CONFIDENTIAL 1 Comprehensive Avian Risk Assessment for the Garden Peninsula Wind Energy Project, Delta County, Michigan September 2011 Prepared for: Joseph E. Quandt, Esq. Zimmerman, Kuhn, Darling, Boyd, and Quandt, PLC 412 S. Union St. Traverse City, Michigan 49684 (231) 947-7901 x 115 Prepared by: Paul Kerlinger, Ph.D. and John Guarnaccia Curry & Kerlinger, LLC P.O. Box 453 Cape May Point, NJ 08212 609.884.2842 – office; 609.636.7522 – mobile [email protected]Garden Peninsula Comprehensive Avian Risk Assessment – Curry & Kerlinger, LLC – 9-27-11
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CONFIDENTIA
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Comprehensive Avian Risk Assessment for the Garden Peninsula Wind Energy Project, Delta County, Michigan September 2011 Prepared for: Joseph E. Quandt, Esq. Zimmerman, Kuhn, Darling, Boyd, and Quandt, PLC 412 S. Union St. Traverse City, Michigan 49684 (231) 947-7901 x 115 Prepared by: Paul Kerlinger, Ph.D. and John Guarnaccia Curry & Kerlinger, LLC P.O. Box 453 Cape May Point, NJ 08212 609.884.2842 – office; 609.636.7522 – mobile [email protected]
Introduction Heritage Sustainable Energy is proposing to build a utility scale wind energy facility on the Garden Peninsula, Delta County, Michigan (hereafter, “the Project”). The project would consist of approximately 14 turbines each standing about 148 m in height. This report details a comprehensive risk assessment using the following three sources of information, which were collected commencing in 2007. • Avian field studies conducted at the site by Curry & Kerlinger, LLC and Michigan
Natural Features Inventory during 2007, 2008, and 2010; • Information provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service via letter and in person meetings with Heritage Sustainable Energy; and, most importantly, • Empirically determined risk based on the dozens of studies conducted at wind plants across the U.S. and Canada at modern wind plants during the past 15 years. The information from these sources will be integrated in order to determine the likelihood of collision fatalities and displacement/disturbance impacts to the species that inhabit, make migration stopovers, or migrate through the Garden Peninsula during the annual cycle. By using data collected at the Garden Peninsula site regarding avian “use” (abundance and behavior together are considered use) in concert with the vast body of information on demonstrated risk, a robust assessment of risk may be made. The risk assessment will be comparative in that by knowing avian use at the project site and comparing that use with sites for which there are collision fatality or displacement data, we may arrive at determinations as to which types of birds will likely be impacted and the magnitude of that impact. Project Description The project would consist of about 14 turbines (Layout Version 4) spread throughout the project area. These turbines would have a nameplate capacity of about 28 megawatts. Turbines would extend to about 148 m in height when the rotor is in the twelve o’clock position and 41.5 m when in the six o’clock position. The towers on which the rotors are mounted are tubular, like most modern wind turbines, and all or a subset would be deployed, in all likelihood, with Federal Aviation Administration L-864 red strobe-like lights. A gravel road to would be constructed to each turbine and around each turbine base pad. All electrical collection lines within the project site would be underground to a substation from which electricity would leave the site via an above ground transmission line to a nearby existing transmission line.
Studies Conducted to Date Commencing in 2007, four avian studies were conducted to determine use (abundance and behavior) of birds during various seasons of the year.
• Phase I Avian Risk Assessment – 2007, Curry & Kerlinger, LLC (Kerlinger and Guarnaccia 2007)
• Preconstruction Spring Migration Study – 2008, Curry & Kerlinger, LLC (Guarnaccia and Kerlinger 2008)
• Preconstruction Avian Studies for the Garden Peninsula Phase I Wind Energy Site: Spring, Michigan State University (Gehring 2010)
• Preconstruction Avian and Bat Studies for the Garden Peninsula Phase I Wind Energy Site: Fall – 2010, Michigan State University (Gehring 2011)
Consultation with State and Federal Wildlife Agencies was initiated in mid-2007 with letters from Curry & Kerlinger, LLC to the Michigan office of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and to the Michigan Department of Natural Resources. The USFWS was provided a copy of the original Phase I Avian Risk Assessment and responded to that report in a letter dated June 1, 2009. Additional correspondence and in person meetings occurred as the project proceeded. A letter from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service dated June 25, 2009 summarized their position at that time and provided information to Heritage Sustainable Energy regarding bird ecology at the project site. A site visit was also conducted with USFWS on June 17, 2009. Subsequent to these communications and meetings, additional telephone and in person meetings with USFWS were held. Field and Review Studies Conducted Four preconstruction studies were conducted for the Garden Peninsula wind project commencing in 2007 and ending in late 2010. These studies included both desktop and field studies designed to determine the potential risk to birds at the project site. The studies were conducted by Curry & Kerlinger, LLC and by a biologist with the Michigan Natural Features Inventory (Michigan State University). The former group is one of the most experienced consulting firms that conduct avian studies for wind power and communication tower projects. The latter group conducts wildlife research and assessments for the Michigan Department of Natural Resources and some federal agencies. Thus, both private and public sector contractors were involved in preconstruction assessment studies at the Garden Peninsula project. Phase I Avian Risk Assessment – 2007. Curry & Kerlinger, LLC (Kerlinger and Guarnaccia 2007). A Phase I avian risk assessment was commenced with a site visit during September 2007 by a trained avian field biologist. During the site visit, habitat and topography within and
beyond the current project boundary were evaluated in an effort to determine the species and magnitude of bird use (behavior and abundance) within the Garden Peninsula project site. The site is near Lake Michigan along the western shore of the peninsula were bluffs rise steeply near the shoreline and inland topography consists of rolling hills. A habitat evaluation revealed that much of the site consisted of large agricultural fields (mostly hay), surrounded by boreal forest in the northern portion of the peninsula and woodlots farther south in the central and southern portion of the peninsula. There were some marshes close to the shoreline of Lake Michigan, although turbines would not be situated near them. Because of the geographic location and habitat, Michigan Audubon has declared the Garden Peninsula as an Important Bird Area, although such designation is not a state or federal official designation, nor is there any legal status for this designation. The turbine sites consist primarily of agricultural fields, with some brush and wooded areas located near the turbines or along roadways to the turbines. Regarding endangered bird species, none are likely to nest within the Project area or nearby. Several threatened species are likely to nest on the Peninsula, although not within the Project boundary. These include Common Loon, Bald Eagle, and Osprey. Michigan special concern species also nest at or close to the project, at least in small numbers. These include Grasshopper Sparrow, which likely nests in grasslands, as well as Cooper’s Hawk, Northern Harrier, and Black Tern. Habitat within the project boundary appears suitable for nesting by Northern Harrier and Cooper’s Hawk, but Black Tern will not likely nest onsite or nearby. Risk to these species, even if they wander on site, is likely to be minimal. If impacts to Bald Eagle or Osprey do occur, they will not likely impact the populations within Michigan or adjacent states or provinces. The site visit coincided with the peak season for migrating northern songbirds. Many of these birds were observed as they made stopovers in forest patches and grasslands on site. Numbers indicated that in some portions of the Garden Peninsula, relatively large stopovers of birds can be expected during migration. Overall, collision impacts to most species of birds were concluded to be similar to or slightly greater than impacts on a per turbine per year basis than has been empirically determined at wind power facilities at eastern and Midwestern projects. Because turbines are likely to be slightly taller (maximum 148 m agl) than at most previously studied wind projects in North America, risk to migrants may be slightly greater than if standard height turbines (~120 m agl) were used. In all likelihood, impacts to birds would not be biologically significant (causing declines to populations of any species). Recommendations for turbine placement at the Project site were: 1) turbines should not be placed near woodlots along the lakeshore to reduce potential risk to night and other making
