v.*
R E P, 0 R T R. E S U M
ED 011 119 AL Om) 20AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STRUCTURE,OF THE CHINESE WRITING*SYSTEM.BY- MAETH, RUSSELLCOLUMBIA UNIV., NEW YORK
PUB DATE 63-IDRSA PRICE MP-$0.16 HC -$2.46 62P.
.DESCRIPTORS-, *LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION, *INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS,*CHINESE, WRITTEN LANGUAGE, *ORTHOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS,*STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, GRAPHEMES, NEW YORK CITY
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AT THE ELEMENTARY LEVEL. OF THE'CHINESE WRITING SYSTEM ARE PRESENTED TO TEACH THE STUDENTS(I) HOW CHARACTERS ARE PUT TOGETHER, (2) HOW TO TELL ONE
.
CHARACTER FROM ANOTHER, AND (3) HOW TO ANALYZE NEW CHARACTERSINTO - APPROPRIATE CONSTITUENTS FOR PURPOSES OF DICTIONARYSEARCH. THE MATERIALS ARE BASED Oh AN IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT'ANALYSIS OF THE CHARACTERS INTO RECURRING PARTIALS AND AREORGANIZED INTO UNITS CONTAINING EXPLANATIONS AND DRILLS,BEGINNING WITH THE ULTIMATE CONSTITUENTS OF THE SYSTEM,STROKES,' LEADING TO TWO-STROKE COMBINATIONS AND CONSTRUCTS OFHIGHER COMPLEXITY. THE WRITING SYSTEM IS PRESENTAS ACLOSED SYSTEM, UNRELATED TO THE EXPRESSION SYSTEM' OF THE'LANGUAGE TO.ALCOW EARLY INTRODUCTION OFTHE FORMER WITH NOCONFLICT FROM THE LATTER. THE UNITS HAVE BEEN DESIGNED ASOUTSIDE WORK, BUT CLASSROOM EXPLANATION MAY BE REQUIRED FORCERTAIN 'DETAILS. (IT)
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PREFACE
The aim of the following material is to bring the beginningstudent of Chinese an awareness of the structure of the writing
system, which generally dawns on him only after a year or two oftedious and fragmentary rote memorization. Basically, the stu-dent is to be taught three things: 1) how characters are put
together (constituent structure, not random lines); 2) how to
tell one character from another; 3) how to analyze new characters
into appropriate constituents for purposes of dictionary search.
The structural features of the writing system are presented in
terms of immediate constituent analysis into recurring partials.1
Starting with the ultimate constituents of the system, Strokes,the student is led through two-Stroke combinations (Simple BoundGraphs) to constructs of higher complexity (Complex Bound Graphs).In passing, the principles of Radical lexicography and such addi-
tional structural problems as Crystal Graphs and Look-Alikes aretouched upon. At all times the writing system is presented as a
closed system, explicable only by its own law and unrelated to
the expression system of the language: Pedagogically, such a
treatment allows, very early introduction of the writing systemwith no conflict from the expression system, the two parallel
channels (eye-hand/ear-mouth) in fact being complimentary to eachother.
The materials presented are: a) analysis of the 214 K'ang Hsi
Radicals plus the 895 Phonetics of the Soothill-Fenn list2; b) thelist of 94 characters compiled by Ch'en Ho-ch'in which account for75% of 554,478 characters of running text from various vernacularsources
3; and c) Y. R. Chao's illuminating notes in the Mandarin
Primer on the radical system4
. The units have been designed
totally as outside work with home assignments to.be turned in and
corrected by an instructor. The reader will note, however, that
classroom explanation may be required for certain details.
Russell Maeth
DirectorColumbia Carnegie High SchoolChinese Language Program
501 Kent HallColumbia UniversityNew York, New York 10027
1See Hockett, Charles (ed.): Dictionary of Spoken Chinese
(Washington, 1945), pp. 27-28.2See Soothill, W. E.: The Student's Four Thousand Tzu and
Pocket Dictionary (Shanghai, 1903), pp. XIV-XXXV; Fenn, C. H.:The Five Thousand Dictionary (Cambridge, Mass., 1960), pp. XV-XIX.
;lei, Ai: Hantzu wenti (Taipei, 1955), pp. 47-48.4nao, Y. R.: Mandarin Primer (Cambridge, 1957), pp. 63-65.
7.,1,477771,7777
The Chinese Writing System: Classes of Strokes
The ultimate constituents of all Free Graphs in the Chinese
writing system are single lines or Strokes. There are four classes
of Strokes: Dots, Straight Lines, Pothooks, and Crooked Lines.
