobium Cross Inoculation Groups
Rhizobium Spp. Cross Inoculation
Grouping
Legume Types
R. Leguminosarum Pea group Pisum, Visia, Lens
R. phaseoli Bean group Phaseolus
R. trifoli Clover group Trifolium
R. meliloti Alfalfa group Melilotus, Medicago,
Trigonella
R. lupine Lupine group Lupinus, Orinthopus
Bradyrhizobium
japonicum
Soybean group Glycine
Rhizobium spp. Cowpea group Vigina, Arachis
Rhizobium - Legume Symbiosis- Rhizobia are soil bacteria. They have an ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen. They make a symbiotic association with legumes and some non-legumes
like Parasponia. Rhizobium bacteria enter into the roots through root hairs. They release
certain.stimulatory root exudates and form nodules. Inside the root, rhizobia invade expanded
cells of cortex, and then differentiate into nitrogen-fixing "bacteroids". Neither the plant nor the
bacteria can fix nitrogen when live separately. The nodules filled with pink sap(leghaemoglobin
pigment) are called the effective nodules. This pigment maintains the rhythm of oxygen supply
to the bacteria and helps the activity of nitrogenase enzyme. The nitrogenase is responsible for
reduction of nitrogen to ammonia in the process of nitrogen fixation.
Azotobactor
Azotobactor is a heterotrophic free living nitrogen fixing bacteria present in alkaline and
neutral soils. Azotobactor chrococcum is the most commonly occurring species in arable soils of
India. Apart from its ability to fix' atmospheric nitrogen in soils, it can also synthesize growth
promoting substances viz., auxins, and gibberellins and also to some extent the vitamins. Many
strains of Azotobactor also exhibit fungicidal properties against certain species of fungus.
Response of Azotobactor has been seen in rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane, pearl millet, vegetable
and some plantation crops. Its population is very low in uncultivated lands. Presence of organic
matter in the soil promotes its multiplication and nitrogen fixing capacity. Azotobacter
inoculation curtails the requirement of nitrogenous fertilizers by 10 to 20% under normal field
conditions.
Azospirillum
This is a free living or non -symbiotic bacteria (does not form nodules but makes
association by living in the rhizosphere). Azospirillum species establish an association with many
plants particularly with C, plants such as maize, sorghum, sugarcane, etc. It is the most common
organism and can form associative symbiosis on a large variety of plants. They fix nitrogen from
10 to 40 kg/ha. The Azospirillum inoculation helps better vegetative growth of the plants, saving
nitrogenous fertilizers by 25-30%. So far only four species of Azospirillum have been identified.
They are A. lipoferum, A. brasilense, A. amazonense, A. iraquense. In Indian soils A.
brasilense(in C3 plant Rice, Whaet, Oat etc) and A. lipoferum (in C4 plant Maize, Sorghum)are
very common.
Acetobactor
Acetobactor diazotrophicus is a newly discovered nitrogen fixing bacteria associated with
sugarcane crop. This bacterium belongs to the alpha group of proteobacteria. It is an acid and
high salt tolerant and sucrose loving bacteria which can fix up to 200 kg nitrogen per hectare.
Under field condition, the yield of sugarcane increased after its inoculation.
Frankia
Frankia is actinomycetes which also fixes atmospheric nitrogen. It forms a symbiotic
association by forming root nodules in some non-leguminous trees such as Casuarina and Alnus.
Blue Green Algae (BGA) (Cynobecteria)-
The Blue-Green Alga (Anabaena azollae) forms a symbiotic relationship with Azolla
(aquatic fern) and fixes atmospheric nitrogen. Individuaily B,G A and Azolla can also be used in
paddy fields. BGA are capable of performing photosynthetic activity as well as fix the
atmospheric nitrogen in flooded rice ecosystem. They use energy derived from photosynthesis to
fix nitrogen, hence, called Autotrophs. BGA fix 20-30 kg N ha-1 and Azolla fix 40-60 kg N ha-1.
B Phosphorus Solubilising Microorganisms (PSM)- A group of heterotrophic microorganisms
solubilize the fixed phosphorous by producing organic acids and enzymes and make them
available to the crops. This group of microorganism is called Phosphorous Solublising
Microorganisms .
There are two types of Phosphorus Solubilising Microorganisms-
A Phospahte solubilizers- Example Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Aspergillus, Penicllium Etc.
B Phosphate mobilizers- AM, Glomus, Gigaspora
Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM)- This is the most fascinating class of fungi giving
benefit to plants. The term mycorrhiza was taken from Greek language meaning 'fungus root'.
This term was coined by Frank in 1885. As indicated above, the mycorrhiza is a mutualistic
association between fungal mycelia and plant roots. VAM is an endotrophic (live inside)
mycorrhiza formed by aseptated phycomycetous fungi. VAM help in nutrient transfer mainly
of phosphorus, zinc and sulfur. They also mobilize different nutrients like Cu(copper),
K(potassium), Al(aluminum), Mn(manganese), Fe (iron)and Mg (magnesium) from the soil to
the plant roots. They penetrate into root cortex and forms intracellular obligate fungal endo-
symbiont. They posses vesicles (sac like structure) for storage of nutrients and arbuscular for
funneling them into root system. Hyphae of VAM fungi do not solubilise the insoluble
unavailable phosphorus but -assimilate phosphorus and other nutrients from soil for their own
requirement. In addition, help transfer them in different forms to the host roots. It also improves
water absorption by the roots.
There are two main recognized groups of mycorrhiza-
(i) Ecto-mycorrhiza
(ii) Endo-mycorrhiza.
In the ecto-mycorrhiza, the hyphae form a cover both outside and within the root in the
intercellular spaces of epidermis and cortex. Trees are commonly infected with ectomycorrhiza.
endomycorrhiza have three sub group. Among these VAM are most common. They produce an
internal network of hyphae between cortical cells which extend to the soil and absorb nutrients
and water. VAM forms an association with many crop plants, whether monocot, dicot, annual or
perennial crops.
Mechanism of Action
The VAM forms an association with plant roots. It penetrates in the root cortex and spreads
around the roots of the plant. As the name indicates, they posses sac like structure called
vesicules which stores phosphorus as phospholipids. The other structure called arbuscule helps
bringing the distant nutrients to the vesicules and root.
Actions of Mycorrhiza
1) Enhances the feeding areas of the plant root is as the hyphae spreads around the roots.
2) Mobilizes the nutrients from distantance to root.
3) Stores the nutrients (sp. phosphorus).
4) Removes the toxic chemicals (example : phenolics) which otherwise hinder nutrient
availability.
5) Provide protection against other fungi and nematodes.
C Organic matter decomposer- A group of microorganism decompose the organic matter
known as organic matter decomposer. There are two types of OMD-
A Cellulolytic- Trichurus, Trichoderma etc.
B Lignolytic- Pleurotus, Agaricus etc.
Methods of Application of Biofertilizers
A Seed Treatment- For treating seed 200g of biofertilizers is suspended in 300-400 ml of water
and mixed gently with the seeds (10 kg) using an adhesive like gum acacia, jiggery solution etc.
So that the bioinoculants may get energy for their prolonged survival. The seeds are than spread
on a clean sheet/ cloth under shade to dry and used immediately for sowing.
Seedling root dip- For rice crop, a bed is made in the filed and filled with water. Recommended
biofertilizers are mixed in this water and the roots of seedlings are dipped for 8-10 hr and
transplanted.
Soil Treatment- 4 Kg each of the recommended biofertilizers is mixed in 200 kg of compost and
kept overnight. This mixture is incorporated in the soil at the time of sowing or planting.
Common Microorganism used as Biofertilizers-
Contributing
Plant
Nutrients
Microorganisms Suitable Crops
Nitrogen 1. Symbiotic
A Rhizobium (with legume) and its other groups.
Pulse legume: Gram, pea,
lentil, arhar, green gram,
black gram.
Oil, legume: Groundnut,
soybean.
Fodder legume : Berseem
and Lucerne
B Azola (Fern- Anabaena symbiosis) Rice
2. Associative symbiosis (Azospirillum) Rice, sugarcane,
fingermillet, maize
3. Non- symbiotic
A Hetrotrophs (Azotobacter) Vegetable crops, wheat,
rice and other commercial
crops.
B Photo autotrophs (BGA) Rice
Phosphorus 1 Phosphate solubilizing and mineralizes For all crops
A Fungi- Aspergillus, Penicillum
B Bacteria- Bacillus, Pseudomonas
2 Phosphate absorber (root fungus symbiosis)-
VAM
A Ecto mycorrhiza: Pisolitthus, Rhizopogon
B Endo mycorrhizae- Glomus, Gigaspora
For all crops
Role of bio-fertilizers in agriculture: Some of the important roles of Bio-fertilizers in
agriculture are:
– They supplement chemical fertilizers for meeting the integrated nutrient demand of the crops.