stopovers in these habitats, and 2) turbines should not be placed close to coastal bluffs where migrating and nesting raptors are likely to use updrafts for soaring. Recommendations for further study included both pre- and post-construction studies. Among these recommendations were a study of use of the site by Osprey, Bald Eagle and other Michigan listed species; a study of fallout of migrating birds along the lakeshore woodlands; and a breeding bird study to determine raptor and Michigan special interest species, with focus on grassland nesting birds. A post-construction fatality study was also recommended. Preconstruction Spring Migration Study – 2008. Curry & Kerlinger, LLC (Guarnaccia and Kerlinger 2008). To determine how many and what species of birds migrated through the Project site during spring, a study was conducted from April 30 through May 31, 2008. Observations for migrating raptors and other diurnal migrants were conducted for four hours per day on 23 days and on 24 days for migrating songbirds making stopovers. Two hawk watch sites were established at near the southern tip of the peninsula (Fairport and Burnt Bluff) to measure hawk migration numbers in that area during two, two hour observation periods. That study confirmed that a moderate number of raptors, mostly Broad-winged Hawks, migrated through the lower Garden Peninsula. A total of 828 sightings of 13 species were logged during the study. A total of 100 Bald Eagle, a Michigan threatened species, observations were logged, which were likely a combination of birds that nest on the Upper Peninsula and migrants going north into Canada. During the observations, no federally endangered or threatened species were observed, although Michigan listed species and species of special concern were observed: Peregrine Falcon (endangered, N = 7), Osprey (threatened, N = 7), Merlin (threatened, N = 20), Northern Harrier (species of special concern, N = 31), Cooper’s Hawk (species of special concern, N = 8), and Northern Goshawk (species of special concern, N = 2). A majority of raptors were observed at altitudes greater than the rotor swept height zone. It is possible that Merlins spotted at or near the bluffs at Burnt Hills were nesting locally. Large numbers of waterbirds were not evident during the study. Among waterbirds observed American White Pelican, Bonaparte’s Gull, Double-crested Cormorant, Ring-billed Gull, and Sandhill Crane were the most numerous. A total of 80 pelican and 26 crane observations were logged during the study. Roughly 30% of all waterbirds flew within the rotor swept height zone at the two observation sites combined. Spring migration was studied at six observation points within 3.2 km of the tip of the peninsula. Each point count was sampled 23 times, each for a period of 15 minutes, between April 30 and May 31. Neotropical migrants were not present in large numbers during spring. The five most commonly observed species included Blue Jay, American Crow, American Goldfinch, European
Starling, and Red-winged Blackbird. Blue Jay was the most numerous species accounting for more than 40% of all individuals observed. None of the songbirds or waterbirds are listed as either federally or Michigan endangered or threatened species, nor were they listed as species of special concern. Preconstruction Avian Studies for the Garden Peninsula Phase I Wind Energy Site: Spring. Michigan State University (Gehring 2010). Detailed observations of raptors and other larger birds were conducted on 16 days (32 three-hour observation periods) during April and May 2010. The sites were selected to provide maximum viewing of the project area. Behavioral observations included flight height so that risk of colliding with turbine rotors could potentially be assessed. Methods followed those recommended by Hawkwatch International, one of the most respected raptor organizations in North America. A total of 1,748 large birds was observed including 21 species. Nine species of raptors were observed with Broad-winged Hawks being most abundant. Sixteen observations of Bald Eagles were recorded, spread evenly between the two observation points. Four species of waterfowl were noted with Canada Goose being the most numerous. Among other waterbirds were American White Pelican, Double-crested Cormorant, Great Blue Heron, Herring Gull, Ring-billed Gull, and Sandhill Crane. Of these, Double-crested Cormorant accounted for most observations with 400 sightings recorded. No federally endangered or threatened species was observed, although state listed species were present including Peregrine Falcon (Michigan endangered; N = 6) and Merlin (Michigan Threatened; N = 2), along with four Michigan species of special concern. Because these birds were migrants, it is not known if they nested in Michigan or were simply passing through the area. Height of flight for most birds was lower than about 50 m, whereas the rotor would extend to about 41.5 m at its lowest point. Thus, a majority of birds observed at Site 2 flew at or below the rotor swept area and about 90% of birds observed at Site 1 flew at or below the rotor swept area. Breeding songbird surveys were conducted in the period June 12-30, 2010 during 10-minute observation periods at eight observation points within the project area. Most points were situated in grassy fields such that the focus of the study was grassland birds that nest within the project area. A total of 177 birds of 22 species was detected. Birds included species that nest in grassland or open habitat types, along with birds that nest in shrubland and forest edge, as well as some that nest on islands in Lake Michigan. The latter species included gulls and were the most numerous of species counted. Corvids (crows and ravens) were the second most numerous species, followed by swallows/swifts, blackbirds, and invasive species (pigeons and starlings).
The reason so few grassland nesting birds were present is probably related to the fact that most grassland fields are mowed by farmers, thereby killing all young and eggs. Preconstruction Avian and Bat Studies for the Garden Peninsula Phase I Wind Energy Site: Fall – 2010. Michigan State University (Gehring 2011). Using the same methodology and observation points as used during the spring period, two studies were conducted during fall 2010. A total of 20 raptor and other larger bird surveys were conducted on 10 days during September and October. During the 20 raptor and larger bird surveys, 14,656 sightings were logged. Six raptor species accounted for 119 observations, whereas 15 other species accounted for the remaining 99.2%. Thus, raptors accounted for only less than 1% of larger birds observed. Ring-billed Gull was the species most often observed, accounting for 5,798 individuals followed by 4,388 crows, 1,534 Canada Geese, 1,592 unidentified gulls, 481 ravens. Very few ducks or other waterbirds were observed. Among the raptors, Bald Eagles were observed the most, with 52 sightings, followed by 38 sightings for Rough-legged Hawk. Of the raptors and larger birds birds observed, there were no federally endangered or threatened species. A single Merlin, a Michigan threatened species, was observed. The remaining birds were mostly common or relatively common species, with the exception of Northern Harrier (N = 8 sightings), which is considered a species of special concern in Michigan. There did not appear to be a strong migration concentration at the project area. The height of most (~80%) raptor and other larger birds was below the rotor swept height zone at both observation sites combined. Only 13.0% of observations were of birds flying within the rotor swept height zone. Flight height for Bald Eagles averaged 51.3 m above ground level, with roughly one-half to two-thirds of birds flying below the rotor swept height zone and about one-third flying within the rotor swept height zone. For the second most numerous raptor, Rough-legged Hawk, about two-thirds of birds observed flew below the rotor swept height zone and the remaining bird flew within the rotor swept height zone. During migrant songbird surveys a total of eight sets of surveys were conducted between September 15 and November 30. A total of 1,183 birds of 30 species was observed during the entire study. Corvids, waterfowl, and cranes accounted for a large majority of observations. Relatively few sparrows, finches, warblers, or other nocturnal migrants were observed. Slightly larger numbers of buntings and pipits were observed. Few small migrants were observed overall, suggesting that the area is not a major stopover area for these species. No federal or Michigan endangered or threatened species were observed during the fall migratory small bird surveys, nor were species of special concern or declining species.