Each class will be described below. In studying the strokes the
student must fix three things in mind:
a) contour,
b) direction
c) variation
Only when these three items are mastered can the student progress
fruitfully to the next stage, where familiarity with the above
items is assumed.
Class IDots
All Free Graphs are written to fill an imaginary rectangle of
uniform size. This rectangle may in turn be subdivided into nine
similarly shaped smaller rectangles or cells arranged in three rows
of three cells each. A Free Graph is written so as to fill the
nine cell rectangle, impinging on (but not totally occupying) each
of the nine cells. Figure Ia shows the imaginary rectangle with
its nine cells: Figure Ib shows a'Free Graph against such a grid.
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
Fig. Ia Fig. Ib
A Dot is a short line which may vary in length from 1/3 to
2/3 of the width of any of the nine cells. There are three types
of Dots: Vertical, Horizontal, and Skew. The left column in the
-7777777777777777777771
-2-
following figure illustrates Vertical Dots, the center columnEbri-
zontal Dots, and the right Column Skew Dots.
These types of Dots appear
a) Vertical
b) Horizontal
Skew 1
in the following
P414in
in
in
Fig. 2. Dots,(Nrrows indicatedirection of stroke)
Free Graphs:
Drill 1. Row A contains 10 Free Graphs constituted partly of Dots.The same Free Graphs are written in Row B but without their Dots.Supply them.
, 12blt
y.
ed
Drill 2. On the following Free Graphs indicate the direction ofDots (see Fig. 2).
==t---: '4;
Class IL--Straight Lines
Lines--Straight, Pothook, Crooked--generally exceed one cell
width in length. Each type of line has two forms: Long and Short
(Large and Small for Crooked Lines). Long and Short, however, are
relative terms, and must be determined in each instance by the
presence of other lines in the same Free Graph. In general the
relative length of a line is determined by the lengths of the lines
found together with it in the'same Simple Bound Graph (q.v.).
Straight Lines may be written Horizontal, Vertical, or Skew.
They are written from left to right (Horizontal), from top to
bottom (Vertical), or. diagonally (Skew). Long lines are generally
2 1/2 cell widths long, short lines 1 1/2 widths. Relative length
or shortness of 'a line is a purely aesthetic consideration unless
another line of the same type is found in the same character. Then,
the relative length or shortness may be of distinctive difference.
Types of Straight Lines are:
a) Long Horizontal as in -4 *b) Long Vertical as in
1 4c) Long SkeW as in if
d) Short Horizontal as in ±--
e) Short VeKtical as in.i. 4-
0paf) Short Skew as in Xl tai
e.)
g) Long Reverse Skew as in / 4t2
h) Short Reverse Skew. as in .A 4c:§.
s.
iT
-4--
Figure 3 illustrates types of Straight Lines set against the
nine cell grid..
Fig. 3a--Long
4, -----'iiiFig. 3b--Short
Drill 1. Fill in the missing Straight Lines in the Free Graphs in
Row B, which are given in their full form in Row A.
A.
B. JA N 1 3fr -2-e-:- Ji]Drill 2. On the large Free Graphs below indicate the direction of
strokes you supplied in Drill 1. Under each Free Graph write L or S
to indicate whether the stroke is long or short.
a j b
f g 63h
Drill 3. Some of the Free Graphs listed under Drill 2 contain more
than one kind of Straight Line. List them after the appropriate
letter below. Indicate for each Straight Line its direction (with a
direction arrow) and its size (L or S).
a
b g
c h
d i
ej
..Omerss
7-r7-1,77fifrr'77
ry t5
",t,Agtiegasimwti
_5_
Class III-Pothooks
Pothooks are Straight Lines terminating in a single, sharplyangled, short backstroke. Like Straight Lines, Pothooks may beLong (2 1/2 cell widths) or short (1 1/2 cell widths). Types ofPothooks are:
Long ShortHorizontal
b) Vertical1 AO 1 4"...."t
.-4
c) Skew \J -;;,\m
d) Check ,,1 / / ,1.1-7
4Aje7 ike) Reverse Skew
Figure 4 illustrates the types of Pothooks set against thenine cell grid (see p. 11 for variants).
Fig. 4a-Long Fig. 4b -Short
Drill 1. Complete. the Free Graphs in Row B by adding the Pothooksgiven in the full form in Row A.
Ars
-6-
Drill 2. Construct two nine-cell grids and rewrite Figure 4 from
memory.
Drill 3. List from memory the three Classes of Strokes studied
thus far with all of their types.
