Motivation

Motivation defined

Motivation refers to the individual forces that account for the

direction, level, and persistence of a persons effort expended at

work.

Direction refers to an individuals choice when presented with

number of possible alternatives.

Level refers to the amount of effort a person puts forth.

Persistence refers to the length of time a person sticks with a

given action.

Types of motivation theories

Content theories of motivation focus primarily on individual

needs that is, physiological or psychological deficiencies that we

feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate. The content theories try

to explain work behaviors based on pathways to need satisfaction

and the influence of blocked needs.

Process theories of motivation focus on the thought or

cognitive processes that take place within the minds of people and

that influence their behavior. Whereas a content approach may

identify job security as an important individual need a process

approach would probe further to identify why the person decides

to behave in certain ways relative to available rewards and work

opportunities.

Content theories suggest that motivation results from our

attempts to satisfy important needs. They suggest that managers

should be able to understand individual needs and to create work

environments that respond positively to them.

Hierarchy of needs theory

The concept of a needs ―hierarchy‖ assumes that some needs are

more important than others and must be satisfied before the other

needs can serve as motivators.

Needs theories of motivation

Figure 5.1 Higher-order and Lower-order needs in Maslow's

hierarchy of needs.

Self-ActualizationHighest need level; need to fulfill oneself; to grow and

use abilities to fullest and most creative extent

EsteemNeed for esteem of others; respect, prestige, recognition,

need for self-esteem, personal sense of competence,

mastery

SocialNeed for love, affection, sense of belongingness in ones

relationships with other persons

SafetyNeed for security , protection, and stability in the physical

and interpersonal events of day-to-day life

PhysiologicalMost basic of all human needs; need for biological

maintenance; need for food, water, and sustenance

Higher-order

needs

Lower-order

needs

If anything, the needs are more likely to operate in a flexible rather

than in a strict, step-by sequence.

Some research suggests that Higher-order needs (esteem and

self-actualization) tend to become more important than Lower-

order needs (psychological, safety, and social) as individuals

move up the corporate ladder.

Social needs tend to take on higher importance in more collectivist

societies, such as Mexico and Pakistan, than in individualistic

ones like the united states.

Clayton Alderfer's ERG Theory is also based on needs, but it

differs from Maslow's theory in three respects.

First, ERG Theory collapses Maslow's five needs categories into

three:

Existence needs, desires for physiological and material well-

being; relatedness needs, desires for satisfying interpersonal

relationships; growth needs, desires for continued personal

growth and development.

Second, ERG Theory emphasizes a unique frustration-regression

component.

Third, unlike Maslow's theory, ERG theory contends that more

than one need may be activated at same time.

ERG Theory

The TAT is a projective technique that asks people to view pictures and write stories about what they see

McClelland identified themes in the Tat stories that he believed correspond to needs that are acquired over time as a result of our life experiences.

Need for achievement (nach)

Is the desire to do something better or more efficiently to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

Need for affiliation (nAff)

Is the desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others.

Need for power (nPower)

Is the desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.

Acquired Needs Theory

Frederick Herzberg took yet another approach to examining the link

between individuals needs and motivation.

Two-factor theory, also known as the motivator-hygiene theory, because

this theory identifies two different factors as primary causes of job

satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.

Hygiene factors are sources of job dissatisfaction, and they are

associated the job context or work setting. That is, they relate more to

the environment in which people work than to the nature of the work

itself.

The two-factor theory suggests that job dissatisfaction results when

hygiene factors are poor. But it also suggests that improving the hygiene

factors will only decrease job dissatisfaction; it will not increase job

satisfaction.

Two-Factor Theory

Figure 5.2 Sources of dissatisfaction and satisfaction in

Herzberg's two-factors theory.

Hygiene factors in job context

affect job dissatisfaction

Organizational policies

Quality of supervision

Working conditions

Base wage or salary

Relationships with peers

Relationships with

subordinates

Status

Security

Motivator factors in job content

affect job satisfaction

Achievement

Recognition

Work itself

Responsibility

Advancement

Growth

Herzberg found that a low base salary or wage makes people

dissatisfied, but that playing more does not necessarily satisfy or

motivate them.

Motivator factorsAre sources of job satisfaction. These factors are related to job content – what people actually do in their work. They include such things as a sense of achievement, opportunities for personal growth, recognition, and responsibility. According to the two-factors theory, the presence or absence of satisfiers or motivators in peoples jobs is the key to satisfaction, motivation, and performance. When motivator factors are minimal, low job satisfaction decreases motivation and performance; when motivator factors are substantial, high job satisfaction raises motivation and performance.

Herzberg suggests the technique of job enrichment as a way of building satisfiers into job content.

―If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do.‖ by Herzberg

It is criticized as being method bound, or replicate when Herzberg's original methods are used.

Equity theory (As applied to workplace through the writing of J. Stacy

Adams, equity theory argues that any perceived inequity becomes a

motivating state of mind; in others words, people are motivated to

behave in ways that restore or maintain equity in situations.

