PRIMARY SCHOOLS AS COMMUNITY BASED
ORGANIZATIONS
This research was funded by the CfBT Research and Development Committee
'While CfBT has funded this project, the contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the
views of CfBT.
Project: COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS STUDY
Prepared By: Isaac Luginaah, PhD
Eleanor Maticka-Tyndale, PhD
Contributions From: Wambui Kairi
Contract #: CfBT CBO1
Contract Name: University of Windsor (UOW)
ii
Table of Contents
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………….……iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY………………………………………………………………………iv
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………….……..1
LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………………3
METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………………………13
Quantitative Study……………………………………………………………………….13
Qualitative Study……………………………………………………………………...…15
RESULTS……………………………………………………………………………...………...16
Quantitative Study……………………………………………………………………….16
Qualitative Study………………………………………………………………………...20
GUIDELINES FOR INCORPORATING SCHOOLS IN
COMMUNITY-BASED INITIATIVES ……………………………………………………….27
MAIN FINDINGS……………………………………………………………………………….33
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………..36
Appendix A - Thematic Recoding ……………………………………………………………...37
Appendix B - Statistical Recodes……………………………………………………………….41
Appendix C - Proposed Questions for Follow-up Qualitative Study………………………...…42
- Head Teacher/Other Teacher
- Member of School Management Committee
- Community Leader
Appendix D - Regression Results……………………………………………………………….47
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CBO ...............................................................Community Based Organization
CBOs .............................................................Community Based Organizations
CfBT ...............................................................Centre for British Teachers
CDA…………………………………………Community Development Assistance
CDTF .............................................................Community development Trust Fund
EEC ................................................................European Economic Community
GOK ...............................................................Government of Kenya
GSI .................................................................Gender Sensitive Initiative
GTZ ................................................................German technical Cooperation
HIV/AIDS ......................................................Human Immuno Deficiency Virus/Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome
HT…………………………………………...Head Teacher
KANU ...........................................................Kenya African National Union
KREP .............................................................Kenya Rural Enterprise Program
KOSME..........................................................Kenya Organization of Small and Micro Enterprise
KWFT……………………………………….Kenya Women Finance Trust
KCDF .............................................................Kenya Development Foundation
KDDP .............................................................Kilifi District Development Programme
LASDAP ……………………………………Local Authority Service Delivery Action Plans
LLI .................................................................Local Level Institution
MCHS ............................................................Ministry of Culture, Heritage and Sports
MHAGSC …………………………………. Ministry of Home Affairs, Gender Sports and Culture
PAG ...............................................................Pastoralist Association Group
PRSP ..............................................................Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
PRA ................................................................Participatory Rural Appraisal
PSABH ...........................................................Primary School Action for Better health
PTA …………………………………………Parent Teacher Association
SACCO ..........................................................Saving and Credit Cooperative
SES…………………………………………..Socioeconomic Status
SMC ……………………………………….. School Management Committee
TIQUET .........................................................Total Integrated Quality Education and Training
VDC ...............................................................Village Development Committee
WAC .............................................................Welfare Association Committee
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Similar to other parts of the world, community-based organizations (CBO) in Kenya frequently
take on different titles and functions including support groups, civil rights groups, women’s
organizations, education groups, lobbying groups, and self-help groups. Since each organization
is based in and supported by its own local community, there is a great diversity in the ways that
each CBO is constructed and operates. However, ultimately each group aims to improve the
living situations of its members through the activities developed by the organizations, and
therefore, can play an important role in the overall operation of the community.
The concept of CBO schools, which are generally self-financed, has been in existence for
more than two decades. Such organizations have been known to provide learning opportunities
that have: helped to increase the self-sufficiency of the members most in need; increased the
diversity of the educational experience through community based activities and helped young
people contribute to the wider community. This study used both quantitative and qualitative
methods to investigate the extent to which government primary schools can take on activities
beyond their day-to-day functioning and play the role of CBOs in their various communities
within Kenya.
Quantitative results are based on 163 schools in Nyanza Province, most of which had
been either intervention (n=80) or control (n=80) school in the evaluation of a CfBT project on
delivering HIV/AIDS education to upper primary pupils. Qualitative results are based on 8
schools, 7 of which were purposively selected from the larger sample.
From both the quantitative and qualitative analysis, it is clear that most schools in Kenya
are already involved in community-based activities in one way or the other. Almost all of the
schools in this study expressed their willingness to make their facilities available to their
communities for various activities such as Harambees (community-based fundraising activities).
Schools as CBOs - Enabling Characteristics
The influence of Primary School Action for Better Health (PSABH) on school involvement in
CBO activities:
In schools where teachers and community representatives were trained through the
PSABH program, this training increased teachers’ level of involvement and interest in
CBO- related activities.
Such schools were more likely to take up CBO activities in their communities.
Hence, providing teachers and community representatives with some form of training
contributes to schools function as CBOs.
Other enabling characteristics of schools that were involved in CBO-related activities were:
Higher level of parent involvement in Parent Teacher Association (PTA).
Larger number and frequency of PTA meetings held by the school.
Availability of funds from an external source/sponsor.
Involvement of religious organizations in the school.
Having church-based sponsors.
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Having a strong commitment from the school’s Head Teacher (HT) to community-based
activities.
Have teachers that are mostly from the local community.
In addition, for effective school involvement in community-based work:
Regular feedback between HT, School Management Committee (SMC) and PTA.
Involvement of SMC to lessen burden on HT and other Teachers.
Quick implementation of programs to prevent misappropriation of funds by all those
involved.
We noted that schools that are performing well overall are likely to be successful in community-
based work. Therefore, linking community-based programmes to overall performance of schools
may be necessary if they are to be involved and successful in carrying out community-based
activities.
Schools as CBOs - Inhibiting Characteristics
Several “disenabling” characteristics or situations were noted and should receive careful
attention:
Government policy of free education has had a negative effect on the sense of community
ownership and responsibility for their schools. Communities are now less willing to
participate in school activities, especially those involving monetary contributions.
Both schools and communities are overwhelmed with the growing number of orphans.
Lack of funds impedes community activities.
Teachers may be over worked.
Lack of interest from HT.
Lack of programming (design, implementation and evaluation) skills.
Most schools are understaffed.
Opportunities for School Involvement
Stakeholders recommend that schools venture into development education geared towards the
change of attitudes. Schools are encouraged to target, among others, retrogressive and outdated
cultures like girl child discrimination, wife inheritance and witchcraft and development in
general. The school is a central contact point for the community and well placed to conduct
Information Communication Technology (ICT) programs. They can also transfer improved
technologies and survival skills to an already defined target group, the parents. Selection criteria
for activities could include:
Activities which are beneficial to both school and community.
Do not require too much teacher input since time is limited.
Activities which add value to the school curriculum and expose pupils and community to
more practical and experiential learning.
Not necessarily based in school, but preferable.
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Not involving child labor.
With a lifeline extending beyond one year.
Guidelines for Incorporating Schools as CBOs
Drawing from the findings, the guidelines proposed below could be used as the basis for
incorporating schools as more central players in community-based initiatives.
A school must be identified by a community as their own.
The HT has to demonstrate a strong commitment to CBO-related activities.
Both the SMC and PTA must be supportive and frequently involved in school activities.
Programme management skills among HT and SMC must be assessed and gaps filled.
Teachers in the school already have some training such as the one from PSABH or are
willing to be trained on CBO-related work (training teachers and community
representatives together in an initiative that is identified as their joint responsibility may
also be important).
The school must be adequately staffed to avoid over-working the teachers.
Support needs to be given in facilitating identification of, and prioritization between,
education and community needs.
Availability of funds either through a sponsor or otherwise.
Schools can work effectively as a community-based organization in so far as a CBO is an
administrative unit that can lead a social development initiative and manage all aspects of the
process from planning to financial management, liaison, implementation and reporting.
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INTRODUCTION
Background
The primary school in the Kenyan context is a long-standing institution and one of the
central units in a community. Everyone in a Kenyan village has some relationship with the
primary school, whether as a pupil, prospective parent, employee, supplier etc. As such many of
the schools in Kenya have a powerful connection to the local community, particularly in rural
areas. Schools offer a consistent and well-structured infrastructure that can lead, administer,
monitor and report on a series of planned activities. As in many countries, the school network in
Kenya is far flung, reaching into many rural areas that are often poorly-served by other
communication networks.
CfBT is currently managing an HIV/AIDS education intervention in Kenyan primary
schools. Under this intervention, called Primary School Action for Better Health (PSABH), a
community representative is included in a team of 3 representatives from each of the schools
funded to take part in a two-week training programme. During the training programme the
schools are encouraged to work in close partnership with their neighbouring communities to
address issues relating to HIV prevention and care of those affected by the pandemic. The need
to study further the potential of schools to work effectively in close partnership with
communities arose from PSABH and the realization that the effects of HIV cannot be
successfully addressed without a collaborative approach that can access the maximum resources
available to that school and its community. Using quantitative and qualitative research methods
to better understand the school and community interactions that had been observed empirically,
effort has been made to make these insights useful and accessible to those working in other
contexts.
With the view that schools may possess CBO-related characteristics, the question raised
for this research is whether or not schools could function as CBOs by providing resources for
community programmes that extend beyond the fundamental needs of the educational process.
Within this framework, the schools act as organizations interested primarily in activities that are
beneficial to their members (the pupils) while working within, and providing resources and
services that are beneficial to, the greater community in which the school exists. The activities
undertaken by the school can take various forms ranging from agricultural activities to health
care depending on both the educational opportunities the activities may provide and the needs of
the community itself.
Since there are obvious benefits to both the students and community for engaging in such
activities, exploring this potential role for the school can provide important insights on furthering
the self-sustaining potential of both youth and community members, particularly in settings
where communal needs are not adequately provided for by governmental, NGO or other service
organizations. The recognition of the usefulness of providing policy-makers, funders, and
community leaders with information about the potential for schools to meet the educational
needs of the students while also contributing to the social, economic, cultural, medical, and other
needs of the community through the students and the resources of the school itself resulted in this
research, with the following specific objectives:
To investigate the kind of community development initiatives a primary school could
undertake effectively in the context of a community organization.
2
To investigate the extent to which the PSABH has been able to stimulate schools to play
the role of community development in comparison to other community initiatives.
To document a set of guidelines to support development agencies in incorporating
schools as more central players in the community-based initiatives.
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LITERATURE REVIEW1
Historical Background of CBOs in Kenya
According to Chitere (1994) community development work in Kenya during the colonial
period was carried out by social welfare organizations. In 1954, the Social Welfare Organization
became one of the departments of the then newly created Ministry of Community Development.
At the beginning, social welfare work was concentrated around social (community) centres (or
halls) with their dominant objective to uplift the economic and social wellbeing of communities
through informal education, and social and recreational facilities. Community development
assistants (CDA) managed the centers. Other activities included training leaders and craftsmen
in various types of trades. The department also encouraged self-help work among African
women, which culminated in the formation of Maendeleo ya Wanawake Organization in 1951.
The term community based organization, as a development term, appears to have been
institutionalized among development agents in the early 1990’s as a shopping basket for
alternative institutions through which development programs could be carried out. Historically,
CBOs have evolved around key sectors, particularly the management and development of
community resources such as water, grazing land and sacred forests. The Kaya of the Mijikenda
and the Njuri Ncheke of Meru are still strong cultural and environment CBOs in that category.
Other major associational life was around cultural celebrations and rites of passage, e.g., funerals
and marriage. They still persist with variations in different communities. Because of the hard
economic times and the changing social patterns, CBOs have attempted to respond appropriately.
Their structures have evolved to embrace other objectives beyond social welfare issues to the
provision of goods and services and participation in national development. CBOs have emerged
that focus on governance and human rights, small enterprise, health and HIV/AIDS education,
agriculture, shelter and sanitation etc. In Kenya, most CBOs were formed between 1995 and
2000. For instance, in a survey of 827 women’s groups in Nyeri and Suba District, 60 % of them
were formed between 1996 and 2000.