-7-
Class.I-Crooked Lines,
Crooked Lines are StrOkes which bend or turn at one or more
points. Crooked Lines differ from Pothooks in that both limbs of
the angled stroke are more or less of equal length. Crooked Lines
are Piain.(unhooked) or Hooked. Types of Crooked Lines are:
a) Plain Turn
Hooked Turn
c) Hook-in Bend
d) Hook-out Bend
e) Plain Cane
f) One jut Bend
S-Bend
h) Little Hook
Double Hook Bend
Lonq as in Short as in
L.
L.)
)"7
Figure 5 illustrates the types the types of Crooked Lines againast
the nine cell grid (see p. 11 for variants).
Fig. 5a-Plain .
Turn
4/
-Fig. 5d- -Plain
Turn
Fig. 5g--Hook-inBend
Fig. 5b-HookedTurn
Fig. e - -S -bend
Fig. 5h--LittleHook
Fig..5c--Hook-out Turn
Fig. 5f - -One Jut
Bend
Fig. 51-poubleHOOk Bend-
-9-
Drill 1. Supply Crooked Lines_ to_ Graphs in Row B from example
given in Row A.
Drill 2. Name types of Crooked Lines supplied in Drill 1.
a. f.
b. g.
c. h.
d. i.
e. i
Drill 3. Write from memory and name all Classes and types of
Strokes.
Drill 4. Review all previous Drills.
-10-
.SUMMARY OF CLASSES.1"TYPESI.AND, VARIANTS -Or STROKES
Class Type Variant
I.Dots
I
.
-
.
.
II
Straight
Lines
1
--- ... .
.
"I
\.
.
1
I
11*
4)0
'14)4
T---).
. .
,. \-----)
.
.
.
.
\ .
(1)
E_.
,
cou)
..LL
.xH 0H 0H ,C
0al .
rd. .g 0> 0 0H 0 .1-I0
,--C)
.
-12-
The Chinese Writing System: Simple Bound Graphs
Free Graphs in the Chinese Writing System are composed%ofsmaller parts or "Constituents" (generally two in number) which
recur again and again in different combinations. These Consti-tuents in turn can usually be broken down into two simpler Con-stituents, much in the same way that a complex molecule can bebroken down into simpler ones, and those in turn into moleculessimpler still, or into atoms.'
The "atoms" of the Chinese Writing System are the Strokes.A Stroke has Contour and. Direction. When two Strokes are combinedto form a "recurrent partial" (i.e., a Constituent which occursagain and again in a cOmbinationvith other Constituents), we havea Structure and a Constituent Order. The Structure is-the combi-nation itself and the Constituent Order is the sequence in whichits Constituents are written.
1The problem is to break down Free Graphs in terms of recurrentpartials until the level of strokes is reached. When this is done intermsof traditional 'stroke order' for all Radicals and Phoneticsthe structural elements of the writing system at all levels are
effectively isolated. Such an analysis underlies. the present mater-ials. In all there are 4 classes of Strokes, with 22 Types and 11additional Variants. Two Stroke possiblities number 56. There areapproximately 800 combinati6ns of more than two Strokes. From ob-servationit: is noted that most 'graphs possess a bifurcated'struc-ture and that this structure holds true for constituent elementsdown to the level of the Ultimate Constituents, or Strokes. Graphsare analyzed in terms of the possibility of recurrence of possible.segments. For example, the first cut in Mg is into. 4 and ;,r, does not commend itself, since it does not noticeably recur inthe corpus'and the same is_ true of 6 The complete analysis of 4.6goes as follows: 4'S
:,
; : ; : ;: 1 cz ; : -3 , ) ; c2 : Ti., ; r7 : ,.-7 . Thisreveals the following Strokes: ,/ j , -7', , ) . TwoStroke dombinations are: ,r . ,7-. r7 ; and combination's of largernumbers-of Strokes are: 4 , r7 . Where one element 'is' liableto two or more possible breakdowns, the principal of parity isyoked, whereby both Immediate Constituents are assigned as nearlyequal a number of strokes as possible..
ri :,^ .1
,er
-13 -.
The least complicated 'recutrent partial higher than 'the level
of single Strokes is the uSiMple,BOund:Graph"1 "Simple" because it
can be analyzed directly into two'Strokes, and "Bound"'because it
never, or almost never, acts as a."Free Graph" in the Chinese Writ-
ing System.
In studying the Simple Bound. Graphs, students should fix two
things in mind:
a) Structure of the Simple Bouhd Graphb) Constituent Order of the Simple Bound Graph.