Equity and social comparisons

The basic foundation of equity theory is social comparison.

Equity theory predictions

Perceived inequity occurs when someone believes that the rewards

received for his or her work contributions compare unfavorably to the

rewards others people appear to have received for their work. The basis

equity comparison can be summarized as follows;

Individuals outcomes > others outcomes

Individuals efforts < others efforts

Equity Theory Of Motivation

Felt negative inequity in the equation exists when an individuals

feels that he or she has received relatively less than others have

in proportion to work inputs.

Felt positive inequity exists when an individuals feels that he or she

has received relatively more than on others have.

When either feeling exists, the theory states that people will be

motivated to act in ways that remove the discomfort and restore a

sense of felt equity.

You can view the equity comparison as intervening between the

allocation of rewards and the ultimate motivational impact impact

for the recipient.

Reward

receivedEquity

comparison

Motivational

impact of

reward

That is:

A reward given by a team leader and expected to be highly

motivational to a team member. For example, may or may not

work as intended.

Equity theory reminds us that the motivational value of rewards is

determined by individuals interpretation in the context of social

comparison.

In more collective cultures, such as those of many Asian

countries, the concern often runs more for equality than equity.

One of the basic elements of equity theory is the fairness with which people perceive are being treated.

Organizational justice—how fair and equitable people view the practices of their workplace.

Procedural justice is the degree to which the rules and procedures specified by policies are properly followed in all cases to which they are applied.

Distributive justice is the degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age, or any other demographic characteristic.

Interactional justice is the degree to which the people affected by a decision are treated with dignity and respect.

Equity Theory and Organizational justice

Expectancy theory. It posits that motivation is a result of a rational

calculation—people will do what they can do when want to do it.

Figure 5.3 key terms and managerial implications of vrooms

expectancy theory.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

People exert

Work effort

Task

performance

Work-related

outcomes

Expectancy

Select capable

Workers, train

them, set clear

goals

Instrumentality

Clarify possible

Rewards for

performance, give

performance-

contingent rewards

Valence

Identify needs and

match rewards to

needs

In expectancy theory, and as summarized in figure 5.3, a person is motivated to the degree that he or she believes that

(1) effort will yield acceptable performance (expectancy).

(2) performance will be rewarded (instrumentality).

(3) the value of the rewards is highly positive (valence).

Expectancy is the probability assigned by an individual that work effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance. Expectancy would equal zero if the person felt it were impossible to achieve the given performance level; it would equal one of a person were 100 percent certain that the performance could be achieved.

Instrumentality is the probability assigned by the individual that a given level of a achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes.

Valence is the value attached by the individual to various work outcomes.

Motivation = Expectancy X Instrumentality X Valence

Expectancy Terms and Concepts

Expectancy theory predicts that motivation to work hard to earn the merit pay will be low if expectancy is low—a person feels that he or she cannot achieve the necessary performance level.

Motivation will also be low if instrumentality is low—the person is not confident a high level of task performance will result in a high merit pay raise.

Motivation will also be low if valence is low—the person places little value on a merit pay increase.

Motivation will be low if any combination of these exists.

A zero at any location on the right side of the expectancy equation will result in zero motivation.

Expectancy Theory Predictions

To influence expectancies, the advice is to select people with

proper abilities, train them well, support them with needed

resources, and identify clear performance goals.

To influence instrumentality, the advice is to clarify performance-

reward relationships, and then to confirm or live up to them when

rewards are actually given for performance accomplishments.

To influence valences, the advice is to identify the needs that are

important to each individual and then try to adjust available

rewards to match these needs.

Expectancy Implications and Research

Goals are important aspects of motivation, and yet they often go unaddressed. Without clear goals, employees may suffer direction problems; when goals are both clear and properly set employees may be highly motivated to move in the direction of goal accomplishment.

Motivational Properties of Goals

Goal setting is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing.

Goal-Setting Guidelines

Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are less difficult ones.

Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are no goals or vague or very general ones.

Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation

Task feedback, or knowledge or results, is likely to motivate people toward higher performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance goals.

Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy required to accomplish them.

Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance when they are accepted and there is commitment to them.

Goal Setting and the Management Process

Goals launch the process during planning, provide critical focal points for organizing and leading, and then facilitate controlling to make sure the desired outcomes are achieved.

One approach that integrates goals across these management functions is known as management by objective, or MBO, for short.

MBO is essentially a process of joint goal setting between managers and those who report to them.

MBO also helps clarify hierarchy o objectives as a series of

Well-defined means-ends chains.

Figure 5.4 how a management by objectives process

works.

Manager

Team

member

Jointly establish

Performance

goals

Team member

actively

Participates in

Developing

Performance

goals

Jointly evaluate

Results and

recycle

Process

Team member

actively

participates in

performance

review

Individually act

Team member

Performs tasks

while

Manager

coaches

And provides

support