Risk Assessment Collision impacts to birds are commonly caused by communication towers, buildings, automobiles traveling on highways, fences, and many other structures. Until recently, there has been a debate as to the significance of these impacts, including impacts from wind turbines. However, a recent peer reviewed paper by Arnold and Zink (2011) reports that the fatalities caused by these varied sources do not result in significant impacts to bird populations and that these sources of mortality are generally not biologically significant. With this in mind, we review the likelihood of collision risk to various types of birds and make conclusions regarding the potential for biologically significant impacts. Risk to Shorebirds, Waterfowl, and other Waterbirds. Although these birds pass through the Garden Peninsula and can be sighted during migration and nesting seasons, the studies did not reveal large numbers of any of these species near the turbine locations. In addition, less than one-third of these birds flew within the rotor swept height zone. In fact, away from the lakeshore, waterbirds of all types were relatively scarce. Except during migration or flyovers, these birds simply do not use the upland habitats on which turbines would be constructed and they rarely fly within the height zone at which they might be at risk of colliding with rotors. As such, the turbines would not constitute a significant risk to any of these species a result of the fact that the turbines are not located immediately adjacent to water or habitats used by waterbird species. Another means of assessing potential risk to these birds is to consult the vast literature and database on collision fatalities that has been collected and assembled during the past fifteen years in the United States and Canada. In Appendix A are summaries of collision fatalities determined at more than 50 wind turbine sites in North America. The list is not exhaustive because many sites have been studied in Canada for which reports are not available. Most important is the fact that wind turbines have never had significant impacts to waterbirds at wind power facilities. Even at turbines situated close to continentally significant waterbird areas such as the Suisun Marsh in California (Shiloh I and II, High Winds), waterfowl management areas (Top of Iowa), and Horicon Marsh, Wisconsin (Forward Energy), waterbird fatalities have not been great in number or biologically significant. Consulting the multitude of studies in Appendix A strongly suggests that waterbirds are not susceptible to colliding with wind turbines in anything other than very small and insignificant numbers. Combining the existing data summarized in the previous section from empirical studies conducted at the project site with empirically determined fatality estimates at wind plants across North America, it is improbable that waterbird collisions with turbines at the project will result in large or significant numbers fatalities. Although precise estimates of fatality rates cannot be
made for these birds at the project site, the rate will, in all probabililty, be similar to those observed at other projects that have been close to water and large concentrations of waterbirds, none of which have been demonstrated to have had biologically significant impacts. Risk to Raptors. That raptors aggregate along the shores of the Great Lakes during migration has been known for decades (Kerlinger 1989; Kerlinger 1995). In fall, the north shores of the lakes serve, to varying degrees, as leading or diversion lines, such that raptors concentrate and follow the shorelines rather than crossing the lakes. Aggregations are minimal or non-existent for most of the shorelines of the Great Lakes, although at or near the ends of the lakes there can be large aggregations. Locations where aggregations are known and are the greatest, tend to occur near the east end of lakes in spring and west end of the lakes in fall. For example, the greatest concentrations known from Lake Superior occur at Whitefish Point, near the eastern end of the lake. In fall, the largest concentration points along the north shores of the lakes occur just east of Detroit along Lake Erie and at Duluth in Minnesota. Near the middle of lakes, there is some concentration of raptors during migration, mostly where there are long peninsulas that extend into the lakes. Such locations include Point Pelee in Ontario, where large numbers of hawks gather as they decide whether or not to cross Lake Erie. The Garden Peninsula is not in close proximity to the east or west end of Lake Michigan, so it is not one of the major concentration areas for migrating raptors in spring or fall. Instead, lesser numbers of raptors concentrate there than at eastern or western ends of the lake. On the Garden Peninsula there appears to be a greater concentration near the tip of the peninsula. Comparing the studies conducted by Curry & Kerlinger, LLC (Guarnaccia and Kerlinger 2008) and Gehring (2010, 2011) it is apparent that fewer hawks concentrate in the northern portion of the peninsula, where the project is located, as opposed to the tip of the peninsula. This is reasonable given what we know about the concentrating effects on peninsulas (Kerlinger 1989). Raptor migration at the current project development site averaged about three birds per hour, which is equivalent to 11% of the rate recorded at Whitefish Point and 18% of the rate recorded at Brockway Mountain. Both these sites are on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. This low rate of migration suggests that the Garden Peninsula, at least at the site of the project, is not a significant migration pathway for raptors during spring. During fall migration, the rate of raptor migration per hour was virtually the same as for spring, which means the relation between the Garden Peninsula site and the well known hawk migration locations in the Upper Peninsula was the same as for spring. This means that raptors do not appear to be concentrated in significant numbers at the project site. With respect to risk to birds that do migrate through the Garden Peninsula project area, collision risk is likely to be minimal for two reasons. First, the aggregations of migrating raptors are simply not that great in the area where turbines are located and second, migrating raptors have
never been demonstrated to be at great risk of colliding with turbines. Studies along the north shore of Lake Erie at the Erie Farms wind project demonstrated minor impacts to migrating raptors, despite reasonably large numbers of them observed migrating (James 2008). Numbers of raptors observed at the Erie Farms project were far greater than those observed during studies on the Garden Peninsula. In addition, it is important to point out that fatalities of migrating raptors at Appalachian Ridge sites (see list of projects in Appendix A) where these birds regularly migrate are no different than fatality rates away from such ridges. There is no evidence that suggests migrating raptors are particularly susceptible to colliding with turbines. The reason is likely related to the fact that raptors migrate in the daytime and during their migration they appear to be very aware of what is in front of them. Thus, overall, risk to migrating raptors is likely to be minimal at the project site and fatality rates are likely to be similar to that found at other sites. Finally, impacts are not likely to lead to the decline of any population of these birds. With respect to nesting raptors, risk will likely be similar to what has been documented at dozens of other wind power facilities. The 50+ studies referred to in Appendix A provide insight into fatality rates of raptors during nesting and other seasons. In no case have fatality rates been biologically significant, with the possible exception of rates for some raptors at the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area in California. There are roughly 5,400 turbines operating in a relatively small area at Altamont and absolute numbers of fatalities numbers are relatively high, especially for raptors. On a per turbine basis, however, overall bird fatality rates at Altamont turbines appear to be lower than many other sites, although the studies are not strictly comparable. Thus, it is the fact that there are more than 5,000 turbines in the Altamont that has resulted in the high numbers of fatalities. Unlike the Altamont, the Garden project will have only 14 turbines and the area is not a significant migratory corridor or use area like the Altamont. Thus, overall fatalities are not likely to be biologically significant. Risk to Songbirds. The study conducted by Curry & Kerlinger, LLC (Kerlinger (2007) demonstrated that large numbers of night migrating and other songbirds concentrate near the tip of the Garden Peninsula and close to the shoreline of Lake Michigan during fall. A different finding comes from the fall migration study of Gehring (2011). During that study, few migrants were observed. The discrepancy between the studies is, in all likelihood, related to the difference in habitat between the two sites. Whereas Curry & Kerlinger, LLC studied migration near the tip of the peninsula and close to the water, Gehring studied migration at the proposed project site, which was well up the peninsula and away from the shoreline habitats. Likewise, the fall study of Gehring (2011) was conducted at the project site (same location as Gehring 2010). The differences found between the studies is consistent with what is known about the migration of songbirds, that they concentrate only in near the very tip of peninsulas and very close to water. The reason is that fall migrants tend to fly southward on a peninsula until there is no land left and