The cause of this upsurge was the failure of traditional government institutions to deliver
services down to the grassroots level. Local associations became the social infrastructure for the
external agencies to manage community activities at the local level. An additional impetus was
that it was becoming more apparent that top down development had not achieved the expected
success and it was therefore necessary to involve the communities in identifying their needs and
participating in deciding how those needs could be addressed. A deteriorating economy also
meant that there was a need for local communities to pool resources together as a survival
strategy.
Another reason that led to the upsurge in the number of CBOs was the political
maneuvering of the then ruling party, KANU, to control and entice women’s groups to support it.
In 1997 the government (KANU) had launched the Women Group Harambee Fund. This saw
hundreds of Women’s Groups formed in order to access the promised funds. Many did not get
the funds and others even lost their savings, but KANU got the votes in the 1997 elections.
Finally, there was also a re-emergence of support to the Jua Kali sector with funds from the
World Bank, UNIDO and micro-enterprise credit NGOs like KWFT and K-REP. Indeed in 1997,
1 This literature review is a modified version of a previous review that was done by Kairi (2003).
4
the Ministry of Research, Training and Technology mobilized many artisans to form associations
in anticipation of the Word Bank funds.
Definition of CBOs
Within the development sector, the term CBO has been used rather superfluously. It is
common to find the term used interchangeably with other terms such as civil society
organizations, grassroots organizations, local level institutions, self-help groups, village
development committees etc. According to McCormick et al (2001), community based
organization denotes the existence of an organized institution of a homogenous group of people
living together and sharing common aspirations within defined boundaries. CBOs (formal or
informal) are usually membership organizations made up of a group of individuals in a self-
defined community who have come together to further specific interests. They consist of people
who live close to one another, in a given community or village. CBOs can also be individuals
united by a specific interest, but who do not live in the same geographic community. CBOs are
voluntary and choose their own objectives based on the needs of their communities. CBOs can
stand alone, or they can be connected to federations of groups at the regional, national, or
international level. Kopiyo and Mukui (2001) refer to them as local level institutions existing
below local government at supra-community, often linking small communities together. They
are largely made up of a membership of local residents, in which people participate for a range of
reasons. Since these primary groups may have no legal status, relationship between members is
based on trust.
CBOs are distinct from other NGOs in that they are membership organizations striving to
further the interests of their own members, while NGOs have a broader scope of activities that
may assist CBOs and pursue interests that do not directly benefit their members (World Bank,
2003). The NGO Council of Kenya refers to CBOs as simply ‘those grassroots organizations that
are not registered as NGOs under the NGO Act of 1990’s. Due to this narrow view of the CBO
institution, the council has not considered them for capacity strengthening assistance enjoyed by
the NGOs. The only time a CBO may have contact with the NGO Council is through affiliation
with a member NGO.
Other definitions of CBOs have been provided in the literature. Building Donor
Partnerships (2001) defines CBOs as grassroots groups that often emerge through schools,
churches and communities, cultural activities. CBOs may or may not be formally registered as
NGOs. They can be based purely on volunteer participation and contributions, on membership
and membership fees, or on fund-raising that is organized by the community. For an
organization to be community based, it must have originated in a community and its community
members must be responsible for the decision making process (UNICEF, 1999; Seattle
Community Network, 2003). A particular strength of CBOs is that community members are in
the best position to identify and monitor developing situations and channel essential material
support. They are the first to respond to the needs of their communities and provide direct help
and assistance.
In Kenya, the Ministry of Home Affairs, Gender Sports and Culture (MHAGSC) is the
registering authority for CBOs. They classify CBOs as welfare and self-help groups operating at
the community level. They expect them to have a management structure with a minimum of
three people, an identified activity and to pay a registration fee of five hundred shillings.
Different communities in the country have definitions and terms for community association as an
5
institution. At the national level, the Harambee (pulling together) has been the rallying point for
pooling community resources for development. Many of the schools in Kenya were built
through this strategy. Different regions have local terms that define community organization e.g.
the Kambas of Eastern Province have ‘Mwethya’ and ‘Wikyatwo’ among the Kikuyus the
‘ngwataniro’ and the Kishwahili ‘muungano’. When CBOs are asked to define themselves, they
use phrases like, “we know each other, we live together in the same village, we fought for uhuru
(independence), we have acrobatic skills, we are faced by the same problems of insecurity and
poverty, we rely on ourselves, we do not have much money or jobs, our relatives have died of
HIV/AIDS etc” One thing is clear from the above statements, the physical proximity, common
felt needs, existence of certain skills and mutual self-reliance are basic considerations in forming
a local association or CBO.
In all cases, the choice of and definition of CBOs is mainly influenced by the specific
sectoral project they wish to implement. There are, however, specific elements that both local
and international organizations repeatedly highlight as descriptive of CBOs:
Are localized within a regional area starting from a neighborhood to the divisional level
Have a type of registration
Are managed by local members resident in the community
Have a management structure
Serve community common good rather than individual
Have popular support from the community
Have a reasonable level of capacity to carry out the activities proposed
Have a bank account
Use resources within the community
Types and Scope of CBOs
There are two types of CBOs operating in Kenya. The first are the independent primary
associations that are formed and managed by the local members using their own resources for the
benefit of their members. Membership in these organizations is voluntary and may be open or
closed. Usually, activities revolve around mutual support or what Kopiyo and Mukui (2001)
refer to as the ‘moral economy of the peasant’. They may get external support but they seldom
change their core activity even after getting involved in activities of an external agency. External
involvement may blur their vision, but they do not lose site of primary objectives. We shall call
these primary CBOs. A good example is Kuku Women Group that was formed in 1978. They
started as a ‘Merry Go Round’2 group and have eventually branched into income generation and
urban agriculture but still maintain the Merry Go Round. Within the CBO spectrum, formation of
primary groups has emanated from felt needs to address intrinsic social and economic problems
in their neighborhoods. Membership is voluntary and no incentive is required. They are
demand driven.
The second category includes those that are created by external agencies (or with their
influence) as vehicles of delivery of community development in the community. They may get
external support in the form of capacity building, project funds on the basis of project proposals
and the creation of social capital at the local level. Often leaders of these CBOs are chosen
2 Members of a Merry Go Round group contribute a fixed sum to a common collection point on a monthly basis.
Each member receives a lump sum derived from these contribution on a rotation basis.
6
through a delegate system. They have no other activity besides the one for which they were
created, but individuals could belong to other primary groups. Although membership is
voluntary, those seeking it may have to comply with the dictates of the external agency. We shall
call these secondary CBOs. Kopiyo and Mukui (2001) refer to them as a form of social
infrastructure started by external agents to manage community activities at the local level. They
could address multiple needs and may federate or form umbrella organizations. Secondary CBOs
are formed as a reaction to an opportunity presented by an external agency. They are service
driven. Membership is voluntary but may be expected to conform to certain external agency
norms.
The different types of CBOs fall into one or more of the following categories:
Women groups - consisting of women only or with few men as members.
Self help groups - usually carrying out activities whose benefits may accrue primarily to
themselves but extend to the wider community e.g., water groups.
Mutual support - usually more closed and reciprocal relationships
Income generation and credit groups e.g., ROSCAS, Merry go Rounds, SACCO
Religious groups – based on denomination of their local church.
Cultural groups – based on ethnicity and skills.
Trade and cooperatives – based on economic sectors and skills e.g., the Wamunyu Wood
Carvers Cooperative Society.
Development committees – responding to externally driven agenda.
In their study of local level institutions (LLIs) in Kenya, Kopiyo and Mukui (2001)
concluded that “the spatial scope of a truly indigenous LLI seemed to depend on the localized
concept of space that define neighbors. In the four districts that constitute the Kamba country,
their concept of space allows a person residing 30 kms away to be considered a neighbor while
the corresponding distance in Kikuyu country may be as low as 3 kms”. Scope could also be
limited by homogeneity of needs. This is particularly so in the urban areas where CBO activities
revolve around water and sanitation, neighborhood security, and shelter among others.
Characteristics of CBOs
The entrance of external agencies into the community development process in the
Kenyan context had an effect on characteristics of CBOs. Table 1 below provides the
characteristics of primary and secondary CBOs. These characteristics have enabled CBOs to be
effective in keeping communities surviving especially in hard economic times. They have also
been instrumental in providing community services that were otherwise supposed to be provided
by the government.
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Table 1: Characteristics of CBOs PRIMARY CBOS SECONDARY CBOS
Mostly initiated by a charismatic individual Mostly initiated by an external agency or local
administrator
Non Governmental As above
Are inclusive Could be exclusive
Self funded with sporadic injection of funds from external sources Funds are externally generated
Low capital base and difficulties in accessing credit Well funded and could be guaranteed to access
capital by the external agency
Have laid down procedures for sanctions against erring members and
leaders
As above
Most members have low level of education and are not likely to compete
effectively in the job markets. Youth groups have reasonably educated
men and women especially in the urban areas
As above
Dependent on trust among members Use well organized structures plus trust
Use traditional methods of managing community resources Use both modern and traditional
Use low technology May experiment on new untested technology
because risk is covered by external agency
Are accountable to themselves
(downward accountability)
are accountable to the external agency (upward
accountability)
Are sensitive to particular circumstances
(as disease disability and age)
Are specifically task oriented and bound by time
and resources (inflexible)
There is no correlation between the time of formation and that of
registration. Registration done upon perceived benefit from outside
group. Could operate without registration
Registration is a basic requirement
Most CBOs were formed between 1995-2000 As above
Very rarely uses employees May use employees and consultants
Face to face transactions
Sole benefit of members
As above
Management committees exist As above
Elections are held using consensus by show of hands or secret ballot Use consensus or secret ballot but may be
influenced by external agency norms
No AGMS or Boards of trustees May be required to have them by the external
agency for expediency and accountability
purposes
Registered with department of Social Services of the (MHAGSC) Registered but may work under the umbrella of
the external agency
Primary beneficiary is the member Benefits may be for the wider community
Consensus on social values which ensures perpetuity. Small to medium
size, undertake small-scale activities and generally perform duties and
responsibilities required by their organizations using their own members.
Social values may be combined with the values of
the funding agency. Often, expand to a multi-
sectoral mandate by taking on broader spatial
planning functions. Could hire in addition to using
their own members
Shared vision and objectives As above
Participation is based on perceived benefits to members. The
relationship obtaining in that group offers more rewards than those in
other groups do and there is a feeling that the particular group will help
individuals best achieve specific objectives.
Participation is based on perceived benefits to
members. There may be better rewards in other
groups and this would be an additional
opportunity.
Limited management and financial accounting capacity Limited but has access to training form external
agency
Most do not grow but may exist for a long time Many wind up with the end of project but few
cases have evolved into umbrella, NGO or Trust.
Limited in scope and legal representation As above
Contributions are usually small As above
Members know each other well As above
* Means the characteristic is the same as the primary CBOs
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Registration and Legalization of CBOs
A CBO’s initial encounter with the Government is at the registration level. Depending on
the preference of each association, they are free to register under any of the association
provisions of the law e.g., as self-help groups, cooperatives, Trusts etc. CBOs view registration
as a requirement by the government, which enables them to meet and hold meetings. It also
serves as proof of their legal existence and enables them to attract donations from external
sources. In addition, CBOs may be required to get certification from appropriate ministries if
their activity so requires (e.g., catering and health services).
Most of the existing CBOs are registered with the MHAGSC. For instance, Mutullah and
Lewa (2001) reported that 96% of the 827 women associations surveyed were registered. While
this system has worked quite well, it has certain critical disadvantages. The associations are not
legal entities. This nonentity status introduces difficulties in enforcing sanctions among
members, in the management of community assets, and in the ability of the groups to access
resources outside of the membership (especially from the private sector). It presents limitations
where activities may require drawing up contracts with suppliers, employees, services providers,
and external development agents. In the water sector for example, a CBO registered with the
MHAGSC would be acting outside the legal frameworks that cover community management of
water supplies. These are community projects under the NGO Act, cooperative societies for
water development and management under the Cooperative Societies Act and water management
companies under the Companies Act.