– Application of bio-fertilizers results in increased mineral and water uptake, root development,
vegetative growth and nitrogen fixation.
– Some bio-fertilizers (eg, Rhizobium BGA, Azotobacter sp) stimulate production of growth
promoting substance like vitamin-B complex, Indole acetic acid (IAA) and Gibberellic acids etc.
– Phosphate mobilizing or phosphorus solubilising bio-fertilizers / microorganisms (bacteria,
fungi, mycorrhiza etc.) converts insoluble soil phosphate into soluble forms by secreting several
organic acids and under optimum conditions they can solubilise / mobilize about 30-50 kg
P2O5/ha due to which crop yield may increase by 10 to20%.
- Mycorrhiza or VA-mycorrhiza (VAM fungi) when used as bio-fertilizers enhance uptake of P,
Zn, S and water, leading to uniform crop growth and increased yield and also enhance resistance
to root diseases and improve hardiness of transplant stock.
– They liberate growth promoting substances and vitamins and help to maintain soil fertility.
– They act as antagonists and suppress the incidence of soil borne plant pathogens and thus, help
in the biocontrol of diseases.
– Nitrogen fixing, phosphate mobilizing and cellulolytic microorganisms in bio-fertilizer
enhance the availability of plant nutrients in the soil and thus, sustain the agricultural production
and farming system.
– They are cheaper, pollution free and renewable energy sources
– They improve physical properties of soil, soil tilth and soil health in general.
– They improve soil fertility and soil productivity.
– Blue green algae like Nostoc, Anabaena and Scytonema are often employed in the reclamation
of alkaline soils.
– Bio-inoculants containing cellulolytic and lignolytic microorganisms enhance the degradation/
decomposition of organic matter in soil, as well as enhance the rate of decomposition in compost
pit.
– BGA plays a vital role in the nitrogen economy of rice fields in tropical regions.
– Azotobacter inoculants when applied to many non leguminous crop plants, promote seed
germination and initial vigour of plants by producing growth promoting substances.
– Azolla-Anabaena grows profusely as a floating plant in the flooded rice fields and can fix 100-
150 kg N/ ha /year in approximately 40-60 tones of biomass produced,
– Plays important role in the recycling of plant nutrients.
Liquid bio-fertilizers: A preparation comprising requirements to preserve organisms and deliver
them to the target regions to improve their biological activity.
Benefits:
The advantages of liquid bio-fertilizer over conventional carrier based bio-fertilizers are listed
below:
– Longer shelf-life -12-24 months.
– No contamination.
– No loss of properties due to storage up to 45ºC.
– Greater potentials to fight with native population.
– Easy identification by typical fermented smell.
– Better survival on seeds and soil.
– Very much easy to use by the farmer.
– High commercial revenues.
– High export potential
Important terms:-
Symbiosis- Symbiosis is defined as a mutually beneficial relationship between two
organisms.
Autotroph- Organisms that uses carbon dioxide as the sole carbon source.
Heterotrophic- Organisms dependent on exogenous organic source for their metabolism
and growth.
Recycling of Organic Residues
INTRODUCTION
Agricultural wastes can be considered to include crop after harvest and primary processing, tree
residues, organic / plant residues from social forestry, animal excreta and processing left over
from the slaughter. Lower and agro-industrial wastes. Thus, agricultural wastes comprise all
organic wastes produced and disposed off or used in primary agricultural production. It is
estimated that these organic wastes available in India can supply about 7.1, 3.0 and 7.6 mt of N,
P2O5 and K2O, respectively. The important organic wastes potential in India:
Animal wastes 2018 mt, Crop residue 407 mt, Municipal wastes 29 mt, Rice husk 15 mt, Rice
bran 2.5 mt, Bagasse 5.3 mt, Press mud 2.0 mt, Saw dust 2.2 mt
Conversion of all the available organic wastes in India can yield 2014 mt of solid organic
manure. 700 mt of plant biomass 2000 mt animal excreta including humans. Chinese are most
efficient in recycling all organic wastes.
Classification of organic residues (sources of organic residues)
1. Livestock and human wastes: Human excreta, livestock dung and urine, byproduct of
slaughter houses and animal carcases, blood, bones, horns, hooves, leather, hair, bonemeal, horn
and hoof meal.
2. Crop residues, tree wastes and aequatic weeds
3. Green manures
4. Urban and rural wastes. E.g. rural and urban solid wastes, sewage and sullage
5. Agro-industrial byproducts: E.g. Oil cakes, paddy husk and bran, bagasse and pressmud, saw
dust, fruit and vegetable wastes, tea and tobacco wastes, etc.
6. Marine wastes. E.g. Fish mean and sea weeds.
7. Tank silts.
1. 80 to 90% of inorganic nutrients ingested by animals in their feed is excreted in faeces and
urine. The nutrients in the animal manure depends on the age and type of animal, nature of work,
the feed fed to the cattle, the bedding material used, etc. The proportion of organic matter
excreted is equivalent to about 40 per cent of organic matter intake. Urine is normally low in
phosphorus and high in potassium, whereas equal parts of nitrogen is excreted in the faeces and
urine of cattle. Nutrient content in organic manures-
a) Sheep and goat manure: 3% N, 1 P2O5 and 2% K2O
b) Poultry manure: 3.03% N, 2.63% P2O5 and 1.4% K2O
c) Blood meal: 10 to 12 % N, 1 to 2% P2O5 and 1% K2O
d) Fish manure: 4 to 10% N, 3 to 9% P2O5 and 0.3 to 1.5% K2O
e) Bone meal: 4% N, 20% P2O5 (raw bone mean), 1 to 2% N, 22 to 24% P2O5 (steamed bone
meal)
2. Crop residue
Cereal straw and residues: 0.5% N, 0.6% P2O5 and 1.5% K2O
Availability of crop residues:
Rice (118.9 mt), wheat (57.5 mt), maize (21.0 mt), millets (40.0 mt), sorghum (41.0 mt) and
sugarcane (43.0 mt).
Cotton: Stalks, leaves, flowers, roots and bark, stems, press wood, cotton dust.
Tobacco: Leaf scrap, stalks
Rice milling: Rice bran, rice husk, straw
Sugarcane: Trash, bagasse, molasses, pressmud (1-1.5% N, 4-5% P2O5 and 2-7% K2O –
pressmud)
Cereals : Leaves, stalks, etc.
Weeds : Water hyacinth, Ipomoea, lantana, cassia, etc.
3. Green manure
4. Urban and rural wastes-Sewage
5. Farm residues-Fruit and vegetable wastes
Mango (peels and kernel), pineapple (peels, cores, trimmings), citrus fruits (peels, pomace, cull
fruits and seeds), guava (peels, pomace and seeds), peach (peels and cores), plum (stone), grape
(stalks, pomace, seed, and rottens), banana (peels), tomato (seeds and pomace), potato (peels,
rottons from cold storage), mushroom (stalks, cuttings, trimmings)
Plantation industry Coconut (coir dust), arecanut (husk, leaf sheath and leaves), cashewnuts
(cashew apple, testa, shell liquid), tea (tea wastes), coffee (husk or pulpy mass), rubber (rubber
sticks, leaves, mill wastes).
Oil seed industry:
Ground nut is important crop followed by rape seed and mustard, sesamum, linseed and castor.
Oil seeds- (i) Edible. E.g. Groundnut, safflower, sesamum, cotton, coconut, (ii) Non-edible: E.g.
pongamia, mahua and neem cake.
Non-edible cakes are used as manures especially for horticultural crops. Nutrients present in
cakes are made available to crops 7 to 10 days after application.
Sugar milling industry
Bagasse: 33% is bagasse. Apart, it is used in producing pulp, paper board, etc., a portion of
bagasse could be utilised as both for fuel and manure if it is processed through biogas plants.
0.25% N, 0.12% P2O5, after composting: 1.4% N, 0.4% P2O5.
Pressmud: 1.25% N, 2% P2O5 and 20-25% organic matter. After composting: 1.4% N and 1.0-
1.5% P2O5. It is very high in lime (45%). It is good to apply in acidic soil.
Sawdust: It is wide in C/N ratio (400 : 1). It absorbs 2-4 times more moisture than straw / cereal
residues. It can be used as a good absorbatn for soaking urine in cattlesheds and bedding
materials for cattle. Can be used as mulching material.