they are forced to land, usually during predawn hours or during daylight. This has the effect of heavy concentrations near the tip of peninsulas and much less effect with distance from the peninsula tip. The absence of large-scale concentrations at the project site strongly suggests that fatality rates of turbines will be similar to the rates reported at dozens of other sites in the Midwest and eastern U.S, where rates have not been demonstrated to be biologically significant. Because turbines at the project site will be slightly taller (~20 m) than turbines at which many studies have been conducted, the fatality rate for these birds may be slightly greater. The reason for this is that as wind turbines have gotten taller, fatality rates have increased somewhat. When turbines were less than 63 m in height, almost no night migrants were killed. Today, with turbines in the 120 m range, fatality rates have been demonstrated to be about 3-4 night migrants per turbine per year. This includes turbines from California eastward to Maine and southward into Tennessee, Texas, and between (Appendix A, Kerlinger et al. 2010). It is important to note that compared to other tall structures, like communication towers, collision of migrants at wind turbines are very small in number (Gehring et al. 2009, 2011). Guyed communication towers owned and operated by the state of Michigan that are similar in height to the turbines proposed kill an estimated 100+ birds per year per tower during spring and fall migration alone (Gehring et al. 2009, Gehring et al. 2011, Kerlinger et al. in review). In aggregate the 175 Michigan Public Safety Communication System towers are estimated to kill about 18,000 birds per year. It is significant that these towers were federally licensed under the NEPA process and are used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Michigan Department of Natural Resources for communication purposes. Because these towers are owned, operated and used by state and federal government agencies, and licensed by the Federal Communications Commission, it would appear that the fatalities caused by them are not biologically significant. These fatality rates are far greater than those for wind turbine, so it stands to reason that fatalities on the order reported for wind turbines are not biologically significant. Risk to Upland Gamebirds. Upland gamebird species in the Garden peninsula consist mostly of Ring-necked Pheasant, Ruffed Grouse, Wild Turkey, and American Woodcock and, at times, other species. These birds were not observed during any of the field studies in numbers that would suggest risk to those species. In fact, these birds were not observed during all of the field studies, strongly suggesting that they are not abundant where turbine locations are proposed. All are known to collide with wind turbines. Numbers of fatalities of these birds at wind power projects have been minimal however, with no impacts to the species that could be considered significant. The US Fish and Wildlife Service and the state of Michigan DNR, permit the shooting of all of these species because their populations are resilient and hundreds of thousands of these birds are harvested each year with no negative population impacts. The small number
that may be impacted by wind turbines at the Project site will not result in a biologically significant impact to any species. Risk To Bald and Golden Eagles The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recently (Code of Federal Regulations 2009) issued new guidance for development of wind power projects with respect to eagle conservation. Understanding empirically determined risk to eagles at wind plants in different parts of North America, their population dynamics, and what is currently impacting eagles, provides information that can be used to determine risk to these birds at proposed facilities. This section focuses on these issues and how they relate to risk at the proposed Garden Peninsula wind power project. An examination of eagle fatalities at wind plants across the continent reveals different patterns for Bald and Golden Eagles. Bald Eagle populations do not appear to be at significant risk and risk to these birds has never been demonstrated to be potentially significant. This statement is based on the fact that, to date, only one Bald Eagle has been suspected to have been killed by a wind turbine in the U.S. and a second bird was rumored to have been killed at a wind plant in Ontario. The first bird was found in Iowa, more than 100 m from a wind turbine and there has yet to be a confirmation that it was killed by that wind turbine. It was also near a highway and collisions with automobiles have previously been confirmed to have killed eagles. The putative fatality in Ontario is at a wind farm near Lake Erie. That incident has yet to be verified. Even if two bald eagles, to date, had been killed by turbines in North America, their deaths would not constitute a significant impact to the population of this species. It is important to note that Bald Eagles are known to nest near or fly through large numbers of wind turbines in California (Altamont Pass, Collinsville-Montezuma Hills), Washington, Oregon, Iowa, Minnesota, New York, and along the Appalachian Ridges of Pennsylvania and West Virginia where these birds migrate. Even where Bald Eagles have nested within about one-half mile of wind turbines at the Erie Shores Wind Project, near the north shore of Lake Erie in Ontario, none have been found dead during studies conducted there. That pair of eagles actually raised two young successfully near the turbines in 2006. For Golden Eagles, there have been no population impacts that have resulted from collisions with wind turbines. This is apparently the case (Hunt 2002), despite the fact that these birds have been killed on a regular basis in the Altamont Pass area of California. Outside the Altamont wind resource area, very small numbers of these birds have been killed. Other places where fatalities have been logged include the Tehachapi Mountain wind farms west of Los
Angeles and at the Collinsville-Montezuma Hills wind projects in Solano County, along the Sacramento River. At the latter site less than 5 of these birds appear to have been killed since the wind plant started construction more than 20 years ago. Hunt (2002) using both empirical data from fatalities and nesting birds, combined with field studies of Golden Eagles in the Altamont region, concluded that the population was stable, despite the fatalities caused by turbines in the Altamont Pass. This conclusion is corroborated by the recent removal of Golden Eagles from the species of special concern list for California. This action was taken by the California Fish and Wildlife Department because they deemed the species’ population to be stable within the state. Thus, wind turbines have not impacted populations of Golden Eagles and this species can “tolerate” a small, but regular harvest by wind turbines. Because none were observed during field observations at the project site, it is highly likely that they are present so rarely as to present no risk to the species. Currently, there are several impacts to Bald and Golden Eagles that are ongoing, but apparently the impacts are less than biologically significant. Each year, these birds die as a result of being hit by automobiles, airplanes, and trains, electrocuted on transmission/distribution lines, shot by hunters, trapped by trappers, and poisoned by lead, mercury, and other toxins. For example, a single, state licensed fur trapper trapped two Golden Eagles during the winter of 2010 in Virginia. One died and the other was treated by a rehabilitator and released. The latter bird had to have at least one toe amputated, so it may also have died. It is not known how many eagles are killed by trappers, but with trapping occurring in most states, it is highly likely that more than just these two eagles have been impacted by this activity. Trapping is licensed by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries and because of the oversight by this agency and, presumably federal agencies, it would appear that such takings are not a violation of federal law and that they do not cause significant impacts to eagles. Bald Eagles are also taken in traps set for furbearing animals. A study done by University of Minnesota Raptor and Research Rehabilitation researchers reported that Bald Eagles are frequently captured in traps and that 64% of them died. Overall, it is not known how many Bald and, or Golden eagles are killed annually by fur trappers.