Organizational Structure
Structures of CBOs are as varied as the CBOs themselves. The internal structure that
defines priorities, implementation process, accountability and sanctions against deviation
depends on the functions of a CBO, its vertical linkages and the nature of its legal registration.
For CBOs that have evolved as a result of external agency support, structures may be changed to
conform to the requirements of the external agency. The laws pertaining to the type of
registration may also prescribe the type of structure. The general structure normally has a
chairperson, secretary and treasurer who may also have deputies. Secondary CBOs have varied
structures designed to ensure efficient management of the project and to establish a culture of
good governance. Sometimes they prove too complex for the local managers. Both types of
CBOs have constitutions that guide their internal and external relationships. They may be written
or unwritten, but are well understood by the members. The requirement for registration has made
it necessary for CBOs to write their constitutions.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Among the primary CBOs, monitoring and evaluation is an informal ongoing activity.
The activities engaged in and the operations of the organization are reviewed and decisions made
about continuation of activities, future activities and operation of the organization based on
successes, failures and sustainability. Among the secondary CBOs, formal monitoring and
evaluations, in the programming sense are carried out as per project requirements or through
their own initiative. CBOs implementing bilateral aid projects through the line ministries have
been monitored and evaluated as per project requirements. The registering MHAGSC requires
9
reports from CBOs but does not vigorously follow-up on this requirement. MHAGSC is most
often involved with CBOs over issues of financial mismanagement.
Accountability Mechanisms
Primary CBOs operate with moderate amounts of money. Transactions may also be
instantaneous requiring no provision for savings. Many in the rural areas may have no access to
a bank or may have too modest sums to meet the cost of banking. As primary CBOs become
more visible and attract more money from external sources, they are required to have transparent
accounting and financial management systems. Systems to facilitate this include bank accounts
with more than one signatory, account books, regular financial reports and audits, delivery of
assistance in form of materials rather than cash, secondment of skilled personnel or training of
CBO staff.
Conflict Management
As CBOs grow from primary groups to secondary associations, conflicts are bound to
increase. As they get bigger, the diverse configuration of membership makes it rife for conflict.
This may arise due to contrary aims and interests brought on by the expanded base for power and
economic interests. In case of CBOs whose agenda is externally generated and where no efforts
are made to incorporate local leadership and local conflict management strategies, conflicts may
be difficult to resolve.
CBOs at the primary level tend to manage conflict more amicably and faster than those at
the secondary level. This is made possible by the small membership, kinship and family ties and
the opportunity to detect potential conflict due to the closeness. They also engage traditional
methods of conflict resolution. These methods often prefer a due process of ensuring fairness in
the resolution of conflict be set up in such a way that resolution turns positively into an
opportunity for better communication over contentious issues. The common use of consensus
decision making after debate and assessment of opinions favors progressive development. It is
overwhelmingly used by CBOs.
Conflicts may arise from breaking rules and regulations, lack of respect for norms and
values and inability to honor obligations and assignments. CBOs have designed remedial
measures such as fines, presentation of guarantors in case of credit and loan groups,
representation by a family member in case of communal labor and use of peer pressure and
family intervention. Other points of conflict may be externally generated. There are sometimes
disagreements between the external agency and the community regarding the extent of
community participation in decision-making, formulation and implementation of a project and to
an extent who controls the project. Where the agency promotes the timing of the initiation of a
project may also conflict with the preference of the community.
The administration of the projects may be controversial, especially in regard to local
leadership. Local leaders may not wish to see their base of legitimacy eroded through the agency
deciding to supervise the community directly or through appointees. CBOs prefer that the
external agency recruit and train community development workers rather than import strangers.
The vertical and horizontal relationships could generate conflict if not well strategised.
10
Involvement in Policy Planning
CBOs remained invisible to policy makers and isolated from mainstream social and
economic planning until the social dimension strategies were popularized in the 1990s. Planning
with CBOs has been very limited and superficial. Due to the absence of a clear definition of
CBOs they are usually lumped together as Civil Society rendering their participation as a unique
constituent with specific needs and strengths inapplicable. However, the poverty reduction
strategy paper (PRSP) exercise that was carried out in 2001 attempted to involve CBOs. The
process involved the use of lead CBOs that had contacts with diverse local associations e.g.
EPAG in Mandera and District Development Program (KDDP) in Kilifi. At the local
government level, some ward-level consultation has been carried out in the preparation of Local
Authority Service Delivery Action Plans (LASDAP). During the TIQUET inquiry on education
in Kenya in 1999, school Parents and Teachers Associations (PTA) were consulted.
Sustainability
Primary CBOs are not short-term associations. Many outlive their pioneers and the CBOs that
die do so because they fail to change and adapt to the changing social economic realities.
Cultural and traditional skills-based CBOs have suffered this fate in the face of modernization. In
contrast, most of the CBOs started as a reaction to external opportunities have definite life spans.
Most of them cease to function with the exit of the external agent. However, a different exit
scenario is emerging among shelter and credit CBOs. A few of them have been registered as
local Trusts and continue to serve their constituents e.g. Amani Housing Trust in Mathare
village. This arrangement however seems to appeal more to federation CBOs that are drawn
together by issues that require numerical superiority, usually lobbying and advocacy.
Constraints and Challenges Facing CBOs in Kenya
CBOS have had to deal with internal weaknesses as well as external constraints, some of
which are beyond their control. Most CBOs lack the capacity to manage projects requiring high
programming and financial management skills. They are usually inexperienced in the project
cycle planning. They therefore spend a lot of money hiring consultants or they become rubber
stamps for projects conceived elsewhere. Also, highly atomized social ties based on nepotism,
clanism and ethnicity undermine otherwise well meaning objectives.
In this context, the deteriorating economy and the ravaging HIV/AIDS pandemic has
resulted in re-direction of funds meant for development into managing the disease (Futures
Group Europe, 2003). The epidemic has robbed CBOs of one critical asset, time, as members
spend time nursing the infected and affected. Other challenges faced by CBOs include the lack of
adequate policy aimed at harnessing their potential in a coordinated manner; lack of proper
infrastructure; low position of women in the community, and the pricing in international markets
that denies fairness to farmers and business groups and limits locally available financial
resources. The structural decay at the national institutional level where corruption has been
institutionalized in the past years has also played a significant role in limiting the abilities of
CBOs.
The rationale for using CBOs by external agencies is based on the premise that CBOs are
best placed to understand the needs of the communities and could assist in designing,
11
implementing, monitoring and evaluating usable programs. Unfortunately, in spite of their
inherent potential to deliver, some secondary CBOS have become “Donor Committees” because
they have not been allowed to form and grow as separate entities capable of developing and
steering their own agenda. As a result, dependency and apathy has developed, especially where
the welfare model has preceded a sustainability model. The Unit Development Committees and
Village Development Committees of PLAN International Embu and Meru are good examples.
Many of these CBOs tend to die with the termination of funding. This attrition could be
alleviated by taking the community through some form of participatory appraisal process. After
helping the community to organize around a number of development themes, they could then be
assisted to organize themselves into structures that can plan, implement, and control community
projects.
Community based organizations are part of the civil society but they have their own
unique identity and characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of associations. Key
distinguishing features include their homogeneity, modest size and spatial scope, management
systems, legal representation, freedom from government influence and their source of legitimacy.
They are inclusive but not static as their numbers and portfolios have evolved and grown beyond
welfare to development engagements in collaboration with external and government agencies.
They have a key role to play in the transformation of local communities. The key question of this
project is whether schools can be involved in CBO-related activities and how this can be
facilitated.
Community-Based Organizations and Schools
Related to whether schools can function as CBOs is the concept of CBO schools. The
concept of CBO Schools has been in existence for over two decades in the Western world. These
institutions are normally referred to as ‘community-alternative schools’ with different programs
from mainstream schools, but still with a focus on education. Albeit in a different context, there
are some useful ideas in the CBO Schools literature that is worth exploring.
CBO schools are known to provide some of the best, long-standing examples of schools
which have used youth development principles and practices to help young people of all
backgrounds to learn, grow and succeed (Murphy et al., 2001). According to Murphy et al
(2001), CBO schools that have succeeded have been due to a number of factors including: their
commitment to working effectively and intensively with young people who are most in need;
access to the community resources and services that support student learning and provide for
diverse educational experiences in school and in the broader community; the familiarity of CBO
schools with the community's young people and families, and experience working with them on
personal as well as community issues, and the opportunities they provide for young people to
contribute to their communities.
Schools can be a resource with particular value for effecting behavioral change within
schools and communities at large, and are in the position to help young people most often left
behind in HIV/AIDS prevention and care programmes. What has been left un-tapped in this area
is the role schools can play, operating as CBOs in both the education of young people and the
social development of the larger community.
The history of the majority of public schools in Kenya is steeped in the community self
help tradition commonly referred to as Harambee. Outside the urban areas where some local
authorities have built some schools, rural communities have been largely responsible for
12
provision of land and other primary school facilities and services. In the Kenyan context, the
process of community-based development by schools and of CBO schools is ingrained in the
origins of schools, their ownership, and the constitution of management and staff. It will be
necessary to provide policy makers and funders with the knowledge of how schools can take on
CBO-related activities and play a crucial role in HIV/AIDS prevention and care.
13
METHODOLOGY
In order to fulfill the study objectives, we employed both quantitative and qualitative methods.
Quantitative Study
Study Sample
The quantitative component involved 160 schools that were involved in the PSABH
project. Of the 160 schools, 80 target and 80 control schools were originally selected in Nyanza
province using multi-stage stratified, disproportionate random sampling (Maticka-Tyndale et al.,
2003:11). The community (CRS) and school (SRS) responsiveness surveys that were completed
by zonal inspectors in August 2003, were used for this research. Since zonal inspectors are
responsible for monitoring and reporting on all of the communities within a district, some
collected data from schools and communities that were not on the original target-control data
collection lists for PSABH. Given that the original target-control design has no bearing on this
project, these communities have been included in this analysis (n=163) in an effort to maximize
available data.
Data Handling
The data collected by zonal inspectors was entered into SPSS by Steadman Research
Services Incorporated (a research oriented organization in Nairobi, Kenya). The variables in the
data followed previous PSABH surveys. This included data about academic achievement
(KCPE scores, which were grouped into a quintile distribution), and the location of the school
(urban, peri-urban or rural), both of which were previously provided by the Centre for British
Teachers (CfBT). As well, the ethnic population of the students (based on a minimum 90% of
students in one particular group), and the socio-economic status of the school, were taken from
the community database used in earlier PSABH analysis. The SPSS data was then transmitted to
the University of Windsor for analysis.
Measurement
To measure CBO activities we used the questions that were in both the CRS and SRS.
Where there were inconsistencies in responses, the variables used to combine the information
provided by both of these survey instruments. The key outcome variable identifies whether or
not the school is acting as a CBO. This variable was dichotomized with a value of 1 ‘yes’, if it
was indicated on either the CRS or the SRS that the school was taking on activities which are not
related to the day-to-day activities of the school, and assigned a value of 0 ‘no’ if the response to
this question on both the CRS and SRS was no. Of the 163 schools, 80 were categorized as
taking on CBO activities.
The second outcome variable targets only those schools that are taking on activities
which are not related to the day-to-day functioning of the school (n=80). A composite variable
was created which estimated the number of activities undertaken by the schools by totaling all of
the unique responses to the questions on the CRS and SRS about what types of activities the
school has taken on. Responses such as parent meetings, and sports clubs were eliminated
14
because these were seen to be closely connected to the day-to-day functioning of the schools as
schools. Since there were only 3 spaces provided in each of the CRS and SRS surveys, it is
assumed that this calculation is likely an underestimate of the actual number of activities in
which the school is involved. This makes the results of this analysis tentative. The resulting
composite variable had a range from 1 to 6 and was normally distributed; however, the small
sample size significantly decreases the statistical power of analyses using this variable.