6. Fishery and marine industry
Sea food and canning industry is an important industry. Prawn shell and head fish and frog legs
are the main byproducts of this industry (4 to 10% N, 3 to 9% P2O5 and 0.3 to 0.5% K2O).
Marine algae and sea weeds: 1 to 2% P2O5 and 2 to 7% K2O and a number of trace elements.
7. Tank silts
It consists of a large proportion of finer soil particles of silt and clay and organic matter carried
by run-off water from the surrounding soil to the tanks during heavy rains. It contains 0.3% N,
0.3% P2O5 and p.3% K2O. It is an active culture of microorganisms, especially the N-fixers.
Source –This chapter adopted from organic farming agrimoon.com
Soil Improvements and Soil Amendments
Saline and Alkali Soils
When the chloride , sulphate, carbonate and bicarbonate salts of sodium (Na+), calcium
(Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) are increased in soil, the soil becomes saline and alkali. On
the basis of amount of salts, average quantity of exchangeable sodium and pH, such soils
are classified as saline, alkali and salinealkali soils.
Characteristics of Saline and Alkali Soils - Saline and alkali soils are distinguished into three
groups:
1. Saline
2. Saline alkali
3. Non saline alkali
Saline Soils: Saline soils are those soils for which the electrical conductivity of the saturation
extract is more than 4 mmhos/cm at 250C and the exchangeable sodium percentage is less than
15. The pH of such soil is ordinarily less than 8.5. Hilgard called these soils as ‘white alkali’
soils and Soviet scientists called it as ‘Solonchaks’. Saline soils have deposits of white crusts of
salts on the surface. Such salts may be found either in soils with well developed soil profile or in
undifferentiated soil material such as alluvium.
Amelioration:
(i) The salts are to be leached below the root zone and not allowed to come up. However this
practice is somewhat difficult in deep and fine textured soils containing more salts in the lower
layers. Under these conditions, a provision of some kind of sub-surface drains becomes
important.
(ii) The required area is to be made into smaller plots and each plot should be bounded to hold
irrigation water.
(iii) Separate irrigation and drainage channels are to be provided for each plot.
(iv) Plots are to be flooded with good quality water up to 15 – 20 cms and puddled.
(v) Thus, soluble salts will be dissolved in the water.
(vi) The excess water with dissolved salts is to be removed into the drainage channels.
(vii) Flooding and drainage are to be repeated 5 or 6 times, till the soluble salts are leached from
the soil to a safer limit
(viii) Green manure crops like Daincha can be grown up to flowering stage and incorporated into
the soil. Paddy straw can also be used.
(xi) Scrape the salt layer on the surface of the soil with spade.
(x) Grow salt tolerant crops like sugar beet, tomato, beet root, barley etc.
Saline Alkali Soils: The term saline alkali soil is used to denote such soils whose conductivity of
the saturation extract is greater than 4 mmhos/cm at 250C and the exchangeable sodium
percentage is more than 15. The pH values of these soils are seldom above 8.5, due to excess of
soluble salts. These soils are formed due to the combined process of salinisation and alkalization.
Non Saline Alkali Soils (Sodic Soil): The term non saline alkali soil is used to denote such soils
whose exchangeable sodium percentage is more than 15, and the conductivity of the saturation
extract is less than 4 mmhos/cm at 250C. The pH of these soils usually range between 8.5 and
10.0. These soils are the Hilgard’s ‘black alkali’ and Russian ‘Solonetz’ soils. These soils are
found in arid and semi arid regions in small irregular areas called ‘slick spots’.
(e) Amelioration:
(1) To convert exchangeable sodium into water soluble form.
(2) To leach out the soluble sodium from the field. Amendments used for reclamation of Alkali
soils.
(i) Gypsum
(ii) Use of Pyrites (FeS2) .
(iii) Application of molasses.
(iv) Drainage channels must be arranged around the field.
(v) Growing the green manure crops and incorporates in the field.
(vi) Leaching with water of good quality.
Acid Soils
Acid Soils: The soils with pH less than 6.5 and which respond to liming may be considered as
acidic soils.
Management of acidic soils
1. By growing crops suitable for particular soil pH.
2. Ameliorating the soils through the application of amendments.
Liming
Application of lime raises the soil pH to a desirable level. The quantity of liming material to be
applied depends on soil pH, soil texture, capacity and type of liming material. On an average,
hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 at the rate of 5 t/ha is applied in the field and is thoroughly mixed in soil.
The gap between lime application and crop sowing is at least two or three months.
Liming materials
1. Calcium limestone (CaCO3) (more than 90% use in India) 2. Dolomite (rich in Mg) 3. Quick
lime (CaCO), 4. Slaked lime Ca(OH)2 5. Coral shell lime 6. Chalk CaCO3 7. Blast furnace slag
CaSiO3 and Ca2SiO4 8. Miscellaneous sources like wood ashes, etc.
Biological reclamation Use of organic materials and crops
Soil amendments
Soil amendments are substances that influence plant growth favourably by changing the soil pH,
increasing the nutrient availability, improving the physical conditions of the soil and
counteracting the effects of injurious substances.
There are three types of amendments
1. Materials used for amending acidic soils. E.g. Lime
2. Materials used for ameliorating alkali soils. E.g. Gypsum and phosphogypsum.
3. Soil aggregating agents or soil conditioners to stabilise soil aggregates and to form granular
structures. E.g. Poly-electrolytes, including polyvinylites, polyacrylates, cellulose gums, lignin
derivatives and silicates.
4. Biochar- improve soil organic carbon.
1. Gypsum: Gypsum is dehydrated calcium sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O) and used as a popular
amendment for the reclamation of alkali soils. Pure gypsum contains 18.6% S and 23.2% Ca.
Commercial agricultural grades (70-80%) contain 13-15% S and 16-19% Ca. The sulphur in
gypsum is in plant available sulphate form and its solubility is comparable to that of SSP. Most
of the gypsum mines are located in Rajasthan.
2. Phosphogypsum: It is a byproduct of phosphoric acid production. The CaSO4 in
phosphogypsum is available as dehydrate (CaSO4.2H2O), hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2 H2O) and
anlydrate (CaSO4) or in combination of dehydrate and hemihydrate. Phosphogypsum is high
grade gypsum with 80-90% purity. It may also contain traces of iron, manganese, zinc and
copper. This fertilizer is of great importance in alkali soils as a source of S.
3. Lime and liming materials: Calcium oxide (CaO) is the only material to which the term lime
may be correctly applied. It is also called as unslaked lime, burned lime or quick lime (CaO). It
is most effective with high neutralising value or calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE) of 179%
compared to pure CaCO3. Complete mixing of this material into the soil is very difficult.
Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] is a white powder and called slaked lime or hydrate lime
[Ca(OH)2]. The other common liming materials are calcium carbonate (CaCO3), calcite or
calcium-magnesium carbonate [CaMg (CO3) 2] or dolomite. Limestone is mined by open pit
method. Most of the agricultural limestones have the CCE value of 90-98% because of
impurities present.
4. Biochar- Biochar is fine grained, porous and carbon rich product which is produced by
pyrolysis of biomass. Use of biochar is the excellent way to improve soil fertility, soil quality
and remediate contaminated soil. Application of biochar increases the carbon content, nutrient
use efficiency, reduce greenhouse gas emission, as well as increase crop productivity.
Basic Properties of Biochar Products (CRIDA, 2009)
Properties Maize Stalk Cotton Stalk Castor Stalk Pigeon Pea Stalk
Total organic carbon (g kg-1) 520 710.0 577.0 720.0
Total inorganic carbon (g kg-1) 2.5 5.7 15.0 31.6
Total nitrogen (g kg-1) 13.4 9.8 12.0 14.4
Total phosphorus (g kg-1) 4.0 4.6 2.0 4.1
Total potassium (g kg-1) 4.7 4.0 4.0 4.1
Maximum water holding capacity % 590.51 382.84 374.89 385.27
CEC (Cmol kg-1) 16.9 46.28 31.09 14.0
Organic Weed Management
Introduction
Weeds can be considered a significant problem because they tend to decrease crop yields by
increasing competition for water, sunlight, and nutrients while serving as host plants for pests
and diseases. Since the invention of herbicides, farmers have used these chemicals to eradicate
weeds from their fields. Today, some farmers have a renewed interest in organic methods of
managing weeds since the widespread use of agrochemicals has resulted in purported
environmental and health problems. It has also been found that in some cases herbicide use can
cause some weed species to dominate fields because the weeds develop resistance to herbicides.
In addition, some herbicides are capable of destroying weeds that are harmless to crops, resulting
in a potential decrease in biodiversity on farms. It is important to understand that under an
organic system of weed control, weeds will never be eliminated but only managed.
