Present Challenges and Future Directions for the Field of

Learning Disabilities*

Margo A. Mastropieri

* Paper presented at the 14th Annual World Congress on LD, Burlington, MA, October 28, 2005

Challenges Are Great High Stakes Testing Demands

Difficulty level Tests vary Standards vary

RTI Issues Learning Issues Instructional Issues

Testing Issues

High Stakes Tests Represent a single measure of

performance Selected at the state level Administered annually

Test-taking Skills Less well developed in students with LD

Released 3rd Grade Reading Virginia High Stakes Test Items

3 pages with text and questions 486 words 14 words per sentence 1.29 syllables per word Readability: Grade Level Scores

6th grade with Fry 5th grade with Flesch-Kincaid

Difficulties with Test-Taking Skills

Understanding and interpreting novel formats

Focusing attention appropriately Select first answer they see

Using elimination strategies Using time wisely Error avoidance Deductive reasoning strategies Using separate answer sheets Passage independence

Test-Taking Skills: Passage Independence

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

% correct

independentreading

teacher read

AverageLD

Students with LD Less likely to employ an appropriate strategy Less likely to employ an appropriate strategy

effectively More likely to be confident in their answers, but

less likely to be correct More likely (52% vs 24%) to choose a "decoy":

blind o blink o nibble o leaned 

Students with LD

For incorrect answers:

89% didn't refer to passage 40% had not read all distractors

Virginia High Stakes 2004 Data: Grade 3

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

% pass

English Math History Science

All Students

Studentsw/Disabilities

Virginia High Stakes 2004 Data: Grade 8

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

English Math History Science

All Students

Studentsw/Disabilities

Virginia High Stakes 2004 Data: End of Course

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

English Algebra I WorldHistory

EarthScience

All Students

Studentsw/Disabilities

Standards Issues

How are the cut-off scores for passing set?

Failure to pass a test may mean .. Failure to be promoted to next grade level Failure to graduate from high school with a

standard diploma Decision to drop out of school based on

failure of high stakes tests

Federal and State Standards Federal and State Standards

Variability among States

 

Gov. Jeb Bush says that Gulfport Elementary School did so well academically last year it is a due for a state bonus check of roughly $40,000.

President George W. Bush says Gulfport Elementary School has performed so poorly that its parents must be allowed, less than a week before school begins, to pull their children out.

Regents Math A Exam required for graduation Last year 61% passed This year 37% passed

Result State will loosen testing

requirements!

Response To Intervention (RTI) Issues

What is RTI? What are good models of RTI

How many Tiers will be required? I, II, III, and IV?

Operationalize the Tiers Tier I, II, III and maybe IV

Describe how the classroom looks What is the teacher doing? What are the students doing? How many teachers are in a room with a specified number of

students per grade level per curriculum area K-12? What do the instructional methods and materials look like? What do the “tests” look like? What is the record keeping system? Who monitors the system? Who has the ultimate decision making power in this system?

How will the roles of teachers and diagnosticians change given the significant

demands for implementing RtI?

Unclear presently what the actual demands of RTI will look like Where are the models besides a few selected

sites? Unclear roles teachers will have

Deliver scientifically based instruction , administering CBM, interpreting data, placing students into tiers and teaching in small groups with different instructional methods and materials and CBM, etc.

Major shift in general education teachers role

Who is responsible to ensure procedures are implemented with fidelity – special

education or general education?

Unclear General or Special Educators?

Diagnosticians?

How will issues of consistency of decision-making be assured from school to school, district to district, and state to state?

Unclear – no clear answers provided Standards issues remain across K-12 Current federal and state variability

Learning and Instructional Challenges

Pace Content coverage Abstractions

represented Learning from

texts Demand for broad

shallow verbally based knowledge

Inclusion and access to the general ed curriculum

No longer an IEP

Class size and make-up issues

N = 30, 12 have IEPs, 7 at risk

Textbooks and Access to the General Ed Curriculum Increase in difficulty with grade level Discrepancy between reading level of

students and readability of textbooks (Kinder, Bursuck & Epstein, 1992)

Breadth vs Depth of Coverage Unfriendly nature of textbooks (Armbruster &

Anderson,1988)

Introduction of large number of vocabulary words (Yager, 1983)