Collisions with automobiles are a not-uncommon source of fatalities to eagles. Although there are no statistics regarding how many Bald or Golden eagles are killed along state and federal highways, there is enough anecdotal evidence to show that such mortality occurs regularly. Despite the fact that many of these roads must be federally permitted through NEPA, because federal monies are used, there are no incidental take permits required for the construction or maintenance of these roads. There are also no legal consequences for killing eagles on public highways. A less common, although regular source of Bald Eagle fatalities is Amtrak passenger trains. In particular, about two Bald Eagles are killed each year by the Amtrak train that runs along the Hudson River between Albany and New York City. Apparently, the problem is that eagles
foraging on deer and turkeys that have been hit by trains are themselves killed as they scavenge on carcasses on or near the tracks. These fatalities were reported by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. No legal action has been taken according to one official at the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation and an incidental take permit does not seem to exist for this continuing mortality. Other trains are known to hit eagles, but the literature is dispersed and difficult to review. Lead poisoning, caused by the legal use of lead shot, slugs, and bullets, impacts hundreds of eagles in the U.S. each year. In California, it was estimated that 5% of Golden Eagles suffer from elevated levels of lead in their systems. In New York, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Wildlife Pathology Unit recently reported that 22 Bald and 2 Golden eagles had been poisoned by lead between 1973 and 2010. These only include those birds that were found and no estimates of actual numbers poisoned were reported. Because there are almost no other sources of lead in the environment that could have been ingested, lead shot and bullets from legal hunting activities are to blame. In Wisconsin, 91 of 583 (16%) Bald Eagle carcasses provided to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources were poisoned by lead. Similar numbers are available from Iowa and other states, so lead is a widespread killer of birds, including eagles. Thus, legal hunting distributes lead across the landscape and has killed thousands of birds in the past decade, yet the state and federal agencies that license hunters and create regulations for hunters do not have incidental take permits. Other Bald and Golden eagles are shot illegally each year, although the number shot annually is not readily available. State and federal agencies may keep records, but they are not available on their websites. It is safe to say that at least one eagle is shot each year in most of the upper Midwestern states, including Michigan. The most recent one known to have been shot in Michigan was found in February 2011 (alive). It is possible that one eagle per year is shot in Michigan. Some of those shot are shot by hunters who are legally sanctioned by the states. However, incidental take permits do not appear to be needed by state wildlife agencies to permit hunting of various types of animals within their states. If such permits were required, we would be able to estimate the numbers killed each year because the agencies would be compelled to report these numbers as a condition of their take permit. Because few to no Golden Eagles are likely to frequent the Garden Peninsula, fatalities are highly unlikely. Individual Bald Eagles on the other hand may be impacted in very small numbers. These impacts are not likely to be biologically significant, causing declines in regional populations, based on the fact that Bald Eagle populations in the upper Midwest are healthy and at relatively high levels, and the populations in all states have been increasing at rates of up to about 10%. The rate varies among states and provinces. Thus, the loss of small numbers of eagles will not likely impair these populations, nor will they cause them to decline. Several examples of increases in upper Midwestern eagle populations are provided below.
• Nesting pairs of eagles in Wisconsin increased to about 1,150 in 2008, an increase in the
years between 2003 and 2008 of about 4-5% per year – overall population in that state is likely to be a minimum of 3,000 individuals but there may be more than 4,000
• Increases in Ohio – 4 nests in 1979, 164 in 2007, and to 180 in 2010, roughly a 10% increase in one year
• Population is increasing about 10% per year in Minnesota • ~700 nests in Michigan in 2011 an increase of ~10% from 630 nests in 2010 • 1987-2000 – increase of 9.3% per year across lower 48 states
The increases in Bald Eagle populations have continued despite losses to lead, automobiles, electrocutions, trappers, illegal shooting, and other activities. Because eagles are increasing at such a strong rate, it is probable that their populations are robust and can sustain this regular “harvest.” However, a population viability analysis would provide a means of determining how many Bald Eagles could be taken without an impact to the regional population. Such analyses are done routinely for harvest of game animals such as ducks, geese, and other species. Eagles do fly in all parts of the peninsula to varying degrees. The preconstruction studies at the Project site that were summarized above, showed a moderate degree of eagle use. With respect to nesting eagles, there do not appear to be any within 2-3 miles of the Project site according to maps provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Known nests seem to be more common along the east side of the peninsula, and inland from the peninsula. Whereas it is not possible to say that there is no risk to eagles from turbines erected on the Garden Peninsula, it is highly likely that population level impacts to these birds will not occur. Therefore, risk to eagles is likely to be minimal at the Garden Peninsula project for either Bald or Golden eagles and if impacts occur, they are not likely to be biologically significant.
A comprehensive avian risk assessment was conducted for the 14 turbine Garden Peninsula project in Delta County, Michigan. The site is comprised primarily of agricultural lands, mixed with small forests, hedge rows, and some brushland. The risk assessment was based upon three studies conducted starting in 2007 and ending in late 2010, as well as information provided by the USFWS and the Michigan Department of Natural Resources. In addition, the literature on impacts of wind turbines to birds was summarized in an effort to integrate what we now know from more than 50 post-construction fatality studies in North America, with information collected at the project site. During the four studies conducted at the site, there was no indication that any federally endangered or threatened species would occur at the project site, although several state listed species were observed during field studies. Some were observed at sites closer to the tip of the peninsula and use of the project site by these species will be minimal. There was an indication that the project site would host modest numbers of migrating birds and that Bald Eagle, a Michigan listed species, would be present on or near the site with some regularity. Whereas it is not inconceivable that an eagle may collide with a turbine in its lifetime, it is unlikely that significant numbers of these birds would be killed, based on the fact that fatalities of Bald Eagles at wind plants has been almost non-existent. A comparison of eagle fatalities caused by federal and state sanctioned activities, revealed far greater mortality than is likely at wind turbines and those activities have not been required to have or apply for incidental take permits. Fatality rates of other species are likely to be similar to rates demonstrated at the more than 50 wind plants that have been studied in North America. Those rates have not been suggested to be biologically significant. Thus, overall risk to birds was concluded to be not biologically significant or have adverse impacts to the populations of any species.