Organic weed management is a holistic system involving an entirely different approach to
managing a farming system. The organic farmer is not interested in eliminating all weeds but
wants to keep the weeds at a threshold that is both economical and manageable. A farmer who
manages weeds organically must be intimately familiar with the type of weeds and their growth
habits to determine which control methods to employ.
Optimizing the biological terrain of the soil for the crop will create an unfavorable environment
for many weeds, effectively reducing weed numbers and vigor. This concept forms the core of
effective weed control in an organic production system. Contrast to this the weed-control
strategies of conventional farming, with heavy use of salt fertilizers, herbicides, monoculture and
imbalanced cation saturations. Indeed, that environment could accurately be described as one of
cultural weed enhancement. The conventional field environment presents heavy pressure to
select for herbicide-resistant weeds that thrive under these conditions. Each year, these highly
adapted weeds find the same favorable conditions and reproduce abundantly. It is really no
wonder that most herbicides are only effective for a few years before a newer, stronger (and
more expensive) chemical is needed to control weeds sufficiently. It is important to know your
enemy. All weed species have their weaknesses and their strengths, usually occurring at distinct
stages of their life cycles or resulting from specific growth patterns. Different weeds present
problems at different times of year, or with different crops. Some weedcontrol strategies, such as
disking a field infested with quackgrass, may even increase the prevalence of certain species of
weeds under specific conditions. Grassy weeds often require different control measures than do
broad-leafed weeds. Correctly identifying the species of weeds that are causing major problems
in your fields is critical to choosing and timing effective control measures
Organic Methods of Weed Management
1. Thermal weed control Thermal weed control involves the use of flaming equipment to create
direct contact between the flame and the plant. This technique works by rupturing plant cells
when the sap rapidly expands in the cells. Sometimes thermal control involves the outright
burning down of the weeds. Flaming can be used either before crop emergence to give the crop a
competitive advantage or after the crop has emerged. However, flaming at this point in the crop
production cycle may damage the crop. Although the initial equipment cost may be high, flaming
for weed control may prove cheaper than hand weeding.
2. Soil solarization: During summer and fall, organic farmers sometimes sterilize their soil
through solarization. During this process, a clear plastic film is placed over an area after it has
been tilled. Solarization works when the heat created under the plastic film, which is tightly
sealed at the edges, becomes intense enough to kill weed seeds.
3. Mulch: Mulching or covering the soil surface can prevent weed seed germination by blocking
light transmission preventing seed germination. Allelopathic chemicals in the mulch also can
physically suppress seedling emergence. There are many forms of mulches available. Listed are
three common ones:
i. Living mulch: Living mulch is usually a plant species that grows densely and low to the
ground, such as clover. Living mulches can be planted before or after a crop is established. It is
important to kill, till in, or otherwise manage the living mulch so that it does not compete with
the actual crop.
ii. Organic mulches: Such materials as straw, bark, and composted material can provide
effective weed control. Producing the material on the farm is recommended since the cost of
purchased mulches can be prohibitive, depending on the amount needed to suppress weed
emergence. An effective but labor-intensive system uses newspaper and straw. Two layers of
newspaper are placed on the ground, followed by a layer of hay. It is important to make sure the
hay does not contain any weed seeds.
iii. Inorganic mulches: Materials such as black polyethylene have been used for weed control in
a range of crops in organic production systems.
4. Mechanical weed management Managing weeds mechanically is both time consuming and
labor-intensive but it is also one of the most effective methods for managing weeds. The choice
of implementation, timing, and frequency will depend on the structure and form of the crop and
the type and number of weeds. Cultivation involves killing emerging weeds or burying freshly
shed weed seeds below the depth from which they will germinate. It is important to remember
that any ecological approach to weed management begins and ends in the soil seed bank. The
soil seed bank is the reserve of weed seeds present in the soil. Observing the composition of the
seed bank can help a farmer make practical weed management decisions.
5. Stale seedbed The stale or false seedbed technique of flushing out weed seeds from the soil
works by depleting the seed bank. After the soil is cultivated two to three weeks before sowing,
emerging weeds are killed by flaming or light cultivation. By helping to reduce the seed bank.
This technique reduces subsequent emergences of weeds.
6. Crop rotation Crop rotation has been at the heart of the organic weed management system
since medieval times and has persisted well into the 20th century due to its proven effects on
weed populations. The goal of a crop rotation is to create an unstable environment that
discourages weeds from becoming established in the field. Deciding on the sequence of crops, a
farmer must take into account the type of soil he or she is working with, the climate, and the
crop. Diverse crop rotations are essential to build a healthy, sustainable organic system and break
pest and weed cycles. In general, it is best to alternate legumes with grasses, spring-planted crops
with fall-planted crops, row crops with close-planted crops, heavy feeders with light feeders.
Careful use of cover crops during times when the ground would be bare adds valuable nutrients
(especially nitrogen), adds organic matter, improves soil microbial diversity, and prevents
erosion. Maintain a long-term balance of diverse crops on a farm, taking into account any
necessary soil conservation practices, livestock requirements, time constraints and market
profitability.
7. Crop establishment and competition Make sure crops emerge first to give them a head start
in their competition with weeds. Transplanting helps increase a crop’s competitive ability since
the plants are larger and easier to establish. Sow crops close together by reducing the row
spacing. Since the crop will take up more space, it shades the weeds, reducing the weeds’ ability
to compete. Another technique involves increasing the seeding rate of a crop. This increases the
competitive ability of the crop by increasing the odds that the crop will survive in greater
numbers than the weeds. The most effective way to control weed growth is to have highly
competitive crops. A vigorously growing crop is less likely to be adversely affected by weed
pressure. It is imperative to create conditions where the intended crop can establish dominance
quickly. Using high-quality, vigorous seed, well adjusted planting equipment, adapted varieties,
optimal soil fertility, good soil drainage and tilth, and proper soil preparation will usually result
in rapid, vigorous crop growth.
8. Sanitation. Using clean seed will prevent the introduction of new weed problems and will
avoid planting a generous crop of weeds with your desired crop. Mowing weeds around the
edges of fields or after harvest prevents weeds from going to seed. Hand roguing weeds in
problem areas, and thoroughly composting manure can reduce the spread of weed seeds and
difficult weed species. Thorough cleaning of any machinery that has been used in weedy fields is
a good idea, as is establishing hedgerows to limit wind-blown seeds. Common sense, yes — and
it works! Cultural practices won’t prevent all weed growth, and some mechanical follow- up will
usually be necessary, but cultural practices can improve soil conditions, permitting more
effective mechanical control, they can adjust weed species to ones that are easier to control, and,
most importantly, cultural weed-control practices can produce high-quality, vigorous, high-
yielding organic crops. It is important to maintain proper sanitation on the farm to reduce the
introduction and spread of weed seeds. There are several ways to keep weeds and weed seeds
from entering the farm. First, any animal manure that will be used on the farm should be
composted because weed seeds can pass through an animal’s digestive system unharmed, it is
important to compost the manure. Composting results in temperatures that become high enough
to kill many weed seeds. Second, purchase certified seed that is guaranteed to be free of weed
seeds. If you are a farmer interested in saving your own seed, be diligent about collecting clean
seed so you do not contaminate your collections. Also make sure to remove weeds before they
set seed. Once a weed is allowed to set seed, the number of weed seeds in the seed bank is
increased. Last, keep tillage and other equipment clean when moving between fields to reduce
the spread of weed seeds.
9. Allelopathy Allelopathy is an alternative and organic approach to weed control that uses
chemicals that are excreted from a plant to cause either direct or indirect harm to weeds by
negatively affecting their germination, growth, or development. Nearby weeds can be affected by
allelopathic chemicals entering the rhizophere from the roots or the aerial parts of the crop plant.
Crop residues from cover crops, such as fall rye, or other organic mulches can also be used to
suppress weeds through such allelopathic interactions. This “allelopathy” is one of nature’s most
effective techniques of establishing plant dominance. Allelopathic crops include barley, rye,
annual ryegrass, buckwheat, oats, sorghum, sudan-sorghum hybrids, alfalfa, wheat, red clover
and sunflower. Selecting allelopathic crops can be useful in particularly weedy fields with
reducing overall weed pressure.
9. Soil Fertility & Condition. In an organic system, it is important to rely on the biological
activity of the soil as the main source of fertility and favorable soil physical structure. An active
and diverse soil microbial population is the key to growing healthy, high-yielding organic crops.