Readability, Comprehensibility and Density Issues

In most polymers, like polyethylene and cellulose, the monomers are all identical. In other cases, such as proteins, different monomers may be combined. Although the amino acid monomers that make up proteins appear to be very different, each one has an amino functional group and an organic acid functional group, so the monomers all link in the same way, forming a "backbone" of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms. A polymer with three amino acids is called a tripeptide. (Tocci & Viehland, 1996, p. 257)

Previous page equals 15% of the space of one page of an

848-page book

Reading level for passage: 15th grade

Students take annual state wide SOL on text and content covered in class in May

What Do We Have to Do? Deliver vast amount of content very

rapidly

Unclear whether all standards will be met

Use what has research documented as best practices for students with LD

Samples of Ways to Address Challenges

Peer Mediation Strategy Use

Text comprehension Mnemonic strategies

Peer Mediation + Strategy Use Enhance Concreteness in Verbal

and Conceptual Learning

Peer Tutoring + Comprehension Strategies in World History (LDRP, 2003)

Extension of previous research in peer tutoring and reading comprehension to content area learning with high school students with disabilities.

Purpose: Compare peer tutoring versus teacher-

directed study in high school world history with students with disabilities

Partner Reading*

 1st reader (admiral) reads 1-3 paragraphs while second reader (general) listens and helps with difficult words

Switch roles – turn to the beginning of section and 2nd reader begins reading

Answer summarization questions using strategy sheets

_______ * Modeled after Fuchs and Fuchs PALS

Comprehension Strategy

Read the paragraph - ask and answer: Who or what is it about? What is happening to them?

Use those answers to write a summary sentence

tells what the whole paragraph is about Use self-monitoring card

Paragraph Summarization Sheets

Name :______ Date: __________ Paragraph No. _____

Who or what is this paragraph about? ______________

What is happening to the who or what? _____________

Summary Sentence ____________________________

Who or what is this paragraph about? ______________

What is happening to the who or what? _____________

Summary Sentence ____________________________

Graphic Display of Content Test Performance

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25

Prete

stCh 1

Ch 2Ch 3

Cumula

tive

Guided NotesTutoring

Year-End Final Exam: Items Covered and Not Covered During Study

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Non-Unit Item Unit Items

Guided NotesTutoring

US History Study Design

Crossover design with four inclusive 7th grade classes

Plus parent component involving in-service, technology and home activities

Sample N= 81 students and their parents/guardians 15 with mild disabilities

Parent Component Training sessions held in evenings to

teach parents how to access and use study materials on Blackboard site Materials sent home for those without pc

and internet access Pre and Post testing Blackboard use Anecdotal record keeping of material

use at home

Blackboard Training Evening sessions in pc lab Pre and post testing

Blackboard access and use History training materials and use

Rules for Tutoring: At school and home

1. Talk only to your partner about the peer-tutoring program.

2. Talk in a quiet voice.3. Cooperate with your partner.4. Do your BEST.

Identifying Mistakes

 Your child says the wrong answer. Your child gives a partially correct

answer. Your child adds unnecessary

information. Your child waits longer than 3 seconds

to give an answer. (count: 1- one thousand, 2 - one thousand, 3 – one thousand)

Correcting Mistakes  If your child misses an answer say, “You

missed that one. Can you try again?”  If your child answers correctly, say,

‘Good.’ Ask the question again.   If your child does not know an answer,

wait 3 seconds, then say, “The answer is “_____.”

  Ask the question again.   Then say, “Good.”

Parent Home Tutoring Checklist

     Get out own tutoring fact sheets and record keeping sheet.

     Get with your child.     Write date and time on your record

sheet.     Begin asking and answering the

questions with your child (if child is alone, have him/her cover one side of the sheet and ask and answer questions independently).

     Put all tutoring materials away.

Date Blackboard Section Visited

Purpose for Information Retrieved

Comments

   

Announcements Staff InformationInformation AssignmentsLabs/Strategy Sh. Student ToolsLabs/Assessment

Personal InfoTo get materials for

student useTo get materials to work

w/ student

 

  Announcements Staff InformationInformation AssignmentsLabs/Strategy Sh. Student ToolsLabs/Assessment

Personal InfoTo get materials for

student useTo get materials to work

w/ student

 

  Announcements Staff InformationInformation AssignmentsLabs/Strategy Sh. Student ToolsLabs/Assessment

Personal InfoTo get materials for

student useTo get materials to work

w/ student

 

   

 

Parent Recording Sheet

Date Blackboard Section Visited

Purpose for Information Retrieved

Comments

Announcements Staff InformationInformation AssignmentsLabs/Strategy Sheets Student ToolsLabs/Assessment

Personal InfoTo get materials for student useTo get materials to work w/ student

Tutoring Sheets

Name the Railroads and the railroad towns.