In the following charts the first column gives the Structure;
the second column gives the First Constituent; the third column
gives the,Second Constituent superimposed on the First, so that the
Structure appears again.
Learn: a) Structure; Constituent Order.
r.
Simple Bound Graphs I (8). Write each five times in the "'spaces
provided.
-r-
_
--
,
, 4
-,
r
, N .
r
I I
N.
..//
1..
--
.
Immilr
.
.4
,1.
..
1
......... .
IImolP .
V....%a
.
r 1 a
a. a
,
, Z
-15-
'Simple Bound Graphs II (24). Write each five times iri the spaces
provided.
1t
.
rl
. .
.
......7,
.. i. ...
. .
. .
.I
.
. .
-
:
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
li
. .- .
A z
SimplglpmrisiSiaftEILL (10). Write each five times in the spacesprovided.
1--7 1 /1
1I j
J
L-4 L-
6
ki
ONO
-18-
Simple Bound Graphs IV (13). Write each five times in the spaces
provided.
4 L A
)ti } .RJ
IL ) ,t). 1
1
/ ,\...
.1
x...
i ?(_
0.
-19-
410 From Simple Bound Graph to Free Graph:
I
Most graphs in the Chinese Writing System are composed of two
Constituents, that is,of structures which occur again and .again in
contrasting environments to forth different Free 'Graphs. Some of
these Constituents are very active, occuring in a large number of
graphs. For example, 4 occurs in 4 It 44e, , and in liter-
ally hundreds of others. Some of these Constituents have very little.
use. In general for Free Graphs the three most frequent types of
Constituent distribution are Left-Right, Top-Bottom, and Wrapper-
Wrapped.
Left-Right: In graphs of this type one Constituent is on the
left and the other on the right, for example: .1.29 . In writing,
the Left Constituent is written first. There is a vertical cleav-
age in the character dividing it into two parts. This cleavage
we may call the "Constituent. Boundary." Everything to the left of
the Constituent Boundarybelongs to the first Constituent; everything
to the right of the Constituent Boundary belongs to the. second con-
stituent. For example:
CONSTITUENT BOUNDARY
21
TopBottom: In graphs of this type the Constituent Boundary
is horizontal. In writing, the Top-Constituent is written first.
For example:
. _CONSTITUENT BOUNDARY1
),TP 1 f
)1
Classify the following ten graphs as to whether they are LR, TB, WW.
Indicate how the graphs are written. (No. 0 is an example)
A
-47
-22-
Make a list here of all graphs on the previous two pages which sharethe same First .Constituent.
As we have learned, two SBG's can be combined to form a singlegraph. A single SBG can also be combined with a single stroke toform a graph. The following numbered graphs are important Free Graphsof very high frequency. Learn their structure and constituent orderthoroughly.. Write each graph five times in the space provided.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
ra h Cl Cl+C2-11,
......... ..............
V.'
........
ian
3 .
.,
.
A.._ I .A.... .
r
..........
..-
.......1...
X... 2 ...Z.....
-
4'. ........
.
.
.lo.,.., .
.
1../ ....
rI
-
ir
, ..
_ .... ,
. .
;....6 ,,,t?. ''k-)f
, .
. t .
. .. J
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
. .
.
. -1; ........-- .
.
.
......
.
.V
.
.
_
....
.
.
.
... .
.
_
.......
.....
_...... .
. __
.
.
...
.
.
.... .
...5
..._.
__
.E..../
.
.
. .v.
_ . .
.
.
..
.
. ._ .. .
.
, ..
.1
:
,
-"4
.
.
..,
TA-4 -C
'4.
Apart from acting as Free Graphs, the above 15, or a number of
them at least, act also as Complex Bound Graphs, appearing as Con-
stituents'ili more complicated Graphs.
Note the Structure and Constituent Order of the following
Graphs. Write each Graph five times. On the sample given draw a
line indicating the Constituent Bdundary:
Graph plus, one Stroke:
LR
51TB
.....11
1SUPERIMPOSED: This is a new structure. Some Graphs are written
in, the following way: First, the First Constituent is laid down,
then the Second Constituent is written over the First.
S
6-
C2
-1
3. Graph plus Graph
LR
4J
.40 --gr t2
TB
Any graph more complex than a:Simple Bound Graph is a Complex.Bound Graph. A :Coinplex Bound ,Graph, -may -be. constituted: in a riumber
of -ways. For' example:. _
.SBG plus StrOke2) SBG -sag
'Stroke
-"- .
,'' ill, 4" ,%;. 4:i
: _
-27-n
And there are other possibilities, as can readily be surmised.