Successful organic fertility management should primarily feed the soil microbial life in a long-
term manner, rather than simply feeding the plants. Soil organic matter is a tremendous source of
plant nutrients and water holding capacity. Soil tests can be useful, but only if the results are
interpreted appropriately for an organic system. Careful attention to the balance of key nutrients
can often reduce weed problems and enhance crop plant growth. One common mistake made by
many organic farmers is the improper application of manure or improperly finished compost.
This can throw off the balance of certain soil nutrients and microbial life and can often increase
weed growth. Some soil fertility amendments, such as gypsum, can increase the looseness and
tilth of the soil. This improves success for mechanical-cultivation operations, but it also seems to
reduce the pressure from certain weed species that are favored by hard, tight soils.
10. Variety Selection. Careful selection of crop varieties is essential to limit weeds and pathogen
problems and satisfy market Lely weeder. needs. It is important to consider planting disease-
resistant varieties if certain pathogens are prevalent in the area. Any crop variety that is able to
quickly shade the soil between the rows and is able to grow more rapidly than the weeds will
have an advantage. Deep shading crops, which intercept most of the sunlight that strikes the field
and keeps the ground dark, will prevent the growth of many weed species. Alfalfa, clover and
grasses are particularly good shading crops because any weeds that grow in them will usually be
cut when hay is harvested, thereby preventing weed seed production.
11. Mycoherbicides Herbicides especially soil applied, have harmful effects on both human and
animal health. In this context, fungal pathogens control specific weeds and continue to survive
on the weeds year after year unlike herbicides that are to be applied every year. Fungal
pathogens as a bioagent in controlling weeds are more popular than bacterial, viral or nematodes
because, most of the plant pathogens are fungi, which are destructive and widely prevalent, and
they can be safely used in organic farming. Phytopathogens normally initiate diseases in specific
weeds and produce phytotoxins killing the weeds within 3-5 weeks.
For controlling weeds in rice and soybean field: Colletotrichum gloeosporoids.
For controlling Eupatorium reparium : Rust fungus
List of mycoherbicides used to control specific weeds
Source –This chapter taken from organic farming, Agrimoon.com
Mycoherbicides Weeds to control Trade name
Colletotrichum
gloeosporoids
Aeschynomene Collego
C. furarioides Aslepias seriacea -
Cercospora rodmanii Eichornea crassipes ABG 5003
Puccinia chandrillus Chandrillana juncea -
P. abrupta Parthenium hysterophorus -
Phytophthora palmivora Morrenia odorata Devine
Alternaria sp Crisium avense -
A. cassia Cassia abistifolia Caset
A. crassa Datura stramonium -
A. helianthi Xanthium stromarium -
Phomopsis convolvulus Convolvulus arvensis -
Bipolaris halepense Sorghum halepense -
INTEGRATED PEST AND DISEASES MANAGEMENT
DEFINATION
IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of pests or their
damage through a combination of techniques such as biological control, habitat
manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties. Pesticides are
used only after monitoring indicates they are needed according to established guidelines, and
treatments are made with the goal of removing only the target organism. Pest control materials
are selected and applied in a manner that minimizes risks to human health, beneficial and
nontarget organisms, and the environment.
IDM- It comprises of combination of disease management strategies with overall aim to develop
sustainable system of disease management based on a sound understanding or whole crop
ecosystem.
Pest and Disease Management in Organic Farming
For ease of understanding and their effective application for management of insect pests and
diseases under organic farming, pest and disease management strategies are classified into
following categories-
1. Modification of cultural practices including crop rotation, soil health management, use of
insect resistant plants, etc.
2. The conservation practices to restore the natural enemies through provision of hedge rows,
shelter belts, etc.
3. Use of biological control agents such as insect predators, parasitoids, insect pathogens by
applying or releasing the agents through inoculate and inundated methods.
4. Use of botanicals and their mixtures such as Panchagavya, Dasagavya and mineral oils as
curative control measures.
5. Use of pheromones and other attractant.
6. Use of organic pesticides and other permissible pesticides.
Different methods of pest and diseases management
1. Cultural methods- There are following cultural methods to reduce the pest and diseases
incidence effectively.
a. Selection of adopted and resistant varieties- Choose the varieties carefully. Select only
those varieties which are well adopted to the local environmental conditions such as temperature,
nutrient supply, pests and disease resistance, by which crop being allowed to grow healthy and
makes them stronger against attack of pest and pathogen’s entry.
Some of the resistant/ tolerant varieties in different crops
CROP Insect Resistant/ tolerant variety
Chickpea Pod borer ICCC 7, Dulia
Tomato Bacterial wilt, leaf curl Swaraksha, Arka abhijit, Ark
shresta
Leaf curl, bacterial wilt
fruit borer
Alrounder,
T-32, T-27, BT-1
Brinjal Bacterial wilt,
fruit and shoot borer
white fly
Arka nidhi
Pusa purple, Chaklasi doli
Pusa purple
Okra Yellow vein mosaic
Fruit and shoot borer
Arka anamika
Parkings long green
Potato Potato tuber moth QB 1A21-29
b. Adoption of suitable cropping system- Cropping system in a particular agricultural
ecosystem plays major role by adopting a suitable cropping system in right time and we could
avoid most of the harmful pests and diseases. Some of the practices as follows-
i. Adopt mixed cropping system
ii Follow crop rotation
iii Cultivate green manure and cover crop
iv ‘Perimeter trap cropping’ which involves planting at least two rows of the trap crop around the
entire perimeter of the cash crop.
c. Selection of clean seed and planting materials- Seeds and planting materials are the sources
of diseases so, selection and use if safe seeds after involving inspection for pathogens and weeds
are very much essential. Further it is advised to get seeds and planting material from the reliable
safe sources only.
d. Selection of optimum planting/ sowing time and spacing- Most of the pest or diseases
attack the crops only in a certain life stages. Therefore it is crucial that this vulnerable life stage
does not match with the period of high pest density and thus that the optimal planting time is
chosen. Further, by adopting sufficient spacing between plants reduces the spread of a disease as
well as allows good generation, sunlight to the plants which facilitates to less moisture on the
leaves leads to hinders pathogen development and infection in the same way more sunlight allow
plants to do more photosynthesis. This practice not only distracts or avoids disease and pests in
cropping system but also increase the crop productivity also.
e. Use of balance organic nutrient management- Gradual and steady growth makes plants less
vulnerable to infection. So this steady growth could be achieved by applying organic fertilizers
timely and moderately because excess use of fertilizers often results in damaging the roots, this
damage facilitates to secondary infections. To overcome these problems we could adopt INM
system with organic manure like FYM, compost, vermicomost etc., these organic manures
releases nutrients slowly when plant needs. Further by using liquid biofertilizers like potash
mobilizers with organic manure to provide balanced potassium supply and contributes to the
prevention of fungi and bacterial infections.
f. Use of more organic matter- Organic matter provides several benefits which are as follows-
Increase the density and activities of microorganisms in the soil there by pathogenic and
soil borne fungal population can be reduced.
Provide nutrients to the plants.
Correct C: N ratio in the soil.
Improve soil fertility and productivity.
Improve soil physical, chemical and biological properties.
Check evaporation and soil erosion losses.
Ultimately organic matter supplies substances which strengthens the plants own protection
mechanisms.
g. Use of good water management- Avoid water logging in the field for the entire crop cycle
plants stress could be avoided otherwise pathogens take chance and infects the crop.
h. Use of proper sanitation measures- Pull and Burn is the best method to control disease and
removal of infected plant parts from the ground to prevent the disease from spreading.
i. Application of suitable soil cultivation methods.
j. Conservation and promotion of natural enemies.
2. Mechanical Methods
a. Hand picking- Hand picking of egg masses gregarious larvae and sluggish adults and their
destruction helps in reducing pest population in certain situations. This is the best method, will
be effective before reaching the loss beyond economic level. To save crop from fungal and
bacterial diseases pull and burn method is most effective.
b. Installation of bird’s shelter- By installing dried twigs in the field above the crop facilitates
birds population, while taking rest on the shelters birds predate larvae or moth available on the
crop.
c. Light traps- In this method a bulb of 100 watts is using in front of a thin gunny bag smeared
with oil or grease. A bucket with water can also be kept below the bulb. Installing about 6-8 light
traps per hectare will be effective. Ultraviolet lamps are much more effective than ordinary
electric bulbs. This trap should be used at appropriate time depending upon the site and cycle of
the insects. After collecting insects to be destroyed.
d. Use pheromone traps- This method is effective about 7 times than light trap method.