Recommendations Because there does not appear to be any evidence that impacts to birds at the Garden Peninsula project will result in significant impacts to populations and that fatality rates will be similar to those reported from other wind power projects in the eastern, Midwest, Great Plains, and western United States, further pre-construction study does not appear to be warranted. Instead, a post-construction fatality study is recommended for the first year following commencement of operation of all turbines. Dependent on what is found during that first year, a second year may be needed if rare, threatened or endangered species are found dead or if numbers of birds are found that suggest biologically significant impacts. For example, if more than three carcasses are found of birds that are classed as Yellow-listed species, a second year of construction should be done. The type and design of the study that would be conducted in the second year of operation would be dependent on the type and numbers “rare” species of birds found dead during the first year of operations. Literature Cited Arnold, T.W., and R.M. Zink. 2011. Collision mortality has no discernible effect on population trends of North American birds. PLoS ONE 6(9): e24708. Gehring, J., P. Kerlinger, and A. M. Manville II. 2009. Communication towers, lights, and birds: successful methods of reducing the frequency of avian collisions. Ecological Applications 19: 505-514. Gehring, J., P. Kerlinger, and A. M. Manville, II. 2011. The role of tower height and guy wires on avian collisions with communication towers. Journal of Wildlife Management 75: 848-855. Gehring, J. 2010. Avian studies for the Garden Peninsula Phase I Wind Energy site: Summary of spring 2010 field season. Michigan State University, Michigan Natural Features Inventory. Prepared for Heritage Sustainable Energy. Gehring, J. 2011. Avian and bat st udies for the Garden Peninsula Phase I Wind Energy site: Summary of fall 2010 field season. Michigan State University, Michigan Natural Features Inventory. Prepared for Heritage Sustainable Energy. Guarnaccia, J., and P. Kerlinger. 2008. Spring migration study: Garden Peninsula Wind Energy Project, Delta County, Michigan.
Hunt, G. 2002. Golden Eagles in a perilous landscape: predicting the effects of mitigation for wind turbine blad-strike mortality. Report to California Energy Commission, Sacramento, CA. PierP500-02-043F Kerlinger, P. 1995. How birds migrate. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA. Kerlinger, P. 1989. Flight strategies of migrating hawks. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. Kerlinger, P., and J. Guarnaccia. 2007. Phase I avian risk assessment, Garden Peninsula Wind Energy Project, Delta County, Michigan. Curry & Kerlinger, LLC. Prepared for Heritage Sustainable Energy. Kerlinger, P., J. Guarnaccia, J. Gehring, R. Curry, and D. Riser-Espinoza. Avian collision fatalities at communication towers inMichigan and other upper Midwestern states. Submitted for review and subsequent publication
Appendix A. Avian fatality studies at North American wind farms Recorded fatalities are the number of carcasses found. Mortality estimates (/turbine/yr, except where indicated) factor in searcher efficiency and carcass removal (see Section 6.2.1). Modern turbines have a height range of about 58.5 m (192 feet) to slightly taller than 122.0 m (400 feet), older turbines below 50 m (164 feet). No turbine had guy wires. Citations are at the end of the appendix. Central U.S. – Farmland Algona, IA: 3 modern turbines in farmland, 3 migration seasons: 0 recorded fatalities (Demastes and Trainer 2000) Top of Iowa, IA: 89 modern turbines, of which 26 studied over two years, in tilled farmland: 7 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, 2 Red-tailed Hawks, no waterfowl despite high use of nearby wildlife management areas; mortality estimated at 0.38-0.90/turbine/year (Jain 2005, Koford et al. 2005) Crescent Ridge, IL: 33 modern turbines in farmland, 1,363 turbine searches in fall and spring migration: 10 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, 1 Red-tailed Hawk; mortality estimated at ~1/turbine/year (Kerlinger et al. 2007) Jeffrey Energy Center, KS: 2 modern turbines in grassland/prairie adjacent to a coal-fired power plant, 66 turbine searches in two migration seasons: 0 recorded fatalities (Young et al. 2000) Buffalo Ridge, MN: Over 400 mostly modern turbines in farmland and grassland, four years of study (1996-1999): 55 recorded fatalities among 31 species, of which 42 (76.4%) were songbirds, 1 raptor (Red-tailed Hawk); depending on the section of the wind farm studied, estimated mortality ranged from 2.27 to 4.45/turbine/year (Johnson et al. 2002) Ainsworth, NE: 36 wind turbines in sandhills/grazing land studied during one year: 27 recorded fatalities, including 9 Horned Larks, 2 American Kestrels, 1 Sharp-tailed Grouse, 1 Upland Sandpiper, 1 Short-eared Owl, and songbirds; mortality rate of 2.7/turbine per year with 2.5/turbine/year for small birds (Derby et al. 2007) Blue Canyon II, OK: 84 turbines, of which 50 studied over one year: 15 recorded fatalities, including 11 Turkey Vultures, 2 Red-tailed Hawks, and 2 songbirds; mortality estimated at 0.25/turbine/year for raptors and 0.27/turbine/year for songbirds (Schnell et al. 2007)
Buffalo Gap I, TX: 67 turbines, of which 21 studied over one year: 21 recorded fatalities, including 15 Turkey Vultures, 1 Red-tailed Hawk, and 3 songbirds; mortality estimated at 2.37/turbine/year, including 0.43/turbine/year for raptors (Tierney 2007) Kewaunee, WI: 31 modern turbines in farmland, two years of study (four migration seasons): 25 recorded fatalities, including three waterfowl, 14 songbirds (some night migrants), no raptors; mortality estimated at 1.3/turbine/year (Howe et al. 2002) Shirley, WI: 2 modern turbines in farmland, 54 surveys over spring and fall migration in one year: 1 recorded fatality, a night-migrating songbird (Howe and Atwater 1999) Forward Energy, WI: 86 modern turbines in tilled agricultural fields, 2 miles from Horicon Marsh National Wildlife Refuge, 2 years of data, 29 turbines searched at 1, 3, and 5 day intervals: 20 recorded fatalities, few raptors, waterfowl, mostly night migrant songbirds (Godsky and Drake 2011) Eastern U.S. – Farmland, Forest, and Salt Marsh Mars Hill, ME: 28 modern turbines on a forested ridge, all searched during two years of study using daily (first year only) and weekly searches, plus seasonal dog-assisted searches: 43 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, also 1 Ruffed Grouse and 1 Barred Owl; mortality estimated at 0.44-2.04/turbine/year (Stantec 2008, 2009a) Stetson Mountain, ME: 38 modern turbines