Predictor Variables
The variables used as possible influences on whether a school was participating in these
activities and the number of potential activities the school was doing were grouped into 3 basic
subsets, in order to increase statistical power by reducing the number of potential predictors
entered into any one form of analysis. These categories were School Characteristics (includes
information about size, ethnic population, academic ranking, and socio-economic status),
Sponsorship Characteristics (includes who sponsors the school, and the nature of that
sponsorship), and HIV/AIDS Activities (includes the extent to which the community is affected
by HIV/AIDS, and the number of activities currently available in the community). Within each
of these subsets, some variable translations were necessary in order to better conform to the
assumptions of the data analysis tools. The details of the variables included in each of these
subsets and the recodes necessary are identified in Appendix A.
Data Analysis
There were four main steps in the analysis of this survey data:
(1) Information about the types of activities in which the school was involved was
grouped thematically in order to provide information about the frequency of
particular types of activities. (Information about recodes can be found in
Appendix A).
(2) Data checking to verify that the assumptions for regression analysis were met.
(information about recodes can be found in Appendix B)
(3) Logistic regression analyses (n=163) to provide odds ratios for factors influencing
whether or not a school takes on activities not related to its day-to-day
functioning.
(4) Multivariate regression analyses (n=80) to develop a profile of the factors which
may influence the number of activities beyond the day-to-day functioning that a
school chooses to take on.
Chi-Square and Analysis of Variance was also performed to assess potential differences between
districts. Based on the quantitative analysis, further questions were developed for the qualitative
study (Appendix C).
15
Qualitative Study
To integrate the quantitative and qualitative components of the research, the qualitative
study focused on a subset of schools that were involved in the PSABH project. Out of 163 initial
schools that were involved in PSABH, 80 were found to be involved in CBO-like activities.
From among the 80, 7 were purposefully selected to represent both rural and urban areas for an
in-depth study. Schools with three different configurations on KCPE scores and involvement in
community activities were selected: those with a high number of community activities and high
Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) performance, those with a moderate number of
activities and low KCPE results, those with a high number of activities and low education
performance, and those with a high number of activities and moderate KCPE results. A
community (Harambee) school in Nairobi was included for comparative purposes. Although the
sample may be partially subjective in the sense that it does not represent a varied social, cultural
and economic range, but it is expected to present the fundamental key institutional characteristics
that compare a school to a CBO. Focused group discussions were conducted in eight schools based on case by case
programme management process of their community based activities. The information and data
collected was transcribed and translated according to emerging patterns. The analysis was guided
by themes and constructs in the CBOs literature (e.g., Kopiyo and Mukui, 2001; McCormick et
al., 2001; Mutullah and Lewa, 2001). Also taken into consideration were community indicators
gathered from the community response assessment during PSABH program analysis (Maticka-
Tyndale et al., 2003). They include ethnic composition in schools, level of school resource base
and the presence of church institution in and around the school environment. Each of the factors
influenced schools independently of PSABH indicating an inherent interdependent relationship
between the schools and the communities they serve.
16
RESULTS
Quantitative Findings
Sample Characteristics
(n=163 unless otherwise indicated)
The descriptive analysis in Tables 2a and 2b shows that 49% of the 163 schools that were
involve in this study take on activities outside of the day-day-day functioning of the school. The
results also show that most of the sponsorship to schools was from Mainline Protestant and
Catholic Churches. Table 2b shows that the average number of activities taken on by schools was
about 3.2. Since only 3 activities could be listed per school, this indicates that almost all schools
listed a full complement of activities. The descriptive results indicate that topics HIV/AIDS
frequently dominate activities in both the community and in the PTA meetings in the schools.
Table 2a: Dichotomous (Yes/No) Variables Variable Name % Yes
Whether school takes on activities outside day-to-day functioning 49%
Majority pupils Kisii 29%
DEB Sponsorship 15%
Catholic sponsorship 35%
Mainline Protestant sponsorship 36%
Breakaway from mainline churches sponsorship 12%
Sponsor involved in selecting Head Teacher 14%
Sponsor makes financial contribution to school 25%
Religious groups hold meeting on AIDS 95%
Table 2b: Scales and Variables with many values Variable Name Mean StD† Minimum Maximum
Estimated number of activities taken on by school (n=80) 3.19 1.22 1 6
Number of PTA meetings 1.87 1.02 0 4
Number of PTA meetings where AIDS is discussed 2.91 1.41 0 6
Number of community activities where AIDS discussed 1.25 .963 0 5
Total number of AIDS activities in churches 5.24 2.86 0 9
Estimate number of deaths due to AIDS 18.45 23.02 0 120
Proportion of pupils to staff 43.06 16.351 7 93
Proportion of female teachers 31.51 20.95 0 100
Quintile distribution of KCPE scores 2.99 1.41 1 5
SES scores 54.821 6.69 43.2 90.1
†StD = Standard Deviation
District Differences
There is a large difference among districts in the percentage of schools taking on extra activities.
Kisumu Municipality has the greatest percentage (75%) of schools taking on activities not
related to the day-to-day functioning of the schools. This was followed closely by Rachuonyo
(73%). Nyamira has the lowest percentage (30%) of schools taking on these activities, followed
closely by Gucha (31%).
17
Use of Schools by Communities
Overall, 95% of the schools made facilities and/or resources available to assist their communities
(Table 3). Schools were most likely to make their land and physical facilities (such as buildings
and latrines) available. A small percentage of schools also made their health facilities and
information about HIV and AIDS available to the community. As well, schools were used for
community activities such as weddings, celebrations, elections and funerals. They were also used
to provide resources such as health care and farming.
Table 3: Ways schools assist communities Description % (n=163)
School makes available: Land/fields 92%
Physical Facilities 91%
Amenities 43%
Health facilities/information 34%
School used for: Community Activities 95%
Resource Activities 79%
Money was obtained from providing these resources and facilities in only 12% of the schools.
Where money was obtained (n=14), 8 of the schools kept the money, while in 6 of the schools
the money was given to the community.
Active Schools
Among the 80 schools involved in activities outside of their day-to-day functioning, the most
common activity adopted was to assist members of the community including widow/widowers,
the sick, the needy and orphans (Table 4). This is in line with the fact that these schools and their
respective communities are overwhelmed by the effects of HIV/AIDS.
Table 4: Types of activities taken on by the school Type of activity % (n=80)
Assist members of the community 89%
Provide resources for the community 60%
Community related activities 60%
Related to extracurricular activities 36%
Approximately 71% of the schools which took on activities outside of the day-to-day functioning
(n=80) indicated that the Head Teacher required permission to adopt these activities. Permission
was most frequently required from school authorities such as the school management committee,
sponsors, or proprietor (Table 5).
Table 5: Permission required Head Teacher to take on activities Head Teacher needs permission from: % (n=57)
School authorities 93%
Community leaders and/or parents 67%
Administration 44%
Organization 4%
Money was raised from activities in only 18% of the active schools. Of these schools (n=9), 1
18
kept the money within the school, while 8 gave the money to the community.
What influences whether a school takes on CBO activities
(see Logistic Regression Appendix D – Table 1)
The influence of school characteristics, school sponsorship and the presence of
HIV/AIDS related activities on whether or not a school took on outside activities was tested.
When each of these three blocks of variables was tested separately, the following characteristics
were significant predictors of a school taking on CBO activities:
A larger number of PTA meetings
A higher proportion of female teachers
Sponsorship by Mainline Protestant or Breakaway church sponsors
A higher number of HIV/AIDS related activities
A higher number of PTA meetings where HIV/AIDS was discussed
The significant impact of HIV/AIDS related variables may be reinforced by the impact of the
PSABH program in these schools.
When all of these variables were considered simultaneously, the effect of the AIDS
related activities and the involvement of sponsors in the selection of the head teacher
significantly increased the likelihood of a school being engaged in community activities. Schools
where the majority of pupils were Kisii, were less likely to be involved.
What influences the number of CBO activities taken on by the school
(see Multiple Regression Appendix D – Table 2)
The influence of the same 3 sets of factors on the number of activities taken on by the
school was tested. When each of the three blocks was tested separately, the following
characteristics were significant predictors of a school being involved in a higher number of
community activities:
The proportion of staff to pupils
The proportion of female teachers
Higher SES of a school
Receiving contributions from their sponsors
When all of these predictors were considered together, the best predictor of the number of
activities a school takes on was whether or not the school sponsor provided a financial
contribution to the school. Specifically, the number of activities adopted by the school increased
by approximately 0.8 if the sponsor makes a financial contribution to the school.
The difficulty in obtaining significant predictors for the number of activities engaged in
could well be attributed to the fact that no specific question on the survey asked for information
about the total number of activities that the school takes on. Instead this information had to be
estimated based on a list of activities provided through zonal inspector interviews with
individuals at the school and in the community. Thus, it is possible that this value is an
19
underestimate of the actual number of activities taken on by many of the schools. As well, the
sample size for this regression model is quite small, (n=78), making it difficult to adequately test
many variables.
20
Qualitative Findings3
Community Characteristics in a School
All eight of the schools participating in the qualitative phase have close ties to their
community. For all of them, the land on which they stand was donated by the community, they
initiated and constructed the physical structures in place with minimal external input, and parents
have augmented the number of teachers allocated to the schools by the Teachers Service
Committee (TSC), with these teachers paid by the community. In addition, the recruitment and
remuneration of nursery school teachers, (nurseries are a mandatory requirement in all primary
schools) has been left entirely to the community. Only Padpieri School has one nursery school
teacher paid by the Municipal Council of Kisumu and one block of classrooms built with funds
from the World Bank through the Small Towns Development Project.
Even though teachers are externally recruited, 70% in the study sites come from the
community and 62.5 % own property in the community they are teaching in. It is therefore easy
for them to identify with the community and an incentive to their involvement in community
activities. All but 2 positions on the School Management Committees (SMC) are assured to be
held by community members, since only the Head Teacher (HT) and the District Education
Board position might attract non-locals. Apparently 7 of the 8 HTs interviewed belong to their
respective school community.
The other key players in school activities are teachers. They were found to have deep-
rooted attachments and affiliations to the communities they are serving (Table 6).
Table 6: Teachers community profile *
Characteristic Frequency in numbers
Years teaching in current school <1 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 >20
Number of teachers teaching in this school 15 16 10 3 1 2
Number of teachers that have taught in other
schools in this community - 6 4 2 4 7
Own children in the current school 10
Own children in the neighboring schools in the
community
15
Home in the community 30
Home in other Division/District 14
Owns property in the community 25
Residence in community 41
Membership in community organizations 39
*Total number of teachers interviewed is 47
Culture plays a role in the way a school selects and implements its priorities. The clan is a
central institution in the area and plays a big part in the initiation and management of schools.
For instance, in Oyugis and Rachuonyo, there is an unusual abundance of high schools. The
3 This summary of qualitative findings is a modified version of the qualitative research study conducted and written
up by Kairi (2003).
21
study respondents explained that each clan endeavors to develop a school to serve its own
members, many of whom would not secure vacancies in the government schools. Apparently,
clan representation is also taken into account in the selection of the parents’ representatives in
the School Management Committee (SMC). In Othoro School and Andiwo’s Komongu Sub-
location development committees, membership is specifically on a clan basis. This
representation secures SMC’s access to the dynamic organizational and resource mobilization
systems of the clan structure. It also becomes a universal rallying point free from individual clan
differences and open to perpetual membership of emerging parents.
All the schools reported an outreach within the Location (the second lowest structure in
the national administration system). The close range outreach implies a high probability of
shared values, needs and expectations among the residents. It also enhances cohesiveness borne
out of common ancestry, easy access and communication among members. These factors are
favorable to project development, implementation and monitoring.