Pheromone traps used for trapping of the moths of pest of a various crops are made up of plastic
material (resistant to sunlight, rain and wind) of bright mustard yellow colour, which could
outlive a period of one year. Pheromone traps are to be installed in the fields at the rate of 5-7 per
ha. for monitoring and 15-20 traps per ha. for mass trapping. The distance bwtween the traps
fitted with lures specific for a particular moth species may be around 30 meter. These traps
should be positioned 6 to 9 inches above the crop canopy level by trying on the stick with T
shaped handle provided on the funnel of the trap.
3. Biological Methods
a. Use of biological control agents
Inundative and inoculative release or applying biological control agents such as insect predators,
parasitiods and insect pathogens will have a greater role to play in controlling the insect pests in
an insecticide free environment. These agents can be used as curative control methods in case of
sudden outbreak in the insect population. Some of the commonly used and potential biological
control agents for pest management in organic crop production are listed in Table 1 and 2.
Table: 1. Potential biological control agents for pest management in organic crop
production Biocontrol agents Effective against Crops
Bacteria Lepidopteran pests Cotton, sunflower and
Bacillus thuringiensis vegetables
Entomopathogenic fungi Coleopteran grubs Coconut, cotton, and
Metarhizium anisopliae Lepidopteran and coleopteran green house vegetables
Beauveria bassiana Aphids and whiteflies
Verticilium lecanii
Insect predators Aphids, whiteflies and mealy Fruits and vegetables
Lady bird beetles bugs
Chrysoperla spp.
Insect parasitoids Lepidopterans Sugarcane and tomato
Trichogramma spp.
Chelonis blackburni
Entomopathogenic nematodes Coleopteran and Sugarcane and
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Lepidopterans plantation crops
Steinernema carpocapsae
Entomopathogenic Viruses Helicoverpa and other Pulses and vegetables
Nuclear polyhedrosis virus Lepidopterans
(NPV)Granulosis virus
Source: Kumaranag, et al., 2013
Table 2. Biological agents to control pests of different crops.
S. No. Biological Agents Pest Crop
1. Trichogramma brassiliensis -1.0 cc/acre Lepidopteran, Cotton
once in 10 days,(Egg parasitoid) Heliothis spp.
2. Trichogramma chilonis -2 cc/acre Borers Sugarcane, paddy,
once in 15 days pulses, Vegetables
3. Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) Spodoptera spp. Vegetables
100-200 LE/acre & Heliothis spp.
4. Chrysoperla spp. @ 5000-10000 Prudenia, Vegetables
eggs /ha, 3 – 4 times in 15 days Caterpillars,
(Green lace wing) White flies,
thrips, aphids
5. Beauveria bassiana - 1.0% Helicoperva, Vegetables,
Affects the young stage Spodoptera, cereals,
borers, hairy
caterpillars,mites,
scales, etc.
6. Metarhizium anisopliae- 0.5 - 1.0 % White grubs, Sugarcane,
affects all stages Beetle grubs, groundnut, rice,
caterpillars, potato, cotton,
Semi-loopers, cereals
mealy bugs,
BPH
7. Verticillium lecanii - 0.5 - 1.0%, All sucking Sugarcane,
affects all stages softbodies insects groundnut, rice,
potato, cotton,
cereals
8. Phascilomycetes Nematodes All crops
9. Bacillus thuringiensis var. Helicoperva, Vegetables,
Kustaki 0.3 - 0.4 % Spodoptera, cereals, fruits
borers, hairy
caterpillars,
mites, scales,
etc.
10. NPV - Nuclear Polyhedrosis Spodotera litura Cotton,
Virus of Spodotera litura 250–500 groundnut, pulses,
ml/ ha 2 - 3 time at 10 daysinterval cabbage, chillies
11. NPV - Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus Helicoverpa Cotton, groundnut,
of Helicoverpa armigera 250500 armigera pulses, cabbage,
ml/ ha, 2 – 3 time at 10 days interval chillies, Cotton
b. Use of botanicals and their mixtures- Plants during their long evolution, have synthesized a
diverse array of chemicals tp prevent the colorization by insects and other herbivores. They
produce secondary metabolites like terpenoids alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds. These
secondary metabolites having insecticidal properties. In Indain flora several plants having
insecticidal properties such as nicotinoids, natural pyrethrins, rotenoids, neem products have
been used in the past for suppression of pest species. Table shows details of plants used for
disease and pest control-
PLANT PART USED AND PEST CONTROLLED
Tulsi Plant itself is good repellent for insects, mosquitoes and snakes.
Aqueous extract of leaves can prevent attract of leaf minor and leaf
curl in various crops like potato, brinjal, tomato, chilli, crucifers and
onion
Karanj Karanj oil has insecticidal and bactericidal properties and effective
against wide range of pests on almost all crops. Oil emulsion can
also be used as disinfectant and insecticide is domestic applications
Methi Fresh leaf extract is effective against wide range of agricultural
pests.
Onion Dust is effective against many fungal diseases and pests of rice,
wheat, fruit trees and pea. Dust or extract is sprayed to prevent leaf
curl, powdery mildew and other fungal growth.
Tea Dried spent tea leaves used as manure cum insecticide for rose
plants
Castor Castor oil is effective repellent of weevil, aphids and caterpillars in
maize and other crops.
Neem oil Azadirachtin 0.15 % along with triterpenoids and limenoids control
the aphids, jassids, white flies, beetles, caterpillars, cut worms, shoot
and fruit borers.
Quality considerations, certification, labeling and accreditation procedures, marketing,
exports.
QUALITY CONTROL STANDARDS
Introduction
In order to assure the consumer that a product is produced organically, a
kind of quality control is needed. The organic quality is based on standards,
inspection, certification and accreditation. All organic food is produced and
handled according to strict rules called ‘organic standards’. These standards
cover all aspects of food production from animal welfare and wildlife
conservation, to not allowing artificial food additives. All organic forms are
visited at least once a year by a certifying inspector to check that standards are
met. Organic standards do not define a quality status which can be measured in
the final product (E.g. quality of pesticide residues, heavy metals, etc.). They
define the way of production (E.g. that no chemical pesticides and fertilizers are
used). There are organic standards at the national as well as international level.
IFOAM
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). IFOAM was founded in
France in 1972.
Basic standards
IFOAM started during 1970, which now has more than 750 member
organisations in over 100 countries. Took the lead in setting standards for
organic agriculture. Several countries and organisations have their own
standards but largely follow IFOAM standards. Meanwhile, the FAO and WHO
jointly brought out guidelines during 1999, known as Codex Alimentarius
Commission’ guidelines for production, processing, labelling and marketing of
organically produced food (ACIGL-32-1999).
India – NPOP (National programme for organic production) during 2000.
IFOAM basic standards are most important organic standards which also
describes the principle of organic farming. These are the mother or organic
standards. They are standards for standard setting on the national of
international level. They are not for certification. It provides framework for
certification bodies and standard setting organisations to develop their own
certification standards. They are regularly reviewed and updated by the IFOAM
members from all over the world.
Aims and activities of IFOAM
Information exchange about all facts or organic agriculture.
Promotion of the worldwide development of organic agriculture.
Exchange of knowledge and experience among members and the organic
movement as a whole.
Representing the organic movement in international institutions.
Continuously revising the IFOAM basic standards and the
norms for accreditation.
Developing a harmonised international organic guarantee system from
the basic standards to the IFOAM accreditation programme.
Standards
Standards are rules of production for organic agriculture. They
determine the production process within the ecological and social environment
through which the product emerges. There are standards at various levels.
1. International standards: International standards are those standards for
organic agriculture approved by international bodies and recognised by legal
authorities. E.g. Codex Alimentarius Commission guidelines.
IFOAM basic standards: They were first published in 1980. Since then
they have been subjected to biennial review and publication. These basic
standards define organic products grown, produced and handled. They reflect
the current state of organic production and processing methods.
Codex alimentarius: The codex guidelines for organically produced
food will be regularly reviewed at least every four years based on given codex
procedure.
2. Regional / supranational standards
Different regions in the world are involving regional or supranational
standards for organic agriculture. E.g. European Union Council’s regulations.
European Union Council’s regulations: The European Union
regulation on organic production lays down minimum rules governing the
production, processing and import of organic products, including inspection
procedures, labelling and marketing for the whole of Europe. Each European
country is responsible for enforcement and for its own monitoring and
inspection system. Applications, supervision and sanctions are dealt with at
regional levels.
3. National standards
National standards are basic organic agriculture standards prepared by
respective countries on the basis of which detailed standards are prepared by
certification agencies and statutory boards for the development of crops.
Some of the national standards are
1. USDA standards
2. Canadian organic standards
3. Australian organic standards
Organic standards
The use of synthetic pesticides, weedicides and agro-chemicals led to
contamination of products and the quality of the produce is under question.
