Preview Starting Points Map: European Centers of Learning Main Idea / Reading Focus

Section 1Enlightenment and Revolution


Preview• Starting Points Map: European Centers of Learning• Main Idea / Reading Focus • Dawn of Modern Science• Quick Facts: The Scientific Method• Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math

The Scientific Revolution

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Preview, continued• Discoveries in Biology and Chemistry• Science and Society • Faces of History: Galileo Galilei• Quick Facts: Causes and Effects of the Scientific Revolution


Section 1Enlightenment and RevolutionClick the icon to play Listen to History audio.

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Reading Focus• What changes led to the dawn of modern science?• What discoveries occurred in astronomy, physics, and math during

the Scientific Revolution?• How did early scientists advance knowledge in biology and

chemistry?• How did scientific ideas move beyond the realm of science and affect

society?

Main IdeaNew ways of thinking led to remarkable discoveries during the Scientific Revolution.



Some Middle Ages scholars sought answers about the natural world from the church. In the mid-1500s, others began to think in new ways.

• Scholars relied on traditional authorities for beliefs about structure of universe

• Geocentric theory, Aristotle– Earth center of universe– Sun, moon, planets revolved

around sun• Ideas upheld by church,

accepted authority for European intellectuals

The Old View• Scholars began to challenge

traditional authorities, 1500s• Scientific Revolution, new

way of thinking• Posed theories, developed

procedures to test ideas• Why open to new ideas?

– Exploration – New lands, new people, new

animals

New Viewpoints

Dawn of Modern Science


Dawn of Modern Science

Ancient scholars could provide no information about new lands, people, animals

• Age of Exploration led scientists to study natural world more closely

• Other things to be discovered, things unknown to ancients

• Navigators needed more accurate instruments, geographic knowledge

• Scientists examined natural world, found it did not match ancient beliefs


• Francis Bacon, experimentation to gain scientific knowledge

• Rene Descartes, reason key• Believed everything should be

doubted until proved by reason• Relied on math, logic• Ideas of both continue to

influence modern scientific methods

Scientific Method Scholars

• Scientific Method• Identify problem• Form hypothesis• Perform experiments to test

hypothesis• Record results• Analyze results, form

conclusion

New Approach to InvestigationThe Scientific Method



Find the Main Idea

What was the Scientific Revolution?


Early scientists• Made significant contributions in astronomy, physics and math• Began to explain complexities of solar system, limits of physical world• Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer, among first

Copernicus’ theory• Idea of earth orbiting sun was not completely new• Copernicus developed detailed mathematical explanation of process• Was first scientist to create complete model of solar system

Copernicus• Found geocentric theory of movement of sun, moon, planets not accurate• Concluded sun, not earth, near center of solar system• Heliocentric theory, earth revolves around sun

Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math


Weaknesses of theory• Mathematical formulas did not predict positions of planets well• Copernicus did not want to be ridiculed for weaknesses• Died 1543 after work published, other scientists expanded on ideas

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres• Copernicus’ famous book not published until last year of his life• Knew church would oppose work• Work contradicted teachings of church


Brahe, Danish Astronomer• Wrote book proving bright object over Denmark sky was newly visible

star• Called it supernova, distant exploding star suddenly visible on earth• Book impressed Denmark’s King Frederick II• Gave Brahe money to build two observatories

• Brahe used observatories• Developed system to explain

planetary movement• Believed sun revolved around earth• Other five known planets revolved

around sun

Observations

• Hired as Brahe’s assistant to form mathematical theory from measurements of planets

• Published result of measurements of orbit of Mars after Brahe’s death

Kepler, German Mathematician

Brahe and Kepler


Kepler’s Solution

Kepler solved main problem of Copernican theory

• Copernicus assumed planets orbited in circle• Kepler found assumption untrue• Proved planets orbited in oval pattern, ellipse• Wanted to prove Copernicus wrong, instead proved

heliocentric theory correct• Kepler’s mathematical solar system model also correct