Railroads: Union pacific and Central Pacific

Towns: Promontory Point, Utah; Omaha, Nebraska; Sacramento, California

Tutoring Sheets

Name the cattle towns and trails.

 

Towns: Abilene, Kansas; Cheyenne, Wyoming

Trails: Chisholm Trail; Goodnight-Loving Trail

 

Write the card you practiced in this column (Example: Tanks)

Write date you practiced this item with your partner (Feb. 14; Feb. 18)

Place date you covered the information, but still need more practice(Feb. 18)

Please check and date when mastered the content(Feb.14 )

   

     

   

     

Parent Training Results Pretest vs posttest

Evaluation of blackboard usage Evaluation of access of study

materials t(21) = 25.228, p =.000

Parent Evaluation of Training1 = low; 5= high; Mean (SD)

Effectiveness of training 4.68 (.48)

Effectiveness of trainers 4.73 (.46)

Training informative 4.59 (.59)

Sufficient time for training

4.45 (.74)

Helpfulness of handouts 4.68 (.48)

 

Effects of Classwide Peer Tutoring on Achievement in History

74

76

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82

84

86

88

90

Control Tutoring

Condition

Me

an

Pe

rce

nt

Co

rre

ct

generalspecial

Teacher Feedback Materials engaged all students Materials very student centered. Students needed directions once, and

they were off and running. Had to quiet students down but only

lower voices. They were always on task. Students even developed their own

games out of it.

What are General Techniques for Improving Memory? Increase Attention. Promote External Memory. Enhance Meaningfulness. Use Pictures. Minimize Interference. Promote Active Manipulation. Promote Active Reasoning. Increase the Amount of Practice.

What Are Effective Mnemonic Strategies? Strategies that make Unfamiliar

Information more: Concrete Meaningful Familiar Memorable

Mnemonic strategies First described by the ancient Greeks (see

Yates, The Art of Memory, 1956) Discussed by William James, Principles of

Psychology (1890) First treatment in experimental psychology,

Atkinson (1975), for teaching Russian vocabulary to college students.

Employed in late 1970s with k-12 students (Pressley, Levin, & Delaney, 1982)

Employed with students with LD, 1983-present Over 40 experiments, >1200 students

How Effective Are Mnemonic Strategies ? (Forness, 2001)

Mnc = MnemonicRC = Reading

comp. strategiesDI = Direct InstructionSM = Stimulant

medicationPrT = Peer

tutoringDiet = Diet restrictionsPT = Perceptual

training 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Mean ES

Mnc RC DI SM PrT Diet PT

Most Effective Techniques Mnemonic strategies

Keyword method Pegword method Letter strategies, such as acrostics

and acronyms Other verbal elaborations

The Keyword Method

Best for Unfamiliar Vocabulary Steps in using the keyword

method: Recode unfamiliar word to an

acoustically similar but familiar word or keyword.

Relate the the keyword in an interactive picture with the to-be-remembered information

Retrieve the new definition by thinking of the keyword and what was happening in the interactive picture

Ranid (rain) frog

Pegword method Can keyword method be combined

with the pegword method for remembering numbers?

Materials Content: hardness levels of North

American minerals, according to the Mohs scale.

Mnemonic pictures included keyword representation of mineral name, pegword for hardness level.

Pegwords One is bun Two is shoe Three is tree Four is door Five is hive

Six is sticks Seven is heaven Eight is gate Nine is vine Ten is hen

Crocoite (crocodile) 2 (shoe)

01020304050607080

% correct

Imm. DelayExperimental Condition

Results

Mnemonic

Free study

Directinstruction

Multiple Attributes Can students with LD learn multiple

attributes -- e.g., hardness, color, common use -- with mnemonics?

Example: WOLFRAMITE: A black wolf at a door lit by light bulbs Black = mineral color Door = hardness level #4 Light Bulbs = common use (from

tungsten filaments)

Three conditions Mnemonic instruction Direct instruction Free study

Results

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60

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80

90

%

correct

Mnemonic DI Free Study

HardnessColorUse

Curriculum Applications of Mnemonic Instruction Can mnemonic strategies be

applied to a chapter from a content area textbook?