Thus, pesticide residue laboratories were set up to test the pesticide
contamination in food and drink, but it did not prevent terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystem on land and water. Thus, the clean and uncontaminated food can only
be obtained by growing than in places, which is not contaminated and not
applied with toxic chemicals. The standards are set which makes the food
products to be grown under specified conditions, using only permissible inputs,
following organic principles during growing, harvesting, processing, packing
and transportation and the same came to be known as ‘organic standards’.
Organic standards are sets of definitions, requirements,
recommendations and restrictions regarding the practices and materials that can
be used within certified organic production and processing systems. Organic
standards also cover such aspects as the transport, storage and marketing of
organic products. Organic standards typically contain lists of materials that are
permitted as farm and processing inputs, such as fertilizers, pesticides and food
additives. All other materials should be considered as prohibited unless the
relevant certification programme approves their use. Organic standards
generally emphasis the use of good management practices to minimise the need
for inputs wherever possible. Organic standards address such broader aspects as
biodiversity, native vegetation retention, waterway management, animal
husbandry, ethics and waste management.
The four IFOAM main principles of organic production
The principle of health: Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance
the health of soil, plant, animal and human as one and indivisible.
The principle of ecology: Organic agriculture should be based on living
ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help
sustain them.
The principles of fairness: Organic agriculture should build on
relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common
environment and life opportunities.
The principle of care: Organic agriculture should be managed in a
precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well
being of current and future generations and the environment.
Codex alimentarious guidelines
In 1991, the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a joint FAO / WHO food
standards programme began developing guidelines for the production,
processing, labelling and marketing of organically produced foods. The
guidelines include general sections describing the organic production concept
and the scope of the text, description and definitions, labelling and claims
(including, products in transition/conversion), rules of production and
preparation including criteria for the substances allowed in organic production;
inspection and certification systems; and import control. Guidelines for the
production, processing, labelling and marketing of organically-produced foods
adopted during 1999. During 2001, it included sections ensuring livestock and
livestock products and bee keeping and bee products. In earlier guidelines
(IFOAM), only organic farming and processing were included, but in codex
labelling and marketing are included codex guidelines are widely adopted
throughout the world.
Codex guidelines for organic production system
1. Enhance the biological diversity within the whole system
2. Increase the soil biological activity. E.g. flora, fauna, etc.
3. Maintain long-term soil fertility.
4. Recycle wastes of plant and animal origin in order to return nutrients to
the land. Thus, minimising the use of non-renewable resources.
5. Rely on renewable resources in locally organised agricultural ecosystems.
6. Promote the healthy use of soil, water and air as well as minimise all
forms of pollution that may result from agricultural practices.
7. Handle agricultural products with emphasis on careful processing
methods in order to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of
the products at all stages.
8. Become established on any existing farm through a period of conversion
the appropriate length of which is determined by site specific factors,
such as history of land, type of crops and livestocks to be produced.
European Union regulations
The European Union was one of the first to set up a policy on organic
farming by adopting EU Council regulation. With this regulation, the council
created a community frame work defining in detail the requirements for
agricultural products or food stuffs bearing a reference to organic production
methods. The regulation is set up primarily as a labelling regulation, meant to
regulate the internal market for organic products but it also describes the organic
production standards and inspection and supervision requirements. It virtually
deals with all agricultural products and with all aspects of primary food
production and food processing.
National Standards for Organic Production (NSOP)
In India, standards for organic agriculture were announced in May, 2001
and the National Programme on Organic Production (NPOP) is administered by
Agricultural and Processed food products Export Development Authority
(APEDA) using the IFOAM basic standards under the Ministry of Commerce. It
includes definite principles, basic standards of production, documentation,
inspection and certification guidelines. The Government has set the frame
conditions in which the organic sector of a country operator which include
content and legal status of organic standards, the regulations concerning the use
of organic claims and labels, the legislation on consumer protection and the
accreditation system. As per the national accreditation policy, all certifying
agencies operating in India are to obtain accreditation from any one of the
accrediting agency appointed by the Government of India (E.g. Spice Board,
Coffee Board, Tea Board, APEDA, etc.).
5. Plant protection
Natural methods are to be adopted. Preventive, cultural thermophysical,
etc., promote natural predators and bioagents.
Prohibited: Synthetic products, GM products.
Restricted: Most of the plant products. Even neem oil, biopesticides (NPV,
fugae, bacterial, etc.)
Not allowed: Alcoholic product based plant pesticides, soft soap based
pesticides even sterilised insects
Allowed: Most of homeopathic, herbal and BD preparation, pheromone
traps and mechanical traps-allowed / permitted.
Until now, the Indian standards are only compulsory for products to be exported.
It is planned to apply the same standards also for the domestic market.
NSOP guidelines
1. Formation of organic farmers group: Farmers with similar farming
and production should be brought together preferably in the same village in
contiguous areas.
2. Conversion period in organic farming: It is the time between the start
of organic management and certification of crops. Conversion period varies
from 1 to 3 years depending on the current usage of chemical fertilizers,
pesticides and false usage of lands. It is determined by certification agencies,
while deciding the period, ecological regions are considered.
3. Plant and planting material: All seed and planting material essentially
used from the same farm or other organic farming farms which are adopted to
local soil and climatic conditions.
4. Fertilisation policy in organic farming: Biodegradable materials are
encouraged. Poultry manure, if it is produced outside the farm, is avoided. They
set limitations for use of biodegradable material. Excess use of it also pollute
environment. Manures containing human excreta should not be directly used on
crops which are used for direct consumption. Carbon based materials should
form the basis for nutrition. Some of the mineral fertilizers have restricted use
and can be used as supplementary to manures. E.g. Lime, gypsum, rock
phosphate, KNO3 are permitted.
Permitted FYM, urine, crop residues, mulches, cover crops, poultry manure,
biofertilizers, BD preparation, vermicompost, botanical extracts, etc.
Restricted use Blood meal, bone meal, compost, city waste, FYM from other
farm. Restricted minerals NaCl, KSO4, gypsum, MgSO4, lime, rock
phosphate.
Labelling in organic farming
General Principles Labelling shall convey clear and accurate information on the organic status of
the product.
Recommendations When the full standards requirements are fulfilled, products shall be sold as
"produce of organic agriculture" or a similar description.
The name and address of the person or company legally responsible for the production or
processing of the product shall be mentioned on the label.
Product labels should list processing procedures which influence the product properties in a way
not immediately obvious.
Additional product information shall be made available on request. All components of additives
and processing aids shall be declared.
Ingredients or products derived from wild production shall be declared as such.
Standards –
1. The person or company legally responsible for the production or processing of the product
shall be identifiable.
2. Single ingredient products may be labelled as "produce of organic agriculture" or a similar
description when all Standards requirements have been met.
3. Mixed products where not all ingredients, including additives, are of organic origin may be
labelled in the following way (raw material weight):
x Where a minimum of 95% of the ingredients are of certified organic origin, products may be
labelled "certified organic" or similar and should carry the logo of the certification programme.
x Where less than 95% but not less than 70% of the ingredients are of certified organic origin,
products may not be called "organic". The word "organic" may be used on the principal display
in statements like "made with organic ingredients" provided there is a clear statement of the
proportion of the organic ingredients. An indication that the product is covered by the
certification programme may be used, close to the indication of proportion of organic
ingredients.
x Where less than 70% of the ingredients are of certified organic origin, the indication that an
ingredient is organic may appear in the ingredients list. Such product may not be called
"organic".
4. Added water and salt shall not be included in the percentage calculations of organic
ingredients.
5. The label for in-conversion products shall be clearly distinguishable from the label for organic
products.
6. All raw materials of a multi-ingredient product shall be listed on the product label in order of
their weight percentage. It shall be apparent which raw materials are of organic certified origin
and which are not. All additives shall be listed with their full name.
If herbs and/or spices constitute less than 2% of the total weight of the product, they may be
listed as "spices " or "herbs " without stating the percentage.
7. Organic products shall not be labelled as GE (genetic engineering) or GM (genetic
modification) free in order to avoid potentially misleading claims about the end product. Any
reference to genetic engineering on product labels shall be limited to the production method.
CERTIFICATION PROCESS AND PROCEDURE
Certification: Certification means the farm and the farmer’s methods inspected by an
organic certifying group to ensure that they comply with guidelines on organic farming. Each
certifying group has a code of standards, which is available to interested people. Certification is
a procedure by which a third party gives written assurance that a product, process or services is
in conformity with certain standards. Certification is the key to the National Organic Programme.