on forested ridges, 19 searched weekly during 7 months of study: 38 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, but 3 Ruffed Grouses, 1 Red-tailed Hawk, and 1 Chimney Swift; mortality estimated at 4.03/turbine/year (Stantec 2010a) Hull, MA: 1 modern turbine adjacent to high school on island in Boston Harbor, dozens of informal searches by high school students for at least one year: 0 recorded fatalities (Malcolm Brown, personal communication in 2002) Atlantic County Utility Authority, NJ: 5 modern turbines in filled salt marsh along waterway, searches over a two-year period: 31 observed fatalities, including 4 raptors (3 Osprey and 1 Peregrine Falcon), 11 gulls, 3 shorebirds, and 10 songbirds (New Jersey Audubon Society 2008, 2009) Altona, NY: 65 modern turbines in farmland with woodlots, 22 searched daily or weekly in 7 months of study: 19 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, but 1 Wild Turkey, 1 woodcock, and 1 gull; mortality estimated at 0.54-1.01/turbine/year (Jain et al. 2011a)
Bliss, NY: 67 modern turbines in farmland with woodlots, of which 23 searched on 1, 3, and 7-day intervals over two years: 59 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, but 1 Sharp-shinned Hawk, 6 Red-tailed Hawks, and 4 American Woodcocks; mortality estimated at 0-4.45/turbine/year (Jain et al. 2009a, 2010a) Chateaugay, NY: 71 modern turbines in farmland with woodlots, 24 searched weekly for 7 months: 28 recorded fatalities, including 17 songbirds, 3 waterfowl, and 2 Red-tailed Hawks; mortality estimated at 2.48/turbine/year (Jain et al. 2011b) Clinton, NY: 67 modern turbines in farmland with woodlots, with 23 turbines searched at daily, 3-day, or weekly intervals over two years: 47 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, but also 7 waterfowl, 6 Ruffed Grouse, 5 raptors (2 Broad-winged Hawks, 1 Sharp-shinned Hawk, 2 Red-tailed Hawks), 1 Great Blue heron; mortality estimated at 1.43-3.26/turbine/year (Jain et al. 2009b, 2010b) Cohocton, NY: 50 modern turbines in farmland, of which 17 searched daily or weekly over 8 months: 18 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, but also 1 Semipalmated Sandpiper; mortality estimated at 2.90-4.70/turbine/year (Stantec 2010b) Ellenburg, NY: 54 modern turbines in farmland with woodlots, with 18 turbines searched at daily, 3-day, or weekly intervals over two years: 43 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, 1 duck, 2 raptors (Broad-winged Hawk and Red-tailed Hawk); mortality estimated at 1.18-5.69/turbine/year (Jain et al. 2009c, 2010c) Madison, NY: 7 modern turbines in farmland, one year of study: 6 recorded fatalities, including 1 Ruffed Grouse, 1 Turkey Vulture, 1 Great Horned Owl, 1 Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, and 2 songbirds (Kerlinger 2002a) Maple Ridge, NY: 195 modern turbines in farmland adjacent to fragmented forest on Tug Hill Plateau, with 50-64 turbines searched mostly at weekly intervals (daily and 3-day intervals in first year), three years of study: ~90 recorded fatalities per year in searches, most of which were night migrants, few raptors (11 overall); mortality estimated at 3.13-9.59/turbine/year (Jain et al. 2007, 2009d, 2009e) Munnsville, NY: 23 modern turbines in farmland with woodlots, 12 of which were searched weekly over 8 months: 10 recorded fatalities, including 2 Red-tailed Hawks and 3 Wild Turkeys; mortality estimated at 2.22/turbine/year (Stantec 2009b) Wethersfield, NY: 84 modern turbines in farmland with woodlots, 28 of which were searched weekly for 8 months: 18 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, but also 1 waterfowl, 3 raptors (1
Sharp-shinned Hawk, 2 Red-tailed Hawks), and 1 gull; mortality estimated at 2.55/turbine/year (Jain et al. 2010d) Tug Hill Plateau, NY: 2 older turbines in farmland, 2 migration seasons: 0 recorded fatalities (Cooper et al. 1995) Allegheny Ridge, PA: 40 modern turbines on a mostly forested ridge system, 10 of which were searched daily for 10 months: 10 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, but also 3 raptors (Turkey Vulture, Broad-winged Hawk, and Red-tailed Hawk); mortality estimated at 2.71-8.57/turbine/year (Guarnaccia et al. 2010a) Bear Creek, PA: 12 modern turbines on a wooded ridge, 10 of which were searched daily for 8 months: 9 recorded fatalities, including 2 Ruffed Grouse, 1 Red-tailed Hawk, 1 Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, and 6 songbirds; mortality estimated at 1.03-2.00/turbine/year (Guarnaccia et al 2010b) Casselman, PA: 23 modern turbines on forested ridge and reclaimed strip mine, 10 of which were searched daily over 8 months: 21 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds; mortality estimated at 0.37-4.69/turbine/year (Arnett et al. 2009) Garrett, PA: 8 modern turbines in farm fields in Somerset County, one year of study: 0 recorded fatalities (Kerlinger 2001) Meyersdale, PA: 20 modern turbines on forested ridge in Somerset County, all turbines searched more than 20 times from July 30 to September 13, 2004: 13 recorded fatalities, mostly night-migrating songbirds, no raptors or waterbirds (Arnett et al. 2005) Buffalo Mountain, TN: Two studies on forested, strip-mined mountain: 1) 3 modern turbines searched for three years: fatalities estimated at ~7/turbine/year (Nicholson 2003); 2) searched again after 15 taller turbines added: mortality estimated at 1.8/turbine/year (Fiedler et al. 2007) Searsburg, VT: 11 modern turbines on forested mountain near Green Mountain National Forest, studied during nesting and fall migration seasons: 0 recorded fatalities (Kerlinger 2002b) Mountaineer, WV: Two studies of 44 modern turbines on forested ridge: 1) 22 searches throughout year of all turbines in 2003: 69 recorded fatalities, ~75% night-migrating songbirds, 2 Turkey Vultures, 1 Red-tailed Hawk; mortality estimated at 4.04/turbine/year (Kerns and Kerlinger 2004); 2) 20+ searches from July 31 to September 11, 2004: 15 recorded fatalities (Arnett et al. 2005)