School and Community Needs Assessment
In the study context, the relationship between the public school and the community is of a
symbiotic nature, one that dissuades either party from existing and acting on their own in matters
relating to the school. The school is physically located within the community and managed
through an institutional arrangement (SMC) heavily biased towards local participation. All the
schools in the study were found to be addressing felt needs affecting both the pupils and the
community. Both the schools and the community identified the problems while the school
offered an organized institutional platform through which they were articulated and planned. The
activities revolve around basic needs in health, sanitation, awareness raising and education as
well as welfare. Usually, the deficiencies in the community are manifested in the pupils’ overall
presentation and performance in school e.g. HIV/AIDS has resulted in orphanhood, absenteeism
and high drop out rate in schools. Consequently, all the schools visited were involved in one
form or other of assistance to orphans and widows to relieve the HIV/AIDS impact on the
schools and the community. Padpieri school alone had 280 orphaned pupils who depended on
the school for various needs (Kairi, 2001).
Unlike the conventional secondary CBOs discussed earlier, schools are not reactionary,
but tend to be proactive, responding to more localized problems that affect their primary mandate
to provide education supplemented by community social responsibility. The nature of some of
the activities study schools had undertaken are shown on Table 7.
22
Table 7: CBO activities in 8 study schools
Activity
Number of
Schools currently
engaged
Number of
schools engaged
in the past
Involvement and
Outreach
Agriculture 1 School
Livestock (Poultry project) 1 School
Orphans and widows assistance 7 7 School/Community
School construction 6 8 School/Community
Inclusive education for the handicapped 2 School/Community
Voluntary counseling 2 School
Education sponsorship 6 School/Community
Environment and soil conservation 3 4 School
Health/HIVAIDS Education/awareness 5 5 School
Sanitation ( toilet construction ) 2 2 School
Water
Spring protection/tanks/brothels
1 2 School /Community
Road rehabilitation 1 School/ Community
Children rights 1 School/Community
Teachers self-help grouping 4 4 School/community
Community welfare i.e. burials, weddings, meetings,
shelter
8 8 School/Community
Planning and Implementation CBO-related Activities
Two forms of planning and implementation processes were identified. One was the self -
regulating process involving locally funded activities whereby the SMC or its selected sub-
committees plan and implement the activities. In this case the SMC employs its own criteria and
rules of implementation, as they deem appropriate. Most of them were found to prefer appointing
sub- committees or individuals to take care of specific activities. Such committees would be
charged with supervision of construction, fund raising, purchasing, security etc. They may co-opt
members of the community onto such subcommittees and even open separate accounts for the
project. Such arrangements have been used in Kibwayi during the rehabilitation of several
classroom roofs blown off by the wind in 1997. An emergency committee was set up under the
chairmanship of the local chief and members from the community. Construction sub committees
are also in place in Othoro, Awach, Andiwo, and Oludo.
The community contributes labor (skilled and unskilled), finance and materials while the
school provides organization, management and labor. Schools also contribute to community
mobilization through Parents Teachers Association (PTA) meetings, annual general meetings
and the community organizations represented in the SMC. The sponsoring churches have
particularly been instrumental in this regard. The pupils have been excellent channels of regular
information dissemination.
The second implementation process is that which is determined by the funding agency in
case of an externally funded project. In Oludo School, the water and sanitation project (funded
by PLAN International) utilized a project selection procedure that started at the Village
Development Committee (VDC). The identified problems were passed on to a Community
Based Organization Committee (CBOC) at the Location level, which reviewed and selected
appropriate projects for funding. After selection, PLAN provided materials while the school
provided labor and supervision within an agreed time limit and quality standard. The school
23
constituted a School Procurement Committee that received the materials and monitored the
implementation. Reports were prepared and given to PLAN. In addition, Andiwo has in the past
constructed a demonstration toilet with assistance from CARE Kenya. At Padpieri School, there
is an ongoing poultry project funded by International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1999.
The implementation of community activities by schools is made effective by ensuring
that funds are mobilized for specific purposes and utilized as soon as possible after receipt. This
reduces the temptation for misappropriation and re-allocation to unplanned eventualities. The
SMC members need to be proactive and able to monitor the implementation on a regular basis to
avoid overburdening the head teacher. Owing to their comparative advantage over the majority
of SMC members who are not as educated and exposed, HTs tend to control the deliberations of
the SMC, sometimes at the expense of collective responsibility. The commitment of HTs to
community development is an important factor in realization of planned activities. The schools
that had many activities were also found to be performing better in education and physical
development. They also had a higher number of pupils and staff. In Oludo for instance, the first
toilets are currently under construction through the initiative of the newly posted HT. It begs
reason why previous HT had not deemed it necessary. By comparison, Kibwayi within the
Kisumu Municipality is a dilapidated mud walled structure with no community activities.
Schools are lacking in project programming skills necessary for implementation of
community based projects. A specimen of a three year development plan in Andiwo indicated
many deficiencies. It lacked strategic direction and detail particularly on community activities.
Only one school, Vedramini Education Center in Nairobi has carried out internal research and
evaluation in the past. The others have participated in research initiated by CFBT on Primary
School Action for Better Health Project. The deficiency has partly to do with the historical
perception of a school as an education institution whose role is confined within the curriculum.
Programming skills have therefore not been an issue. In addition, the role of CBOs had not been
a subject of interest until the mid- 1990s when development agencies started to view them as
credible alternative channels for grassroots development.
Sustainability
The activities undertaken by the schools were found to benefit both the community and
schools either directly or indirectly. The benefits accruing to the school were endorsed as
acceptable to the community since the schools belong to the community and the beneficiaries are
their children. For this reason, communities have continued to support them since their
establishment as early as the 1950s to date. This commitment has not dissipated despite the
current impasse occasioned by the FPE policy. Once the FPE policy’s limits and procedures are
clarified and understood, it should not be difficult for contributions to resume. It is however
fundamental that MOEST increases its financing. Parents could then devote more resources to
community activities.
The Education Act encourages community participation as long as it does not interfere
with the primary goal of education excellence. The parents interviewed expressed similar
sentiments. They indicated poor pupil performance as the key reason behind pupil transfers from
poor performing schools to those with good examination results. This was evident in the rush to
enroll pupils in the high performing schools when free education was announced. Kibwayi
School nearly closed in 1998 because pupils were transferred enmasse. The education office had
to intervene to restore confidence among parents by among others, enlisting a new HT. Oludo
24
and Awach schools have faced similar problems. Not surprisingly, these schools have a low
performance on KCPE. They also have a high shortfall of staff since the number of pupils
determine the number of teachers availed by the TSC. A small number of pupils mean fewer
parents and therefore fewer resources available to the school. It is appropriate to conclude that
the sustainability of community activities partly depends foremost on the school’s capacity to
meet the education expectations. However, it would be useful to find out if the same would
apply in communities where values attached to education are outweighed by different cultural
and economic circumstances. Among the nomadic and pastoral communities in the arid areas,
herding cattle is still a preference to education. In the Miraa producing areas in Tharaka, Meru,
economic benefits from sale of Miraa has been reported to erode the value attached to the eight
years primary school education.
Opportunities for School Involvement
In addition to the activities presented in Table 7, the stakeholders recommend that schools
venture into development education geared towards the change of attitudes. Schools are
encouraged to target, among others, retrogressive and outdated cultures like girl child
discrimination, wife inheritance and witchcraft and development in general. The school is a
central contact point for the community and well placed to conduct Information Communication
Technology (ICT) programs. They can also transfer improved technologies and survival skills to
an already defined target group, the parents. Selection criteria for activities could include:
Activities that are beneficial to both school and community.
Do not require too much teacher input since time is limited.
That add value to the school curriculum and expose pupils and community to more
practical and experiential learning.
Imbedded with incentives to facilitate technical inputs.
Not necessarily based in school, but preferable.
Not involving child labor.
With a lifeline extending beyond one year.
Challenges of Schools Implementing CBO-related Activities
Recent government educational policy
Schools are not solely owned and governed by the community. Their survival and growth
is influenced by government policies that come into force from time to time. The policies are
national and may not necessarily be consistent with local circumstances and expectations. In
some cases, they are not well understood by the people. A case in point is the current Free
Primary Education (FPE) Policy of 2003 which presupposes disposition of sufficient resources to
schools. This has not been the case. It has resulted in cessation of community contribution to
schools. The classroom construction projects in six of the seven schools are at a virtual standstill.
Education materials are not sufficient given that only Kshs 1,020 is allocated per child per year.
Reservations were expressed on the extent to which communities would be willing to contribute
to school activities if the FPE policy continues to create the notion of a school as a government’s
sole responsibility without commensurate services.
25
The teachers expressed their desire and willingness to be involved in community
activities but cautioned on the amount of time available to them. If projects require too much
time over their curricular activities, they may not be available. Even with the current reduction
of examinable subjects to five, they find themselves preoccupied because all the schools are
understaffed. Schools with a high number of activities have very active teachers who have used
the clubs slot in the curriculum to initiate activities with an external outreach. Padpieri and
Othoro are representative of this characteristic.
The HIV/AIDS has impacted heavily on the community. A big share of the income goes
to medical care and support to vulnerable members of the family at the expense of development.
About a quarter of the pupils in Kibwayi School are orphans. The school has no community
activity and is dilapidated.
Unlike other CBOs, schools have not been targeted for project funding and capacity
development in any significant way. Part of the reason for this is the straight-jacket
categorization of a school as an education institution registered with the MOEST and not an
NGO or CBO. The reality is that schools are actually carrying out community activities without
the label. This categorization limits the possibilities of intervention by potential partners and
inhibits the exploitation of the prevalent potential within schools and the communities they serve.
The SMC has very limited skills in planning and project management. This was evident
in the absence of detailed plans and project monitoring and evaluation reports in most of the
schools. The SMC minutes are just about the only project documents available. They could do
better with relevant training.
Limited resource base
The schools, like other CBOs have a poor resource base, especially when located in
relatively undeveloped regions like Nyanza. The schools are solely dependent on the government
and the community. The government has not been able to provide the planned free education,
even after enacting the Free Primary Education Policy in 2003. So far, only Ksh.1, 020 have
been allocated to each child per year, which is hardly sufficient for their needs. Since most of
the parents are poor, they can only contribute small amounts towards community based
activities. The HIV AIDS pandemic has increased destitution by depleting family savings and
reducing the labor force through death among teachers. Only two schools have benefited from
NGO funds. Padpieri has received Ksh 15,000 from International Labour Organization (ILO)
and Oludo School about Ksh 260,000 from Plan International. Funds to build classrooms and
outreach activities in the community have been raised by the parents through Harambee and
individual contributions. One resource that has been utilized extensively, though not always
highlighted, is the teachers’ skills. The discussion reviewed a wealth of varying skills and
experiences in addition to the teacher training. They have been acquired through individual
private sponsorship or through facilitation by external agencies. Those skills include community
mobilization techniques, accounting, art, HIV/AIDS education and counseling through PSABH
and other NGOs, agro-forestry, livestock management, leadership and organization management.
Governance
While CBOs are governed by self-developed constitutions, school governance is based on
the Education Act. In it are provisions for community participation in management through the
SMC and the Parent Teacher Association. Conflict resolution systems are explicit. The act
gives the schools a leeway in deciding the mode of operation as long as they inform the relevant
26
authorities. They may open separate project accounts independent of MOEST accounts. The
accountability system is provided for and flexibility bestowed on SMC for management of other
funds. The HT is the secretary to the SMC while the chairperson and treasurer are members of
the community. They are expected to account to the parents who elect them. When conflicts
arise within the management, internal rules are applied. If need be, cases are referred to the
District Education Officers. Sources of conflict were cited as emanating from resistance to
parents wishes by the HT, lack of transparency within SMC, engagement in anti-social behavior
by teachers, cultural insensitivity, and lack of information to the parents and sponsor by the HT
and SMC, poor exam performance, gossip and breach of confidentiality by SMC members.