Following- is a list,of high frequency 4 and 5 Stroke CBG's.
Learn Structure and Constituent Order.. Practice each Graph
five.times.
16.
'17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28. ,
29-.
i
f
. . .
.
A...
61 0.
El. .
or.
\
I ,1% i \..) 6N_
. ,
,
ry-
t..r
r
.
,
.
J, j, .
.
.
_
...6 - ."I. ..k.
..-
1 . 4 .4...
,
.
.
I-A
. ..
.
frt,::Jk. -!.-t:,
.
.
4
,
.
. )1 : --A.:.
,_
_ 1
.
.. .
r , .
-28-
As we have seen by nowl'certain Constituents occur again and
again in the composition of Graphs. / and r7 are good examples
of this. If we wish to classify Graphs by Structural.similarity
we can take 4 or c7 or other high Frequency Constituents as
the determining. Constituent, and arrange.all.graphs containing
that determining Constituent under it. For example, under 4 we
could place it 4J ; under 0 we could place -1g) dy PP P7
. If a Graph contains two determining Constituents (as.can
happen), we could make it a rule that the determining Constituent
in First Constituent position count as the determining Constituent
for that Graph. Thus, 00 would be classed .0 , under 4 . As
a matter of fact, the Chinese long ago worked out a system of 214
determining Constituents, and the general tendenCy is to classify
Graphs under the First Constituent where possible.*
Of the graphs we have written or the Structure of which we ,
have learned, the following are important deteimining Con'stituents
(or "Radicals" as they are commonly termed). Learn them as such:
4
1:7 414 rt3
*More specifically, the tendency is for the Radical to be" First
Constituent in.LR and WW Graphs, and Second. Constituent in TB
Graphs.
L
-29t-
Artange the following Graphs after their correct Radical (total:.
25 Graphs).
PP lb11
A_ yzif ii<-Y
At kt /e-
lb AE.) I it 1 * 44. -1"
Rad-ical
GraphsRad-ical
Graphs
I.
it .
73
tv
....1. . y<-
7-).14
-30-
We will recall from the study of Chinese phonology that the third
tone has one shape when the third tone syllable is uttered alone
and another when a syllable follows. (hiu/haumNi) Certain of the
Radicals also have one shape when they.are written alone and one
or more other shapes when they are combined with another Constitu-
ent to form a Free Graph. The shape they have when written alone
we shall call the Free Shape; the shape they have when they are
written in-combination with another Constituent we shall call the
Bound Shape. Most Radicals have only'a Free Shape. The following
of those you have studied have a Bound Shape also. Learn the
structure of the new Bound Shapes, their Constituent Order, and
the Free Shape Radical from which they originate.
Free Shape .Bound Shape- Examples.:
of Boundin Graphs,
44-
Shapes
. 4/14
. .
. . .
-
.
kilt:. ..-
.
.
.
.
,:...)-.
...
, _,J0 -- )./..
-31-
Place the following Graphs after their correct Radical. (total:
49 Graphs) . Note: IJ. and generally occur in .Second Constitu-
ent position.
11173 41- ifYb A l lk
ia% ;it Cli, j 46 %Id
T 4it it. aOic I+ iik_ 473 4
Rad-ical
Graphs, , . . I
_.,
I-
.
-32-
Below are nine Radicals of 5 Strokes. Learn Structure, Con=
stituent Order, aril, Bound Shapes:
Rad-4cal
Cl 2BoundShape-ples
, 1
-Sam-
._-
iY
.
is e)
AO-
. 1
Rad-ical
Cl C2BoundShape
Samles
7- Z'
,-.ILJ ,k_
The following Graphs all belong_to the nine new Radicals just
introduced. Place them after their correct Radical (total: 27
Graphs), in the diagram on the folloWing page.
f. AA IA AV 2/3) 4% 44-
:7.- . -^Ni7f "*"-"7, ---,7-Fuer, WM,
3,
=33-
A
LR
WW
Classify the same Graphs according to'Structure:
1141. VW'
-ma
4
IV
trt
-34-
Here are high, frequency Simple Bound Graphs of 6 and 7 Strokes.Learn Structure and Constituent Order. Write each Graph five timesin the space provided.
30.
31.
32:
33.
34.
35.
36.
37..
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.,
44.
45.
464
fip
4
111111.
1
Here are important new Graphs of 8 and 9 Strokes. Write
each new Graph five times in the space provided.
14.
.,
%!..1
f t:. .-f
.9.1(..., .
,,,,....,
.
.
.
,
t
.
i
.,
1 _ ...