Mount Storm, WV: 82 modern turbines on wooded ridge, of which 27 turbines searched (two-thirds weekly and one-third daily; 978 total searches) in July-October 2008: 29 recorded fatalities, over 80% night-migrating songbirds, 1 Turkey Vulture; mortality estimates for study period were 3.81/turbine for daily search interval and 2.41/turbine for weekly search interval (Young et al. 2009) Western U.S. – Prairie and Farmland Altamont Pass, CA: 5,400 older turbines mostly on lattice towers in grazing and tilled land, over 20 years of study: recorded fatalities number in the thousands, of which over 40% are raptors, with Red-tailed Hawk, Burrowing Owl, American Kestrel, and Golden Eagle most often found; mortality estimated recently (Smallwood and Thelander 2008) at 4.67/MW/year for all birds, 1.94/MW/year for raptors (Howell and DiDonato1991, Howell 1997, Orloff and Flannery 1992, 1996, Kerlinger and Curry 1997, Thelander and Rugge 2000, Smallwood and Thelander 2005, Smallwood and Thelander 2008, Altamont Pass Avian Monitoring Team 2008) High Winds, CA: 90 modern turbines in tilled farmland, 4,220 turbine searches over two years: 163 recorded fatalities, including 71 raptors of 7 species (45 American Kestrels, 18 Red-tailed Hawks), 60 songbirds of 17 species, and 5 waterbirds; mortality estimated at 2.0-2.9/turbine/year (Kerlinger et al. 2006) Montezuma Hills, CA: 237 older turbines, 11 modern turbines in tilled farmland, with 59 turbines searched twice weekly for 18 months: 13 recorded fatalities, including 5 Red-tailed Hawks, 4 American Kestrels, 1 Mallard, 1 Rock Dove, and 2 Red-winged Blackbirds (Howell 1997) Shiloh I and II: 200 modern turbines in tilled agriculture and pasture land – adjacent to the Suisun Marsh and Sacramento Delta, searched weekly for 4 years: small to modest numbers of fatalities, mostly songbirds, very few waterbirds, larger numbers of American Kestrel and Red-tailed Hawk fatalities, as well as 2-3 Golden Eagles (Kerlinger, et al. 2009, 2010) San Gorgonio, CA: About 3,000 older turbines in desert, 423 turbines sampled every 90 days in two one-year periods: 61 recorded fatalities among 19 species, including two Red-tailed Hawks; raptor mortality unadjusted for searcher efficiency and scavenging estimated at 0.006/turbine/yr or 0.03/MW/year (Anderson et al. 2005) Tehachapi Pass, CA: About 3,300 turbines in grazing land and scrub in mountains of Mojave Desert, 637 turbines sampled over 17 months: 127 recorded fatalities among 27 species, including 54 raptors (of most numerous, 14 Red-tailed Hawks, 13 Great Horned Owls, and 9
American Kestrels); raptor mortality estimated at 0.04/turbine/year, or 0.20/MW/year (Anderson et al. 2004) Ponnequin, CO: 29 modern turbines in rangeland, increased to 41 in 2001, five years of study (1999-2003): ~24 recorded fatalities each year; Horned Lark most abundant, 1 teal, 1 American Kestrel, other songbirds (Kerlinger and Curry 2000, Kerlinger, unpublished data) Judith Gap, MT: 90 turbines in cropland and grassland, of which 20 searched monthly: 26 recorded fatalities, including 10 songbirds, 1 Merlin, 1 Short-eared Owl, 1 Sharp-tailed Grouse, and 13 waterbirds (7 grebes, 2 ducks, 4 coots); mortality estimate for study period was 4.52/turbine (TRC Environmental Corporation 2008) Klondike, OR: 16 modern turbines in rangeland and shrub-steppe, one year of study: 8 recorded fatalities, mostly songbirds, of which half night migrants, 2 Canada Geese, no raptors; mortality estimated at 1.3/turbine/year (Johnson et al. 2003) Vansycle, OR: 38 modern turbines in farm and rangeland, one year of study: 12 recorded fatalities among 6 species, including 6 songbirds, of which at least 4 were night migrants, 4 game birds, 1 woodpecker, and 1 swift, no raptors or waterbirds; mortality estimated at 0.63/turbine/year (Erickson et al. 2000) Stateline, OR/WA: 454 modern turbines in farmland, of which 399 searched over two years: 232 recorded fatalities among 35 species, of which nearly 40% were resident Horned Larks and nearly 25% night-migrating songbirds, most of 13 raptor fatalities were Red-tailed Hawks and American Kestrels; mortality estimated at 1.65/turbine/year for all birds, 0.06/turbine/year for raptors (Erickson et al. 2004) Nine Canyon, WA: 37 modern turbines in prairie and farmland searched over one year: 36 recorded fatalities, with 47% Horned Larks, 14% Ring-necked Pheasant, and 6% Western Meadowlarks, two raptors (a kestrel and Short-eared Owl); mortality estimated at 3.59/turbine/year (Erickson 2003) Foote Creek Rim, WY: 69 modern turbines in prairie/rangeland, two years of study: 122 recorded fatalities, of which 83 at turbines and 36 at guyed meteorology towers, with 92% songbirds (Horned Lark most common victim; nearly half of songbirds were night migrants), 3 American Kestrels, 1 Northern Harrier, 1 Short-eared Owl, 1 grebe; mortality estimated at 1.45-2.04/turbine/year (Young et al. 2003) Canada
Erie Shores, ON: 66 modern turbines in farmland with woodlots, two migration seasons: mortality estimated at 2.0-2.5/turbine/year, including 0.04/turbine/year for raptors (James 2008) Exhibition Place, ON: 1 modern turbine on Toronto lakefront, 2 migration seasons: 2 recorded fatalities, European Starling and American Robin; mortality estimated at 3/turbine/year (James and Coady 2003) Pickering, ON: 1 modern turbine near a marsh, 2 migration seasons: 2 recorded fatalities, both night-migrating songbirds; mortality estimated at ~4-5/turbine/year (James 2004) Wolfe Island, ON: 86 turbines searched once or twice per week over an entire year: 165 observed fatalities, mostly night migrants, but also 18 raptors, 3 Upland Sandpipers, 7 Wilson’s Snipe, 8 Ring-billed Gulls, 7 Purple Martins, and 31 Tree Swallows; mortality estimated at 13.40/turbine/year (Stantec 2010c) Literature Cited Altamont Pass Avian Monitoring Team. 2008. Bird Fatality Study at Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, October 2005 to September 2007. Draft Report, Prepared for Alameda County Scientific Review Committee, Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area. 27pp. Anderson, R., N. Neumann, J. Tom, W.P. Erickson, M.D. Strickland, M. Bourassa, K.J. Bay, and K.J. Sernka. 2004. Avian Monitoring and Risk Assessment at the Tehachapi Pass Wind Resource Area, Period of Performance October 2, 1996-May 27, 1998. Subcontractor Report NREL/SR-500-36416. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado. 138pp. Anderson, R., J. Tom, N. Neumann, W.P. Erickson, M.D. Strickland, M. Bourassa, K.J. Bay, and K.J. Sernka. 2005. Avian Monitoring and Risk Assessment at the San Gorgonio Wind Resource Area. Subcontractor Report NREL/SR-500-38054. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado. 138pp. Arnett, E.B., technical editor. 2005. Relationships between bats and wind turbines in Pennsylvania and West Virginia: an assessment of bat fatality search protocols, patters of fatality, and behavioral interactions with wind turbines. A final report submitted to the Bats and Wind Energy Cooperative. Bat Conservation International. Austin, Texas, USA. Arnett, E. B., M. R. Schirmacher, M. M. P. Huso, and J. P. Hayes. 2009. Patterns of bat fatality at the Casselman Wind Project in south-central Pennsylvania. An annual report submitted to the Bats and Wind Energy Cooperative and the Pennsylvania Game Commission. Bat Conservation International. Austin, Texas, USA.
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