More support• Italian scientist Galileo Galilei • Built first telescope used for

astronomy• Scanned heavens beginning in

1609

Change in science world• Isaac Newton, English scientist • Brought together astronomy,

physics, math• Wondered about gravity

Starry Messenger• Galileo described discoveries • Craters on moon, sunspots• Saturn, moons of Jupiter• Milky Way made up of stars

Principia• Book explained law of universal

gravitation • Gravity affects objects on earth,

also in universe• Keeps planets in orbit

Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math


Newton’s Findings

Newton developed calculus, new kind of math• Used calculus to predict effects of gravity• German philosopher Gottfried von Leibniz also developed

calculus at same time• Each accused the other of plagiarism• Historians believe it was simple case of independent

discovery


Contrast

How did Copernicus and Brahe differ in their views of the universe?

Answer(s):


Just as astronomers moved away from the works of ancient Greeks, other scientists used the scientific method to acquire new knowledge and make great discoveries in the fields of Biology and Chemistry.

• European Middle Ages doctors relied on Greek, Galen

• Galen’s works inaccurate

• Flemish doctor Andreas Vesalius became known for work in anatomy

Biology• Used bodies of

executed criminals for dissection

• Hired artists to produce accurate drawings

• On the Workings of the Human Body, 1543

Vesalius• English physician,

early 1600s• Observed, explained

workings of human heart

• Described blood, circulatory system functions

William Harvey

Discoveries in Biology and Chemistry


Robert Hooke• English physician, inventor• Used early microscope to describe appearance of plants at

microscopic level• Credited with creating the term cell

Antony van Leeuwenhoek• Dutch scientist, 1600s• Used interest in developing magnifying lens to invent microscope• First to describe appearance of bacteria, red blood cells, yeast, other

microorganisms


• French chemist, 1700s• Developed methods for precise

measurements• Discovered law of Conservation

of Mass, proved matter could not be created, destroyed

• Recognized, named oxygen, introduced metric system, invented first periodic table

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier• Father of modern chemistry• First to define element• The Sceptical Chemist, 1661,

described matter as cluster of tiny particles (now called atoms)

• Changes in matter occurred when clusters rearranged

• Boyle’s law - temperature, volume, pressure affect gases

Robert BoyleChemistry


Summarize

What were the major contributions made in biology and chemistry?

Answer(s):


The church feared reason as an enemy of faith, but eventually began to embrace some of the achievements of the Scientific Revolution.

As science assumed greater significance, the question of the role of the Roman Catholic Church in a changing culture became important. While the church opposed the views of many scientists, it benefited from new discoveries that made Renaissance art and architecture possible.

• Church most powerful institution in Europe, Middle Ages

• Primary resource for knowledge, learning

• Cathedral schools, universities trained people to run the church

Science and the Church

Science and Society

• Most scientists did not want to challenge role of Christianity

• Church explained world through inspiration, revealed truth

• Science explained world through logical reasoning

Conflicts


Galileo’s Theories• Brought him into direct conflict with the church• Church leaders pressured him not to support ideas of Copernicus• Dialogue concerning Two Chief World Systems, 1632, showed support

House Arrest• Galileo stated would not use Copernican theory in work• Received lenient sentence in return• Pope ordered Galileo under house arrest, where he spent rest of life

Trial• Pope Urban VII ordered Galileo to Rome to stand trial before Inquisition• Church wanted to stamp out heresy, or dissenting views• Trial held, April 1633

Science and the Church



Renaissance• Study of art, architecture not

separate from study of science• Artists learned anatomy in order

to paint the body

Architecture• Mathematics, physics crucial to

great architecture• Also used in engineering

achievements of the time

Artists• Experimented with chemistry of

paints, nature of light • Used math to create

compositions of perfect balance

Science and religion• Combined to produce great

artistic achievements of Renaissance

• Most art, architecture dedicated to glory of God

Science and Art


Science and Community

Scientific Revolution established new way of thinking about physical world

• Great advances made in astronomy, physics, biology, chemistry

• Advances influenced developments in arts, architecture• Impact of Scientific Revolution soon would cause

philosophers, scholars to wonder if reason could solve poverty, war, ignorance



Draw Conclusions

How did the Scientific Revolution have an impact beyond the realm of science?

Answer(s):

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