._ .
. ,..,. .
.:
. ...
.
4
Ft*,6
-36-
Here are some important Radicals of 7 and 8 Strokes. LearnStiucture and Constituent Order. These Radicals do not possessaound' Shapes, except for j.t_
Rad-ical
Cl ,C2 BoundShape
1-!:-.-.
Ei
.1----
.
ItA...
.
IT. .
r hi.
p 13 1.
-,Is
.
Here are twenty Graphs all belonging to the 7 and 8 StrokeRadicals we have just learned. Arrange them after their correctRadical.
a *If 1411 Id lit1 itki PA
P4 i5t Ii/4\- II: Pc1%4 tfig *5
0
The following five Radicals of 9, 10, and 11 Strokes,donclude
our listing of common Radicals. As before, learn Constituents,
Constituent Order, and Bound Shapes.
gad -
ical.C1 C2
'BoundiSam-Shape
Sam -
Toles
15-
o.._ ,,.
Arrange the following Graphs after their correct Radical. (total:
20.Graphs).
r
IA.
ik
0Ix.,
. or -+
-
, .
,. .
' S't'
. .
4 :* ,
r ;:,.
=39-.
liere rare the last of the important high-frequency Graphs,. those
of 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 Strokes. Write each Graph five times
in the spaces provided. Review all previous numbered Graphs.
82.
83-.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
90.
91.
92.
-93.
, .
. .
.
.
..
.
.
.
3
,
1._ K..
. ,...,
...
. ,
-...4;00c foto
_ .
.. .
.
.
..
..
ft.
.
741t;
..
,
. .
.
.
;t6.. --1(_-5, _. .
.
_
pp., ... _ ,
rip....,.., ; .
4"
.
.
`,
-40-
CRYSTAL GRAPHS 4
Some Complex, Bound Graphs are reduplications, once, twice,
or three times over, of a single Simple Bound:Graph or Complex
Bound Graph. The structure of these Graphs resembles that of
certain crystals, the growth of which consists of the ordered
reduplication of an initial or basic structure. The Graphs in
question are constituted wholly by a reduplicated CBG laid
down in an unvarying constituent order. These Graphs we shall
term Crystal Graphs. An example of such a Graph is JUG
which is composed of reduplications of the CBG'A El .
Members of the class of Crystal Graphs, while numerous and
relatively high in Constituent Frequency, are not to be specially
noted as such. Rather, the invariable conventions of their Con-,
stituent Order are set forth schematically below, and from these
the Constituent Order of any Crystal Graph may be unerringly
inferred. In the following table, A, B, and C stand for the
first, second, and third constituents respectively of a Crystal
Graph. No valid instances of four-fold or greater repetition
are known.
Formula
AB
A
B
Formula
A
BC
Two Constituents
Example
c7c2
. Three Constituents
Eicample
As in
in
T- n-T
-4l
CRYSTAL .GRAPHS: Drills
Drill The following= Graphs are typical. Crystal Graphs. Usingthe ABC notation, show their Constituent Order.
Graph
630
Poo
Constituent Order
-42-
-Drill 2. Inipect-the f011owing-Free-Graphs and determine whiph
are valid Crystal Graphs.- Check the appropriate column.'
Crystal Graph Other
Drill 3. Inspect the following Graphs and determine whidh contain
valid Crystal Graphs as Constituents. Check the appropriate column.
Graph Crystal Graph: Formula (AB, etc.) Other
-43-
LOOK-ALIKES
It often happens that two different Free Graphs written in the
same style may so resemble each other as to produce, confusion as to-,
whidh is meant. Such Graphs can be Conveniently termed "look-alikes."
Look-alikes may be divided into two classes, which we shall tern
"arithmetical look-alikes" and "geometrical (or topological) look-
alikes." In the first Ilass, arithmetical look-alikes, Graphs-are
distinguished on the basis of totalnumber of Strokes. Free Graphs
may differ in total number of strokes by one or more strokes.
Pairs differing by only one stroke will be illustrated, since these
are usually the hardest to distinguish. It should be noted, how-
ever, that some pairs differing by two or even more strokes are
also hard to tell apart. Examples of arithmetical look-alikes fol-
low; practice writing each pair of Graphs in the spaces provided.
The second clas, geometrical look-alikes, will be taken up subse-
quently.
Strokes FG1
2:3
3:4
F 2
4:5, 4.