Regular meetings and consultations with the parents enhance compliance to school requests. The
school doing badly have not had as many meeting this year as their peers.
The school offers a stable and predictable institution through which strategic programs
could be implemented. Were community based activities institutionalized into the school
systems, staff in all schools could be trained to plan and manage them. If this happens, it would
not matter that staff is transferred as they would expect similar activities in their new schools.
However the designed of the activities would need to balance between education and community
expectations.
27
GUIDELINES FOR INCORPORATING SCHOOLS IN COMMUNITY-BASED
INITIATIVES
This section provides lessons learned on encouraging joint activities between schools and their
communities. The insights are based on both the findings of the research undertaken for this
study and practical experience gained during the implementation of Primary School Action for
Better Health (PSABH). During PSABH, which is a school-based behaviour change intervention
against HIV, community representatives were incorporated as equal members in the training
programme, along with Headteachers and Resource Teachers. The intention was to reduce
teachers’ reluctance to address issues in school related to HIV by inviting parents to be part of
the training programme and the team responsible for planning school action. The designers also
expected the presence of a community member to act against the inertia that is often evident after
training. This did happen and beyond this a further dynamic was observed during and after
training: a richer dialogue about behaviour and culture and the role of adults in relation to
adolescents’ needs emerged that went beyond the school curriculum. Also, the School Action
Plans that were developed showed greater intended collaboration between the school and its
community than anticipated. These Action Plans drew much more on community resources than
in a previous project on Primary School Management, which also focused on the creation of
school action plans, but did not include community representatives in the training itself.
These comments are grouped loosely around key themes and, for ease of reference, begin with a
list of the relevant research findings that came out of the study of schools as CBOs.
Combining School and Community Concerns
Research Findings
A school must be identified by a community as their own.
Select activities that add value to the school curriculum and expose pupils and
community to more practical and experiential learning.
Include activities that are beneficial to both school and community.
Activities must not necessarily based in school, but preferable.
Whether a school is identified by local residents as belonging to the community does not depend
solely on whether the school was built with community support or resources or whether the
majority of the teachers originate from that locality. The school administration itself can build a
community identity by adopting an inclusive approach in all matters related to the management
of the school, such as curriculum delivery, social and spiritual needs and developmental
concerns. The school can do this by supporting its community in common areas of interest such
as in sponsored events or community activities on national holidays or opening up its facilities
for community use. The school will be seen as part of the community if it shows readiness to
become involved in the community’s concerns outside of school hours.
All schools have educational goals as their core purpose and they must deliver against these in
order to remain viable and to continue receiving the support they need to exist. Either a Ministry
or an alternative funding body will expect the school teaching staff to deliver satisfactory
academic results. Likewise, community members expect a school, first and foremost, to deliver:
28
consistently improving academic performance, effective pupil discipline and apparent integrity
and hard work amongst its staff. Involvement in broader community-based initiatives will always
come second to the national educational goals, even when the initiatives can help the pupils and
staff to perform better against these same goals. There are, therefore, limits to the amount of time
the school staff and pupils can put into community initiatives and there are potential points of
conflict whereby the school management cannot justify its continued attention to a particular
exercise.
Those initiatives that are most compatible with the school’s core purpose will, therefore, stand
the greatest chance of success. Issues that:
Concern the welfare of children (feeding programmes, water and sanitation etc)
Enhance the effective running of a school (especially those that improve key indicators
such as attendance, retention, girls’ participation etc.)
Are easily related to the school curriculum (health, livelihoods, environment etc as they
are addressed from the school perspective)
Are seen to be consistent with the National Goals of Education (social responsibility,
good citizenship etc)
It may still be that the link between a community-based initiative and specific aspects of school
life, or the benefits such an initiative can bring to the school, has to be made explicit, but it is
essential that any initiative can be interpreted and justified comfortably within the school
context.
In addition, stakeholders recommend that schools venture into development education geared
towards the change of attitudes. Schools are encouraged to target, among others, retrogressive
and outdated cultures like girl child discrimination, wife inheritance and witchcraft and
development in general. The school can also transfer improved technologies and survival skills
to an already defined target group, the parents. Selection criteria for activities could include:
Activities that are beneficial to both school and community.
Do not require too much teacher input since time is limited.
That add value to the school curriculum and expose pupils and community to more
practical and experiential learning.
Not necessarily based in school, but preferable.
Not involving child labor.
With a lifeline extending beyond one year.
The Headteacher
Research Findings The HT has to demonstrate a strong commitment to CBO-related activities
The school must be adequately staffed to avoid over-working the teachers.
Experience shows that the interest and commitment of the Headteacher is one of the most
influential factors, yet the initiative and enthusiasm for working beyond his or her terms of
reference do not appear to be related to any characteristic that can be classified such as age,
29
gender, length of service etc. It is clear that training in certain programme skills are necessary for
initiatives to be undertaken, but training alone does not ensure that all Headteachers and their
schools are responsive. An enthusiastic and committed Headteacher does still require broader
exposure in order to initiate some of the developmental endeavours that would enhance the
community’s well-being.
While the research indicates a range of characteristics that are present in school’s with higher
levels of involvement with community-based activities, it is still not possible to say prior to an
intervention that all schools of a certain type (eg. high academic standing, high social-economic
status) will respond positively to greater involvement in community-based initiatives. It is,
therefore, easier to describe schools that have been responsive than to identify schools that will
be responsive in the future.
Skill Gaps
Research Findings Programme management skills among HT and SMC must be assessed and gaps filled.
Teachers in the school already have some training such as the one from PSABH or are
willing to be trained on CBO-related work (training teachers and community
representatives together in an initiative that is identified as their joint responsibility may
also be important).
Support needs to be given in facilitating identification of, and prioritization between,
education and community needs.
While schools and their communities are often fully aware and informed about their local needs
and possible solutions, what they frequently lack is effective strategies to mobilise resources and
direct them towards solving a common problem. The process of effective partnership between
schools and their communities needs to be initiated and facilitation provided in areas such as:
- problem clarification and joint prioritisation
- setting SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timebound) goals
- evaluating a range of possible solutions
- clarification of roles and allocation of responsibilities
- team work – its challenges and benefits
- identification of realistic and specific resources
- planning, reporting and financial management
- mobilizing others and maximizing networks
- monitoring, evaluation and revising plans
School Infrastructure
Research Findings Both the SMC and PTA must be supportive and frequently involved in school activities.
The Headteacher cannot lead his/her school into new initiatives without the support of the key
management bodies that are involved in leading and supporting the school, such as the School
Management Committee and the parent body. Where a Headteacher has already built up
30
effective working relationships with these bodies it is, naturally, easier for the school to move
forwards. Any process aiming to introduce community-based initiatives through schools must
recognize the need to work with these bodies, which have formal terms of reference and common
roles and responsibilities. This means allowing Headteachers time to address committees and
parent meetings to consult and seek endorsement and/or approval for plans; including key figures
from these bodies; responding to the concerns and questions raised by these groups and
supporting the Headteacher in providing the information needed. In addition, it is important that
the line management structure within which schools operate is respected and the endorsement of
the relevant line managers is sought. In Kenya, for example, the District Education Officer or
Provincial Director of Education can give permission for schools to take part in a range of
activities within their regions. At a national level the Chief Inspector of Schools is responsible
for any school-based activities.
It is crucial that the SMC, parent body and Headteacher put in place, not only regular meetings
but implement joint activities in partnership in order to build their confidence, remove suspicion,
identify strengths and work towards a common goal.
Funding
Research Findings
Availability of funds either through a sponsor or otherwise.
Funding for any activity is generally provided to achieve aims that are set centrally and that
cannot be changed by the school or community. For instance, a sponsor will be willing to fund
initiatives that promote girls’ education and might stipulate that this support must be in the form
of improved sanitation facilities. Unfortunately the funding criteria and priorities may not reflect
the priorities of the school and its community. Also, the presence of external funding for a
specific activity tends to suppress community contributions, both tangible contributions and
valuable non-tangible inputs such as time and advocacy.
A cost-sharing approach can substantially increase ownership at community level but is often
difficult for sponsors to accommodate or accept, especially in the light of continued poverty and
the introduction of Free Primary Education. In PSABH some very exciting examples of
community involvement in facilitating the training programme were witnessed when one
Province became involved in the project on a cost-share basis. Under this agreement the project
provided the training teams, stationery and training support materials, while the participants
covered their transport, accommodation and subsistence needs:
- communities sourced entirely different training venues, which were of an equal standard
to project-identified facilities but were generally more difficult to access. They also
secured much more favourable rates.
- participants showed creativity and initiative in finding transportation solutions (hired
group means, shared vehicles, common pick up points)
- participants asked for the timetable to be amended and to extend the training into the
weekend so that they could attend daily instead of being at the venue on a residential
basis
- individual members donated specific resources such as food (specifically goats), not only
31
to their own training events but to others scheduled to take place after them
- community members were engaged to provide catering services, similar to those provided
in large work places, such as large farms and factories
The use of volunteers is often identified as an effective cost-sharing approach and is often
associated with community-based initiatives. However, a volunteer-based structure cannot be
seen as free. While an initiative may not be paying for a volunteer’s time they do need support
networks and resources to respond to the situations they become involved in. For example, it is
difficult for a volunteer to make any form of home visit in an area affected by HIV and AIDS
without taking food or leaving a contribution to the family, which is often made from their own
limited resources.
It should also be noted that once a community identifies a member as being associated with a
particular initiative any problems related to that issue are often directed to that person, who may
well become overwhelmed. For example, women PSABH trainers find that their communities
expect them to take care of many AIDS orphans, far beyond their family networks.
If the intention is to maximize the impact of resources allocated to the support of community-
based initiatives, then it is suggested that an element of self-selection is encouraged. For instance
a project can offer the intervention to a certain number or percentage of schools in an
administrative unit, such as a Zone or District, and establish one of the selection criteria as
previous involvement with a community initiative. If the objective, however, is to stimulate
otherwise unresponsive schools, then further work has to be undertaken to mobilize the
Headteacher.
Approaches to Training
The following are approaches that have been used in PSABH that have been observed to
improve the collaboration between schools and their communities:
- Include school and community representatives at all stages
Representatives from both schools and communities need to be invited to participate throughout
the intervention, from initial sensitisation/ mobilisation sessions through to training and planning
for further action. Once a meeting or stage of the process takes place with only one side of the
equation, joint ownership will be lost.
- Establish selection criteria on a participatory basis
Some participants have to be selected based on their position, such as a Headteacher or a Chief,
while others can be selected to fulfil an identified role, such as representing parents and the
community or providing teaching support to the Headteacher. Selection criteria for these
participants are best formed or reviewed in a participatory process involving appropriate
representatives of the targeted audiences. The ownership that this process instils is valuable
throughout the rest of the implementation process.
32
- Frame activities within which participants establish their own issues within the given
subject area and facilitate them to determine their common priorities.
Whilst donors and implementing agencies often prefer ready-made and fully documented
courses of training or implementation, the involvement of participants is richer and longer lasting
if a framework is provided, within which they can identify and rank their own priorities and
preferred strategies of response, which can come from a menu of responses.
- Allow opportunities for changes in language depending on the objective.
If the content is interesting enough, participants will help each other with translation, but at
points when achieving the objectives require community energy and dynamic, allow for
participants to choose the language. That means one needs some trainers/facilitators who can
lead such a session.
- Differentiate between cultural values and beliefs and cultural practices.
Many people protect cultural practices in the name of cultural values. This is often either a
barrier to change at community level, or can represent an excuse for not fully engaging in the
initiative. On controversial or sensitive issues, separate objective fact from moral or value-laden
education. Challenge and encourage participants to do justice to the need for moral education
over and above fact-based information.