Content Area: World War I

Allied Powers Central Powers William Jennings Bryan Lusitania Zimmerman note Trench warfare Eddie Rickenbacher George M. Cohan

Reconstructive Elaborations Mimetic: Representational picture for

concrete, familiar information (trench) Symbolic: Symbolic picture for

abstract, familiar information (foreign policy)

Acoustic: Keyword strategy for unfamiliar information (Zimmerman)

Letter strategies for list information

World War I test: What countries were in the Allied Powers? What countries were in the Central Powers? Who was William Jennings Bryan? What was the Lusitania? What was the Zimmerman note? What was trench warfare like? Who was Eddie Rickenbacher? Who was George M. Cohan?

Participants, Procedure 30 8th – 10th graders with LD Mean reading GE = 5.2 Students stratified by grade level

and assigned at random to mnemonic or control condition.

5

10

15

20

Number correct

Experimental Condition

Results

Mnemonic

Control

Long-Term Applications

Can mnemonic strategies be applied to units of curriculum in classroom instruction over time?

Participants Four classrooms of students with learning

disabilities in an inner-city school Each classroom had a different

configuration of mnemonic and traditional pictures to support classroom learning over 4 units: M-T-M-T T-M-T-M T-T-T-M M-M-M-T

Procedure Each unit lasted two weeks. Teachers

employed relevant pictures as overhead transparencies throughout the unit.

After 8 weeks of instruction, individual tests of content knowledge were given: World War I 20s 30s World War II

2030405060708090

100

% correct

Experimental Condition

Results

Mnemonic

Control

Effectiveness of Mnemonic Classroom Instruction

0102030405060708090

100

WWI 20x 30s WWII

Unit

Per

cent

cor

rect

M-T-M-T

T-M-T-M

Effectiveness of Mnemonic Classroom Instruction

0102030405060708090

WWI 20x 30s WWII

Unit

Per

cent

cor

rect

M-M-M-T

T-T-T-M

Research questions 1. Can the model of reconstructive

elaborations be used with life science content?

2. Can students with LD create their own mnemonic strategies?

Participants, design Students with LD student in two

self-contained classes Each classroom had a different

configuration over 2 units: 1. Mnemonic-Traditional 2. Traditional-Mnemonic

Third week: all mnemonic 4th week: generalization

Procedure Each unit lasted one week. Teachers

employed relevant pictures as overhead transparencies throughout the unit.

After 2 weeks of instruction, individual tests of content knowledge were given: Invertebrate animals Vertebrate animals

Questions What are characteristics of

earthworms? What are characteristics of birds? What are characteristics of trichina? What are the five classes of

vertebrates? What are parasites and hosts? What is radial symmetry?

Classroom x Chapter Interaction

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80

90

Invert Vertebrate

Instructional Unit

Per

cen

t co

rrec

t

M - T

T - M

Generalization phase Earth history: Third week of

training, both classes taught mnemonically

Questions Name the three parts of the earth. What is the core? What is the mantle? What is the crust?

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60

80

100

Reported strategy No strategy reported

Percent correct by strategy use

Week 3 76.3% answered correctly

Generalization Training Week 4

0

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40

60

80

100

Reported strategy No strategyreported

Percent correct by strategy use

However For generalization week, 52.5% of

content covered answered correctly

33% to 39% as much content covered as previous weeks. Additional time spent creating strategies.

IT FITS Strategy*

Identify the term Tell the definition of the term Find a keyword Imagine the definition doing something with

the keyword Think about the definition doing something

with the keyword Study what you imagined until you know the

definition *King-Sears, M.E., Mercer, C.D., & Sindelar, P.T. (1992). Toward independence with keyword mnemonics: A strategy for science vocabulary

instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 13, 22-33.