5:6
6:7
7:8
8:9
-4
9:10
10:11
-44 -
Note: In the examples on the previous page, the distingui
difference may also be thought of as a difference :between
Immediate Constituents, i.e., the IC's of 110 1 being and
those of M6 ! orVand a the two Graphs ,share el but are
by p and .r2
shing
the
contrasted
Drill. Write the "odd Graph" in each of the following groups in
the space provided.
il, IL, IL
I-
44-1 A iii-
k-,JE,
-4-
I'
'Al ilvj ,1-v]
449 Ji J%Jr-
g. W
V /V
GEOMETRICAL LOOK-MAKES
Geometrical look-alikes are pairs of Free Graphs containingthe same number of Strokel, all of which,.are- alike in shape andposition .except one pair (one Stroke. in each Free-Graph)- which dis-tinguishes the two Graphs. This pair of Strokes -Mai differ as to--
clasi or type of Stroke, 2) positiOn of Stroke,1-3). lengthof Stroke, 4) degree of :closure. This pair -we elan-
. the"minimum pair" (MP) .
Type of Stroke. A
classes of Strokes
minimum pair may be composed of two differentor of two different types of the same class.
Different Classes
FG1 FG2 I Minimum Pairz .4 Straight Line:Pothoolc
, 4 Straight Line:Dot
Straight Line:Crooked Line
Different Types
FG1 FG2 Minimum Pair
Horizontal Straight:Skew Straight
Hook-in-bend (Crooked) :Double-hook-bend (Crooked)
rat
-46-
Position of Stroke... A minimum pair may be composed of the same
class and type of Stroke, but differently positioned; the nine-
cell grid can be used to identify the crucial positions.
FG1 FG2 Minimum Pair
8:3
,
Length of Stroke. A minimum pair may be composed of the same
class and type of Stroke in the aame position but of different
length.
FG1 Minimum Pair
Short:Long
Long :Shoat
E. Short:Long
Degree-of closure. In some Graphs, otherwise identical in respect
to. Stroke constituents, contrast is indicated by whether certain
figures are left open, half-open, or are closed; intersections
count as closed, meetings as open.
FG1 FG2 Minimum Pair
6 Open:Closed
E.!)Half-open:Open
,.....
.
Open:Closed ,
,
pen:Closed
0S'ed:Open
.
Drill.. Write the "odd Grap)ii! in each-of the following groups, in-
the space provided.
i- -T f
,LØ& a_k k k
k k41 44 41
A- -4- -I
k k
rog
wA
1:4
P
. ,
.4- -- 4-
v t 01 but
IF-tr IF.-":-
-- 1-1- I1# 14 *if
4E) 4-6 6
1
"
-48-
Drill.. Write the "odd Graph" in each of the following groups in
the Space, provided. Note: this list derives from a list of
chaiacters the Chinese themselves. acknowledge as hard to tell apart.
1 A
1.4h4V...
e17AM- k_
.i).Z,
A 4q,ii gi
A:
Ae
.
...
--,rtz.
-- rri
ik,7
trp iT tcf
-fig0...
Pc kal 4,6
0.44a
3P1,1 A 4
THE. FIFTY-SEVEN MOST COMMON RADICALS:
"MEANING" ANDPOSITIONS
i Rad
ical
,'Rank
.
_Cliinese
Name
-
"Meaning"
Bound
Form ,s
Left
Right
Top
'
BO
ttC.*
-Other
4---
----
te5u..;,.
8
:H
-
---c
over
--'
,
_-._
_11
P
-
.
11P
'
r.en
_'.
-
9:
.,
danli
ren
(used for
-
:F1 Only)
,
man
, i
't,k
12
r
...
. --
,
.
.
. .
bin.
15 -
,
iyIng
dyan
shiig
tic
e--
Jyf
--...
,,
, --.
,,
...
.
-__,
-,,.
._
dal
..-
_
._.. 18
,
,(BF onlyknife
-
-
!
..
. " 4"
IPA
I'
, --
.
l'i[
19
,
---
strength
--/4
t7..:
---
. ..
1....
,fr.
A;-
O ...
..,. .
1 j,Y
-Ne
.
30
--
)
mou
th
. ,1P
OE
M
.
:,
..2
:.._-
-.
-,
,
.-: u.
....,i
-
-.
tiel
(BF
only
Xth
ear
,
.
.,
.I
'--
. -
:J `Pid
Nuo
imm
iuM
1111
1111
1111
1111
1111
1111
,Stii
i
,..,
n
"Chinese
Bound
rik
Name
"Meaning"
Form(s)
.'-i
...,
,',,
,,ii'
,"',
,:
.!'
J't s
\--
-1
snr--4
,
iif.
-
..,,
j,,,,.
.,;,,,
,,....
t_,
-1.