- Address the issue of conflicting and competing messages and views directly
Communities include many voices, which often compete with and contradict each other. These
multiple voices often have to be presented to mixed audiences for them to recognize them and
start to harmonise them.
- Anonymous question boxes can be very useful with such mixed audiences
Through a question box individuals feel free to raise issues that are close to them and it allows
everyone a chance to voice their concerns. Also, facilitators can then identify the most
appropriate entry point and level of detail to present.
- The question of gender balance and involvement is still a challenging one.
The Kenyan education sector is still substantially dominated by men and the involvement of
women from the school side will always be weak. In order to increase the number of women
participants we encourage schools and communities to select women to represent the
communities. However, women are often not seen as natural leaders of change in communities,
even though they may be supportive of the initiative or seen as approachable by a target audience
(such as young people). It is possible, therefore, for a predominantly male audience to result.
- Combining Ministries leads to greater resource mobilization at local level
Ministries such as the Ministry of Education and that of Health, can be powerful and lead to
further joint initiatives, but time and effort is needed to harmonise the team work between the
two and to create common objectives and standards between all members.
33
MAIN FINDINGS
The history of the majority of public schools in Kenya is steeped in a community self
help tradition commonly referred to as Harambee. Outside the urban areas where some local
authorities have built some schools, rural communities have been largely responsible for
provision of primary school facilities and services. The results from both the quantitative and
qualitative analysis showed that community-based activities by schools have been long-standing
and ingrained in their origins, ownership and constitution of management and staff. Almost all of
the schools are willing to make their facilities available to their communities for various
activities such as Harambees.
Enabling Characteristics
From the quantitative analysis, the main enabling characteristics of schools that were involved in
CBO-related activities were:
Higher level of parent involvement in Parent Teacher Association (PTA).
Larger number and frequency of PTA meetings held by the school.
Availability of funds from an external source/sponsor.
Involvement of religious organizations in the school.
Including these characteristics, the qualitative study revealed more characteristics of schools that
are likely to undertake activities in their communities. Schools are more likely to be successful in
undertaking community-based activities if they have:
A church-based sponsor.
Have a strong commitment from the school’s Head Teacher (HT) to community-based
activities.
Have school teachers that are mostly from the local community.
Have teachers with training relevant to community-based work e.g., from PSABH.
Further, this training increased teachers’ level of involvement and interest in such
activities. It is essential for teachers to be given some form of training, if they have not
already done so.
In addition, for effective school involvement in community-based work there must be:
Regular feedback between HT, School Management Committee (SMC) and PTA.
Involvement of SMC to lessen burden on HT and other Teachers.
Quick implementation of programs to prevent misappropriation of funds by ALL those
involved.
We note that schools that are performing well overall are likely to successful in community-
based work. Therefore, linking community-based programmes to overall performance of schools
may be necessary if they are to be involved and successful in carrying out community-based
activities.
34
Several “inhibiting” characteristics or situations were noted and should receive careful attention:
Government policy of free education has had a negative effect on the sense of community
ownership and responsibility for their schools. Communities are now less willing to
participate in school activities, especially those involving monetary contributions.
Both schools and communities are overwhelmed with the growing number of orphans.
Lack of funds impede community activities.
Teachers may be over worked.
Lack of interest from HT.
Lack of programming (design, implementation and evaluation) skills.
Most schools are understaffed.
The effect of HIV/AIDS on teachers, pupils and communities.
Guidelines for Incorporating Schools as CBOs
Drawing from the findings, the guidelines proposed below could be used as the basis for
incorporating schools as more central players in community-based initiatives.
A school must be identified by a community as their own.
The HT has to demonstrate a strong commitment to CBO-related activities.
Both the SMC and PTA must be supportive and frequently involved in school activities.
Programme management skills among HT and SMC must be assessed and gaps filled.
Teachers in the school already have some training such as the one from PSABH or are
willing to be trained on CBO-related work (training teachers and community
representatives together in an initiative that is identified as their joint responsibility may
also be important).
The school must be adequately staffed to avoid over-working the teachers.
Support needs to be given in facilitating identification of, and prioritization between,
education and community needs.
Availability of funds either through a sponsor or otherwise.
Conclusion
The fact that several schools in Kenya are already involved in their communities, with
most of the schools in this study actively taking on CBO-related activities beyond their day-to-
day functioning is promising, particularly given their social and economic environment. Overall,
whether or not a school chooses to adopt CBO activities is heavily determined by whether the
school has any sponsorship. The analysis also reveals the concerns of parents and teachers about
the fact that the HIV and AIDS pandemic is overwhelming the overall needs of their schools and
communities. This may help to provide spaces for support and encouragement for schools to take
up community-based activities.
Since two-thirds of the schools in the PSABH sample are among the poorest schools
academically in their respective regions this would suggest that these schools have multiple
concerns. Thus, for them to be involved in these extra activities seems to suggest a wider concern
for their communities and the lives of their students. The ability of these schools to function
beyond the basic educational needs also highlights the importance of the PSABH training that
35
was provided to some of the teachers in these schools. Hence, the success of school involvement
in CBO-related activities is reinforced by the training that that teachers might have had in such or
related activities. Further research on this potential could prove highly useful for understanding
the resourcefulness of the teachers who were trained through PSABH in settings where needs are
not adequately met, to be able to go beyond the basic educational framework.
Schools have some fundamental advantages in the field of community service. They can
give leadership, human resource and skills. They are also a good referral and information
dissemination center for rural communities. Engaging them in activities that have a bearing on
the school curriculum as well as the existing community problems could enhance their
effectiveness as CBOs. However, such projects should be designed within certain limits and
parameters that balance between education and community expectations. The recruitment of
more teachers will release more time to the already overworked pool. While the MOEST
Education Act encourages community social responsibility and even awards it, it has not been
conceptualized adequately to facilitate its institutionalization.
As a caveat to the entire study, the quantitative analysis involved only 163 and the
qualitative analysis only 8 schools. All but one school in this study was located in Nyanza
Province. This means that these results may not necessarily be representative of the entire
Kenyan picture.
36
REFERENCES
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2003.
Chitere, E. P. (1994) Community Development: Its conceptions and Practice with emphasis on
Africa. Kenya.**?
Futures Group Europe (2003) Community-Based Strategies for HIV/AIDS Care and Support in
Nyanza, Kenya. Futures Group Europe, Nairobi, Kenya.
Kairi, W. (2001) The Nature of Community Based Organizations in Kenya. Anthill Consultants,
Nairobi, Kenya.
Kairi, W. (2003). Exploratory Study on Schools as Community Based Organizations: A
preliminary study on the nature of CBOs in Kenya, Anthill Consultants, Nairobi, Kenya.
Kopiyo, G. and Mukui, J. (2001) Local Level Institutions: Local Level organizing for community
Development in Kenya. Kenya.**?
Maticka-Tyndale, E., Brouillard-Coyle, C., Gallant, M., Holland, D. and Metcalfe, K.
2003 Primary School Action for Better Health: 6-Month Evaluation, University of Windsor,
Windsor, ON.
McCormick, D., Mutullah, W. V. and Kinyanjui, M. N. (2001) Enhancing institutional capacity
for policy development, dialogue and advocacy: Role of Associations and other Community
Based Organizations. ***
Murphy, R., Smith, S. M., Thomases, J. (2001) CBO Schools: Reinventing High School
Education. Center for Youth Development Journal, Vol. 2, No. 3:
https://silenus.safe-order.net/cydjournal/2001Summer/CBO.html. Accessed June 2003.
Mutullah, W. and Lewa, R. (2001) An Overview of Community Based Women’s Organizations
case study of Nyeri and Suba Districts. Kenya.
Seatle Community Network (2003) Community Self-Management. Website:
http://www.scn.org/ip/cds/cmp/key/key-c.htm. Accessed June 2003.
UNICEF (1999) CHILDREN ORPHANED BY AIDS: Front-line responses from eastern and
southern Africa. Website:
http://www.unAIDS.org/publications/documents/children/young/orphrepteng.pdf. Accessed June
2003.
World Bank (2003) Community Driven Development. Website:
http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/strategies/chapters/cdd/cdd.htm. Accessed June 2003.
37
APPENDIX A – THEMATIC RECODING
Which facilities the school makes available to the community (q30a2 in CRS and q47a2 in SRS).
AVLPHYS School makes physical facilities available
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q30a2_1 Facilities available – School buildings
Q30a2_4 Facilities available – School hall and/or rooms
Q30a2_9 Church within the school compound
Q30a2_10 Latrines
Q47a2_1 School buildings
Q47a2_4 School hall and/or rooms
Q47a2_8 Church within the school compound
Q47a2_9 Latrines
AVLAMEN School makes its amenities available
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q30a2_7 Furniture
Q30a2_8 Water
Q30a2_12 School van
Q30a2_13 Fuel
Q30a2_14 School shades
Q47a2_7 Furniture
Q47a2_10 Draw water from school
Q47a2_11 Text books
Q47a2_12 Canteen
Q47a2_13 School van
Q47a2_14 School shades
Q47a2_15 Kitchen
Q47a2_16 Meeting in the compound
AVLLAND School makes its land/fields available
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q30a2_2 Facilities available – School land
Q30a2_3 Facilities available – School fields
Q47a2_2 School fields
Q47a2_3 School land
AVLHLTH School makes health facilities and information available Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q30a2_5 Facilities available – School health facilities
Q30a2_11 HIV/AIDS literature
Q47a2_5 School health facilities
For what type of activities is the school used (q30a3 in the CRS and q47a3 in the SRS)?
38
USE4COM School used for community activities
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q30a3_1 Wedding and other ceremonies
Q30a3_2 Church activities
Q30a3_4 Sports events not associated with school
Q30a3_5 Performances
Q30a3_9 Funerals
Q30a3_10 Political meetings
Q30a3_11 Pastoral care
Q30a3_12 Video shows
Q30a3_14 Meetings
Q30a3_15 Women group fund raising
Q47a3_1 Wedding and other ceremonies
Q47a3_2 Church activities
Q47a3_4 Sports events not associated with school
Q47a3_5 Performances
Q47a3_8 Meetings by various groups/organizations
Q47a3_9 Chief Baraza
Q47a3_10 Voting centre
Q47a3_11 Women group fundraising
Q47a3_12 Funeral activity
Q47a3_14 Use of school van
Q47a3_15 Battle field
USE4CBO School used for outreach activities
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q30a3_3 Farming and agricultural activities
Q30a3_6 Health care
Q30a3_8 Training by NGO
Q30a3_13 Polling for disabled
Q47a3_3 Farming and agricultural activities
Q47a3_6 Health care
Q47a3_13 Child immunization
What types of activities are taken on by the school outside its day-to-day functions (q31a2 in
CRS and q48a2 in SRS)?
ASSIST2 School takes on activities to assist members of the community
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q31a2_1 Meal programme
Q31a2_2 Assisting orphans
Q31a2_10 Helping the disabled
Q31a2_12 Assistance to widows/widowers
Q31a2_13 Assistance to aged
Q31a2_14 Assistance to guardians
Q31a2_16 Helping the needy
39
Q48a2_4 Orphans sponsorship by other organizations
Q48a2_9 Assisting HIV AIDS victim
Q48a2_10 Assisting the priest
Q48a2_11 Lunch programme
Q48a2_20 Assisting the needy, widows, widowers
Q48a2_21 Talking to orphans
Q48a2_23 Assisting sick people
PROVIDE School takes on activities to provide resources to the community
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q31a2_4 Health activities/care
Q31a2_11 Farming
Q31a2_18 Water project
Q31a2_19 Repairing the roads nearby
Q48a2_2 Health activities, drugs, vaccination
Q48a2_7 Farming
Q48a2_8 Creating awareness of HIV/AIDS to community
Q48a2_17 Water project
Q48a2_24 Food donation
COMMUN School takes on community related activities
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q31a2_5 Workshops
Q31a2_8 Demonstration/speeches at Baraza
Q31a2_17 Religious activities
Q48a2_1 Speeches at Baraza
Q48a2_5 Youth camp activities/cleaning/Drama/Religious camp
Q48a2_6 Film show
Q48a2_15 Baptismal class
Q48a2_19 Church summons, spiritual
EXTRACUR School takes on activities related to extracurricular activities
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q31a2_3 Sports
Q31a2_6 Youth programmes
Q31a2_7 Clubs
Q31a2_9 Child to child programme
Q31a2_15 Parents meetings/General meeting
Q48a2_3 Parent meeting
Q48a2_12 Nursery school
Q48a2_13 Buying learning materials
Q48a2_14 Buying of school uniform, bedding
Q48a2_16 Sports, soccer
Q48a2_18 Green Belt
Q48a2_22 Fund raising
From whom does the Head Teacher need permission to take on activities outside of the day-to-
40
day functioning of the school (q31b2 in CRS and q48b2 in SRS)?