Effectiveness of Mnemonic Instruction in Science(13 experiments, N = 525)

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30

40

50

60

70

80

Mean % correct

Mnemonic Comparison

Mean ES = 1.59 (SD = .93)

Concrete & Meaningful Tasks Point out importance and worth Select relevant, concrete tasks Hands-on materials Illustrations Active involvement Relate to students’ personal

experiences

Approaches to Science InstructionTextbook high language

demands high literacy

demands excessive vocabulary abstract content high factual learning

demands factual recall on tests

Activities-oriented reduced language reduced literacy reduced vocabulary hands-on

experiences & “enactments”

minimal testing performance-based

testing

Activities versus Text-basedScience

Ecosystem Unit (Science Education)

4th grade classes Textbook adopted by district STC Ecosystems unit Inclusive classes with adaptations

Student Data by Classroom

Activities Comparison M (SD) M (SD)

Age 120.7 (5.5) 121.4 (6.0) IQ 109.8 (16.0) 112.2(14.1)Rdg 75.3 (17.8) 75.1 (20.9)Math 76.8 (20.3) 81.0 (19.3)Lang 76.3 (19.6) 74.4 (20.1)Males 48% 44%

PASS Variables Prioritize objectives Adapt (instruction, materials, &

environment) SCREAM

structure clarity redundancy enthusiasm appropriate pace maximize engagement

Systematic Evaluation

Problem Solving Very structured and guided instruction Build ecosystem and observe plant,

animal growth & interactions with environment

Predict effects of acid rain, too much salt, too much fertilizer on your eco-column

PORC = predict, observe, record, compare

Minimal insight required for success Disability specific adaptations made

Disability-Specific Adaptations

Vocabulary check-sheets Modified worksheets Communication boards Teacher and peer assistance with

reading tasks Special matching of peers in small

groups Testing adaptations - oral and

transcribed

Textbook vs Activities Science

10

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24

Multiple Choice Performance

TextbookActivitiesSpecial Ed

Textbook vs Activities Science

10

60

110

160

210

260

310

Number of words

TextbookActivitiesSpecial Ed

Enthusiastic Science Teaching

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%

Achievement On-task

Enthusiastic Unenthusisatic

Coached Elaborations:Direct Teaching (No Explanation) Condition

Experimenter: The anteater has long claws on its front feet. What does the anteater have?

Student: Long claws on its front feet.

Experimenter: Long claws on its front feet. Good.

Coached Elaborations: Provided Explanation Condition E: The anteater has long claws on its

front feet, to help it dig for ants. What does the anteater have?

S: Long claws on its front feet. E: The anteater has long claws on its

front feet. Good. And why does it have this?

S: To help it dig for ants. E: To help it dig for ants. Good.

Coached Elaborations:Coached Elaboration Condition E: The anteater has long claws on its front feet. Why

does it make sense that the anteater has long claws on its front feet?

S: I don't know. E: Well, let's think. What does the anteater eat? S: Ants? E: Ants, good. And where do ants live? S: In holes in the ground. E: In holes in the ground. So why does it make sense

that the anteater has long claws on its front feet? S: Oh. To help it dig for ants. E: To help it dig for ants. Good.

Results (Sullivan, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 1993)

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30

Immediate Delayed

Coached

Provided

No Exp.

Summary of Results: Coached Elaborations

Students in the CE conditions remembered facts (e.g., long claws) best

Students in the CE conditions remembered explanations (e.g., to dig for ants) best

Transfer and independent learning effects were smaller

Differentiated Science Curriculum Enhancements

Random assignment of 13 inclusive 8th grade science classes to: Control Group: traditional instruction Experimental Group: traditional

instruction + differentiated curriculum enhancements

Intervention Delivered by teachers over 12 weeks

Sample 13.7 = Mean age N = 213

(37 LD, 7 SED, 35 ELL) Ethnic diversity

44% Caucasian 27% Black 17.4% Latino 5.2% Multi-racial 4.4% Asian

Differentiated Curriculum Enhancement Activities

Scientific Investigation Unit and linked to high stakes tests

Eight major activities developed Each activity developed into multiple levels of

increasing difficulty Start with differentiating the content using

scaffolding/prompting Level 1 for maximum support with content Level 2 for reduced support with content Level 3 for independent learning with minimal, if any

supports

Scientific Process Skills Observing, Classifying Predicting Comparing Contrasting Charting, Graphing, Recording Data

Development Rules for Level 1

Identification level

Must be able to identify answers from a multiple choice or matching format

Must contain prompts to help ensure success

Development Rules for Level 2

Production with prompts level

Start at beginning production responses

Include prompts to ensure success

Development Rules for Level 3

Independent production level

Production format

Remove prompts

Experimental Design Level 1-3

Level 1: students match independent and dependent variables.

Level 2: identify independent, dependent variables, and hypothesis given a scenario.

Level 3: students produce independent, dependent variables, and hypothesis given a scenario.