Ai V
,
nr--
i'
,'
',' 2
-
14,
b'iu
woman?
roof
,
corp
se
mountain
.111
0 .1
110
Lef
tRight
,41
we- 4
4
j
napkin,
-:
_pan
g,cloth
53
'iiyA
nSha
rig
:she
lter:
57
bow
44
60
shwang
ilrgn
left step
(tir
onl
y).
.111
0 O
EM
41
;,-
Bot
tom
Oth
er
OIN
S IM
MO
adica
ank
-
Chinese
^
Name
eaning"
Bound
Form( s)
Left
*
'Right
.Top
,
.Bottom,
:Other
..;..,
Oa s
yin
.(BF
heart
l11
,,__
'
-'6
u-
'.
.'
vv
t 1shou
(BF
only
)hand
.4-.
--.
__
,1 4'6
-fAnwn
(BF only)tap
.
-,_
. --
__sun
__tom-
OM
B O
Mwood
--k-
__
shie
eii85
,
sandy%in
s' h
viei
(BF only)water
J-
:2
1
- -A
---
--A
<--
-hwo
,..,
hwii
(BF only)fire
/".
./%12
_)9
-
.,.
Aad
icRank
Ctiinese
Name
"Meaning"
Bound
Forraks)
Left
Rig
htTop
Bot
tom
Oth
er1.
,
,
..
Chy
w ii
'
94
rin
chywIn
(BF only)dog.
1,
way
'.-
-....
to.
-_
96
-.1
yii ,
d.z6
1 ii
(BF only)1-
de
,f,
__
_.
_-
!i
.
,iyan
102
--,
fiel
d--
10t:c
---
,
--.
..
104
bang
chIngr
. sickness
___-
--
.
..-A
,
---_
-
rityin
108
__
diSh
.--
,..,
----
....
_-.
,.m
u..
109
--
eye
eI,
4.3
../T
4
112
__.
istone
__.
if__
--.
.
.
1Radic
Rank
Chinese
Name
"Meaning"
Bound
Form(s)
Left
Right
Top
Bottan
Other'
,
s ik
113
__
spirit
115
h6ma
pang
-rain
__
-ft:
._
l Li
.y :
se
116
sime dl
tOu
(BF only)cave
--
--
--
__
)1
118
jddl t6u
(BF only)-amboo
II-A-
__
__
_ _
__
...
120
jegu
s2
(BF only
silk
//'i
...-
--gz
.71-
elt
rili-
.
1..
i
roux
13oralu
ywe
(BF only)
. .eat
Am
__. )7
A0i
ivau
134
--
.
ortar
--
__
__
fi
...M
.
lete
xo:a
le...
seat
.w4:40d4utee$'
eo.e.&14/44..ezie,Ailakuleestitudiriataiiii..4 ivi4etiScW44Ne.e.eeeeeq'tkelk.K.Mikikii.laUtAitilliWalVearatitagaiaitkaltnili
Radical
-'
Rank
Chinese
Name :
"Meaning"
Bound
Form(s)
Left
Right
Top
Bottom
Other
..
wo
162
'dzXu jf.
(BF only)stop
run and
1......_.-
--
_ _
""
Yi
.
163
seyou er
dau
(BF only)city
'.
__
__
#4 co
-._
ou
164
--
liquor
--
'--
l
167
__
'etal
1-1=
1
..
, ,/
m n
169
__
gate
__
--.
......
.
--
'
. __ .
ell
fOu
.
170
.
azwiSer
dEu
1
(BF only)
.
ound
.
__
.
, __
__
,,
__
..
iwei
172
__
short-
tailed
oird
--
__
API
PM"0
71-7
7177
77"`
"r""
"Tir
mIT
IM74
9/n-
75'''P
ric-
r`"7
1777
7777
7.1r
',7'0
'7'"
"471
r7:
7n.
F.
0 OS
Radical
Oa.
ye
!tank
173
181
Chinese
Name
yid
t6u
(BF only)
'Meaning"
rain
head
184
shf
ON
eat
7Bound
FOrm(s)
ma
nyau
187
195
196
ON
O N
M IP
'
horse
fish
bird
`,.
..
,.
Left
4A_
Right
Top
1 1 S
EIM
Bot
tom
.111
11.
1 '67
./e.
Other
MO
. 011
11
OM
..
O I.
(
Yrt
fl*1
4:11
FT.
los
..:M
7717
r1"7
.7,7
1nr"
Imr-
--77
:77m
mw
r,,,r
min
"r%
17:1
3r7=
kr.,
"