The certification process focuses on the methods and materials used in production.
A third party- an organic certifying agent evaluates producers, processors and handlers to
determine whether they conform to an established set of operating guidelines called organic
standards. Those who conform are certified by the agent and allowed to use a logo, product
statement or certificate to document their product as certified organic.
Accreditation
In March 2000, the Ministry of Commerce launched NPOP (National Programme for Organic
Production) design to establish National Standards for Organic Products, which could then be
sold under the logo ‘India Organic’. For proper implementation of NPOP, NAPP (National
Accreditation Policy and Programme) has been formulated with Accreditation regulation
announced in May 2001. These make it mandatory that all certification bodies whether internal
or foreign operating in the country must be accredited by an Accreditation agency.
An agricultural product can only be exported as organic product if a certification body duly
accredited by APEDA certifies it.
Types of certification
1. Foreign certification: The inspection and certification of export oriented organic projects in
developing countries are certified by the certification bodies based in importing countries. The
main disadvantage is that costs of certification are high due to frequent plane trips and Western
salaries.
2.Co-certification: Local branch officers of Western Certification programmes conduct
inspection along with local inspection staff who speak local languages and familiar with local
conditions. However, inspection work is supervised by the Head Office. This reduces number of
plane trips.
3. Indigenous certification: Indigenous certification bodies can usually offer cheaper inspection
fees as less traveling is required and only local salaries have to be covered. They support the
development of domestic markets.
For export to the European Union (EU) market, a certificate from a certification body, which is
accepted by EU competent authorities is essential. To regulate the export of certified organic
products, the Director General of Foreign Trade, Government of India has issued a public
notice according to which no certified organic products may be exported unless they are certified
by an inspection and certifying agency duly accredited by one of the accreditation agencies
designated by Government of India.
Steps in certification
1. Identification of a suitable certifier: The producer or farmer makes contact with certifying
agency. Certifying agency gives information on standards fees application, inspection,
certification and appeal procedures.
2. Submission of an application: Submit application along with field history, farm map, record
keeping system, etc.
3. Review of application
4. On-farm inspection
5. Final review
The outcome of the review may be a) approval for organic certification, b) request for additional
information, c) Notification of non-compliance, d) Denial of certification.
If certification is granted, the producer can begin marketing his or her products as organic. The
producer is free to use the seal of certifier.
Examples of non-compliance may include
1. In adequate records of manure application, equipment clearing on-farms where conventional
production is also done and compost preparation.
2. A farm that has had chemicals used on it and is in its 1st or 2nd year of transition to organic
production cannot be granted certification because the land must be free from prohibited
pesticides and fertilizer for a minimum of three years.
3. The contract indicating scope, obligation, inspection and certification, sanction and appeals,
duration, fee structure is executed. The costs of certification depends on size of farm, type of
production system, group of farmers, location of unit, travel time to reach the inspection site and
costs for travel, food and accommodation during inspection.
4. The farm has to undergo inspection at least once a year. Inspectors verify that organic
practices such as long-term soil management, buffering between organic farms and
neighbouring conventional farms and record keeping are being followed. Processing inspections
include review of the facilities of clearing and pest control methods, ingredient transportation
and storage and record keeping and audit control. The inspector evaluates the performance of the
farm activities with the help of farmers statements and records and by viewing the fields,
animals and farm buildings. He can take samples for laboratory testing and may conduct
unannounced inspections. The inspector transmits his/her findings to the certification body as a
written report.
5. Final review and certification
The certification body compares the results of the inspection with the requirements of the organic
standards. A certification committee decides whether certification may be granted or not and
then the agency issues approval or denial of certificate. The certificate is given for current years
harvest only and hence annual certification is required. The operator can request for
reconsideration of decisions of denial of certificate if has valid reason.
Group certification
Majority of agriculture practitioners worldwide are small holders and are often located in remote
areas with long travel times from one place to another. Furthermore, the overall revenue from
their agricultural production is usually too small to allow a viable farm inspection by external
inspection body for each farmer.
Based on these observations, an idea was generated to develop Grower Group Certification
(CGC) where group certification refers to the certification of a group of producers who are in
close proximity to one another, whose farms are uniform in most ways and who are organized
under one management and marketing system (IFOAM).
According to NPOP, certification of an organized group of producers, processors and exports
with similar farming and production systems and which are in geographical proximity.
Internal control system (ICS)
As per IFOAM and NPOP definition, Internal Control System (ICS) is a documented quality
assurance system that allows the external certification bodies to delegate the inspection of
individual group members to a body identified from within the operators of the group. This can
be legally recognised farmers association, cooperatives, NGOs or exporters, project or a farmer
group. This means, in practice that a growers group basically controls all farmers for compliance
with organic production rules according to defined procedures. The organic certification body
then mainly evaluates whether the ICS is working well and efficiently. The ICS guards the
integrity of the organic quality of the products particularly in smallholder projects. It is a
system in which all persons dealing with products (grower, buyers and store keepers) are
identified, registered, instructed on the requirement of organic certification and where large
number of farmers are to be inspected by a foreign certification body, the involved cost can be
very high. In such cases, smallholder group certification can be done. It is done for defined
groups (may be upto 900 to 1000 farmers) with similar farming and production system located in
geographical proximity. Only one application is required to certify the entire farms of such small
holder group and the certification and inspection fee is shared by each individual farmer /
operator.
Contracted to ensure compliance. The activities of these persons are monitored by regular visits
and documentary control. Besides this, the persons involved are made aware of their common
responsibilities for the products, which imply certain social control.
Developing countries are increasingly looking for ways to reduce certification costs and
procedures in order to make certification more feasible for small farmers. ICS is an alternative
scheme, which help group of small farmers to reduce costs and simplify procedures of internal
inspection and certification.
The external auditor can invariably insists on physical inspection of all individual holdings
extending up to and above four hectares. It may also be noted that the number of units above four
hectares should not exceed 50 per cent of the total area under the group certification.
Marginal farmers < 1 ha
Small farmers 1 to 1.99 ha
Semi-medium farmers 2 to 3.99 ha
Medium farmers 4 to 9.99 ha
Large farmers > 10 ha
CERTIFICATION AGENCIES
International inspection and certification agencies
1. Soil Association Inspection Scheme, UK
2. SKAL, The Netherlands
3. ECOCERT, France / Belgium / Germany
4. IMO, Switzerland
5. Organic Crop Improvement Association, USA
6. Demeter Association, USA
Certification agencies in India
ECOCERT: International (Based in France and Germany branch office
in Aurangabad, Maharashtra).
IMO Control Pvt. Ltd. – Institute for Marketology (based in Switzerland,
office in Bengaluru, Karnataka).
LACON GmbH (based in Germany, office in Aluva, Kerala).
SGS India Pvt. Ltd. (based in Switzerland, office in Delhi and other cities)
BIOINSPECTA (based in Switzerland, branch office in Cochin, Kerala)
SGS India Pvt. Ltd. (based in India, office in Bengaluru)
APOF Organic Certification Agency (AOCA) (based in India, office in
Gurgaon, Haryana)
SKAL International (based in Netherlands, branch office in Mumbai)
INDOCERT (based in India, office in Aluva, Kerala)
India Society for certification (ISCOP) (based in India, office in
Coimbatore) All the above certification bodies are accredited under
NPOP.
Ministry of Commerce, Government of India- apex body for NSPO, Ministry of
Agriculture, Horticulture, APEDA, Coffee Board, Tea Board, Spice Board, Coconut
Development Board, Cocoa and Cashewnut Board are members in steering committee.
They will be administering and developing National Accreditation Policy and
programmes to implement national organic programme.
Accreditation agencies
1. APEDA
2. Coffee Board
3. Tea Board
4. Spice Board
5. Coconut Board
6. Cocoa and Cashew nut Development Board
In turn, these accreditation agencies have inspection and certification
agencies. These agencies directly contact farmers, organic input producers,
processors and marketing agencies.
Organic food products exported from India
Organic cereals: Wheat, rice, maize or corn
Pulses: Redgram, black gram
Fruits: Banana, mango, orange, pineapple, passion fruits, cashewnut, walnut.
Oilseeds and oils: Soybean, sunflower, mustard, cotton seed, groundnut, castor
Vegetables: Brinjal, garlic, potato, tomato, onion.
Herbs and spices: Chilli, peppermint, cardamom, turmeric, black pepper,
white pepper, amla, tamarind, ginger, vanilla, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg,
mace.
Others: Jaggery, sugar, tea, coffee, cotton, textiles
Source -This chapter adopted from organic farming, agrimoon.com