These games provide practice for the SOL Grade 6: hypotheses are stated in ways that identify the independent and dependent variables, SOL Grade 7: variables defined, dependent variables, independent variables, and constants identified, and SOL Grade 8: independent and dependent variables, constants, and repeated trials are identified.

Use this sheet to track how you did. Look at the example on the first line. Write in the name of the activity on the line then graph how long you played each activity. Don’t forget to rate how well you think you did! Rate your performance on each activity -

3 2 1 Place a mark on the amount of time you spent playing the activity below Rate your performance on each activity

20 min.

15 min.

10 min.

5 min.

0 min.

Circle the Names of the Activities You Played Today

1

Activities Key

Concentration 1 – Con 1 Mission Possible 1 – MP 1 Measuring 1 – Meas 1 Concentration 2 – Con 2 Mission Possible 2 – MP 2 Measuring 2 – Meas 2 Concentration 3 – Con 3 Mission Possible 3 – MP 3 Measuring 3 – Meas 3 Hangman 1 - Hang 1 Quantitative/Qualitative 1 – QQ1 Liquid Measurement 1- LM1 Hangman 2 - Hang 2 Quantitative/Qualitative 2 – QQ2 Liquid Measurement 2- LM2 Match-Ups - MU1 Quantitative/Qualitative 3 – QQ3 Liquid Measurement 3- LM3 Tic Tac Toe - TTT2 Jeopardy 1 – J1 Scenarios – Scen3 Jeopardy 2 – J2 Jeopardy 3 - J3

Sample Scenario Scenario: A student's science fair project was

to examine the effects of different amounts of fertilizer on plant growth. Three identical plants were grown with three different amounts of fertilizer (low, medium and high). At the end of the experiment the plant given the highest amount of fertilizer was the tallest.

Independent variable- Amount of Fertilizer Dependent variable- Plant Growth Hypothesis- If you give a plant a high amount

of fertilizer, then the plant will grow taller.

Data Sources Pre and Posttests

Content High Stakes Tests

Student Reports Teacher Feedback

Results Students in Differentiated science

curriculum outperformed comparison students on: Science content tests Virginia High Stakes Tests

Chemistry 10th Grade Chemistry Study

Students with and without disabilities in inclusive classes

Peer Tutoring Format involving Strategies including mnemonics, elaborations What else is important? Applications

Differentiated format Use embedded strategies when required Skip strategies when not required

Tutoring Condition Materials

Rules and Procedures for Tutoring Folders containing strategy sheets

What is … A strategy to help you remember What else is important about . ? What is an example of --- ?

Student recording sheets

What is the Periodic Table?  

A tabular arrangement of all known elements, organized by properties.If your partner is correct, go to

If your partner doesn’t know the answer, review the strategy. 

Strategy: Think of the word "table" (chart) for periodic table, and think of the table of all the elements.Then ask: 

What is the strategy to remember periodic table?

 

Then ask again: What is the periodic table?

  Then ask:What else is important about periodic table?

[Answers include: Properties are arranged by periods (rows) and groups (columns).] 

Then ask: What are other characteristics of periodic table?

 [Answers include: Increase across periods, Mass, Electron affinity, Ionization energy;

Decrease across periods: Size; Increase across groups (top to bottom), Reactivity, Atomic radius;

Decrease across groups (top to bottom), Electron, affinity, Electron negativity, ionization]Then ask:

What are the components of the periodic table?  

[Answers include: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition elements, metalloids, noble gases, lanthanides, actinides]  

Chemistry Test Results

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9

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

Control Experimental

LDGeneral Ed

Challenges with Implementations Can we raise scores

enough? Support for teachers

and administrators Resources and

training issues Time for teachers

and for freeing teachers

Sustainability of practices

Providing ongoing positive and positive critical feedback

Demonstrating student growth

Fidelity of Implementation

Summary Tension exists between demands of high

stakes testing and teaching students with LD RTI may present challenges A variety of evidence-based techniques have

improved performance Extend interaction and practice with text Use strategies with peer tutors Enhance meaningfulness and concreteness Use activities to enhance meaningfulness Differentiate activities to support multiple learner

levels

Great Challenges can lead to Great Opportunities for

Students with LD Improved accountability Improved access to general ed.

Curriculum Potential for achieving beyond

expectations Entire school has stake in success of

students with LD Future research can provide further

guidance for practice