PERMSCHL Head Teacher needs permission from school authorities
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q31b2_1 School management committee
Q31b2_6 Church sponsors
Q48b2_1 School management committee
Q48b2_6 Church sponsors
Q48b2_8 Proprietor
PERMADM Head Teacher needs permission from school administration
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q31b2_2 District Education Committee
Q31b2_9 Provincial Administration
Q48b2_2 District education office
Q48b2_7 Provincial Administration
PERMCMPR Head Teacher needs permission from community leaders and/or parents
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q31b2_3 Community leaders
Q31b2_4 Parents
Q48b2_3 Community leaders
Q48b2_4 Parents
PERMORG Head Teacher needs permission from the organization
Coding Value Label Derived From
0
1
No
Yes
Q31b2_7 Project representative
Q31b2_8 NGOs
41
APPENDIX B – STATISTICAL RECODES
Table 1: Subset Variables Entered Translations
(Logistic Regression)
Translations
(Multiple
Regression)
School
Characteristics
School has PTA meetings
Total number of PTA meetings
Total students
Total number of male students
Total number of female students
Total number of streams
Total teachers
Zonal inspector’s report of staffing
Duration of head teacher
Proportion of female teachers
Quintile distribution of KCPE scores
Ethnic population of students
Socio-Economic Status
Proportion of female
teachers:
20%; 20-30%;
30-40%; 40-50%;
50-60%; >60%
Ethnic population of
students:
>=90% Kisii pupils
>=90% Luo pupils
Mixed
Socio-Economic Status:
50; 50-52.9; 53-55.9;
56-58.9; >=59
Total number of
male students:
Truncated at 460
Total number of
female students:
Truncated at 468
Proportion of female
teachers; Ethnic
population of
students; Socio-
Economic Status
(same as for logistic
regression)
Sponsor
Characteristics
NGO sponsors the school
DEB sponsor
Private Body sponsor
Catholic church sponsor
Mainline Protestant church sponsor
Breakaway sponsor
Traditional church sponsor
Sponsor provides:
Financial contribution
Position on school management
committee
Owner of school compound Selection of
Head Teacher
Co-opted member of the school
management committee
Past involvement, not currently involved
Spiritual contribution
None None
HIV/AIDS
Activities
Number of PTA meetings AIDS is
discussed
Total number of places AIDS is
discussed
Number of religious meetings on HIV
Number of AIDS orphans
Number died of AIDS
Whether AIDS mentioned at funeral
Number of PTA meetings
where AIDS discussed:
None; one; two; three or
more
Total number of activities
where AIDS discussed:
None or 1; 2; 3; 4 or
more
Number of AIDS
orphans:
Truncated at 500
Number died of AIDS:
Truncated at 100
Total number of
activities where
AIDS discussed;
Number of AIDS
orphans; Number
died of AIDS (same
as logistic
regression)
42
APPENDIX C
QUESTIONS FOR FOLLOW-UP QUALITATIVE STUDY
PARTICIPANTS:
Head Teacher, Another Teacher (represent both male and female)
Representative of the School Management Committee (or PTA)
Community Leader
HEAD TEACHER/OTHER TEACHER
A. INTRODUCTION
Your school has been identified as one of those involved in community activities. We would
like to ask some questions to fully understand how you are able to do this so that we can use this
information to assist other schools.
B1. BACKGROUND -- Personal
[This could be asked at the beginning or end of the interview]
1. What is your role in the school?
2. How old are you?
3. How long have you been teaching?
4. How long have you been at this school?
5. How long have you been in this community?
B2. BACKGROUND -- School
1. Approximately how many pupils are at this school?
2. How many teachers work full-time at this school? How many are female?
3. How would you describe the catchment or coverage area of the school?
C. ACTIVITIES
1. Has the school taken on activities that are not directly related to the day-to-day running of
the school? For example: meal program, health activities, assistance to orphans, activities
with out-of-school youth. (Probe for as many activities as possible)
2. What activities were taken on in the past year? Who or what were the targets? Why these
activities were taken on?
3. Does the school need permission to take on any projects? If yes, from whom?
4. How does the school decide what activities to take on?
5. Are these activities usually done satisfactorily?
6. Are there other things that you think the school should be doing in the community? What
are these things? Why?
D. TEACHERS
1. Have teachers ever taken on activities outside the set school curriculum or usual school
activities?
IF yes: Provide an example.
Who or what was the target of these?
43
When did these take place?
Where did they take place?
2. Who do teachers work with on these activities? Example
3. Do they volunteer their time?
4. Are they compensated for their time, if so how?
E. MEETINGS 1. Does the school have regular PTA meetings?
2. How often does the PTA meet?
3. What types of issues are usually discussed at PTA meetings?
Describe what is discussed: (For example, if HIV/AIDS is mentioned, what is typically
said about it at these meetings?)
4. How often is HIV/AIDS discussed at these meetings?
F. SPONSOR
1. Does this school have a sponsor?
IF yes: Who is the sponsor?
What kinds of assistance has the school received from this sponsor?
For example: provide resources, funding, training? Describe:
What role does the sponsor play in the day-to-day running of the school?
For example: selection of teachers, selection of head teacher, removal of teachers,
removal of head teacher, approval of school activities? Describe:
G. RESOURCES
1. Does the community use school resources for projects or activities other than regular
meetings?
IF yes: Which ones?
What are some examples of projects and school resources used?
IF no: Is there a reason why school resources are not used by the community?
2. Does the school use community resources for projects or activities other than regular
meetings?
IF yes: Which ones?
What are some examples of projects and community resources used?
IF no: Is there a reason why community resources are not used by the school?
44
MEMBER OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE (SMC)
A. INTRODUCTION
Your school has been identified as one of those involved in community activities. We would
like to ask some questions to fully understand how you are able to do this so that we can use this
information to assist other schools.
B. BACKGROUND 1. How old are you?
2. What is your role in the community?
3. How long have you lived in this community?
4. What is your relationship to the school?
5. What role do you play on the School Management Committee (SMC)?
6. How long have you been a member of the SMC?
C. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE (SMC)
1. What role does the SMC play in the day-to-day running of the school? For example:
selection of teachers, selection of head teacher, removal of teachers, removal of head teacher,
approval of school activities? Describe:
2. How are they appointed or named?
3. Who are the members: parents? Teachers? Community leaders who aren’t parents?
4. How many members are women?
5. What is teacher involvement on the SMC?
6. How often does the SMC meet?
7. When was the last meeting?
8. How many attended the last meeting? Is this typical, more than usual, less than usual?
9. What types of issues were discussed at the last meeting? Describe these:
D. ACTIVITIES
1. Has the school management committee (SMC) taken on activities that are not directly
related to the day-to-day running of the school? For example: meal program, health activities,
assistance to orphans, activities with out-of-school youth. (Probe for as many activities as
possible)
2. What activities were taken on in the past year? Who or what were the targets? Why
these activities were taken on?
3. Does the SMC need permission to take on any projects?
If yes, from whom?
4. How does the SMC decide what to take on?
5. What do you think about these activities?
E. RESOURCES
1. Does the SMC use school resources for projects or activities other than regular meetings?
Which ones? What are some examples of projects and school resources used?
2. Are teachers involved in the SMC projects that take place outside of the usual school
time and activities?
IF yes: Do they volunteer their time? Are they compensated for their time, if so how?
45
3. Does the SMC use community resources for projects or activities other than regular
meetings? Which ones? What are some examples of projects and community resources
used?
46
COMMUNITY LEADER
A. INTRODUCTION
Your school has been identified as one of those involved in community activities. We would
like to ask some questions to fully understand how you are able to do this so that we can use this
information to assist other schools.
B. BACKGROUND
1. How old are you?
2. How long have you lived in this community?
3. What is your role in the community?
4. What is your relationship to the school?
C. ACTIVITIES
1. What can you tell us about the involvement of the school in your community outside
of their normal day-to-day work?
2. What types of activities has the school taken on that you see as beneficial to the
community? How often do these activities take place? Who or what were the targets of
these activities? Why were these activities taken on?
(Probe for as many as possible)
3. What activities have been taken on in the last year?
4. What do you think about these activities?
5. What other activities do you think the school should carry out in the community? (Probe
for as many as possible)
D. RESOURCES
1. Does the community use school resources for projects or activities other than regular
meetings? Which ones?
2. What are some examples of projects and school resources used?
3. Does the school use community resources for projects or activities?
IF yes: What types of activities? Describe these (probe for as many as possible)
47
APPENDIX D – REGRESSION RESULTS
We used stepwise regression for the analysis (Tables 1 and 2). To assess the relative
importance of each variable, we put the variables into three main conceptual groups: school
characteristics, sponsor characteristics and HIV/AIDS related activities. The variables in each
group were entered into a model. The variables which produced the best results in each of the
three models were entered in the final model. Only statistically significant results for the final
models are shown.
Table 1: Logistic Regression Results - Whether school takes on CBO activities Model Model Variables Log Odds S.E. Odds
School
Characteristics
R² = 0.06a
Majority pupils Kisii -.701 .370 .496
Number of PTA meetings .328* .166 1.388
Proportion of female teachers 40-50% .957* .474 2.604
Constant -.597 .385 .550
Sponsor
Characteristics
R² = 0.05
Catholic sponsorship .827 .483 2.287
Mainline Protestant sponsorship 1.342** .488 3.825
Breakaway sponsorship 1.373* .626 3.947
Sponsor involved in selecting Head Teacher 1.005 .518 2.731
Constant -1.101** .424 .333
HIV/AIDS
Activities
R² = 0.10
1 PTA meeting where AIDS discussed 1.159* .475 3.186
2 PTA meetings where AIDS discussed 1.775*** .537 5.903
3 or more PTA meetings where AIDS discussed 1.672* .683 5.322
2 community activities where AIDS discussed -1.018** .396 .361
Constant -.909* .419 .403
Final Model
R² = 0.13
Majority pupils Kisii -1.369*** .424 .254
Sponsor involved in selecting Head Teacher 1.422* .560 4.144
1 PTA meeting where AIDS discussed 1.454** .495 4.281
2 PTA meetings where AIDS discussed 2.186*** .567 8.904
3 or more PTA meetings where AIDS discussed 1.700* .682 5.476
Constant -1.210** .432 .298 a Analog to R² based on MacFadden’s calculation; * p ≤ 0.05; ** p ≤ .01; *** p ≤ 0.001
Table 2: Multiple Regression Results - Number of CBO activities taken on by the school Model Model Variables B S.E. β
School
Characteristics
R²=0.291
Number of PTA meetings .195 .128 .175
Proportion of staff to pupils .017* .008 .220
Proportion of female teachers 40-50% .535 .333 .182
Proportion of female teachers 50-60% 1.209** .454 .310
Proportion of female teachers >60% -.635 .476 -.158
Quintile distribution of KCPE scores .097 .099 .110
SES between 50 and 52.9 -.769* .315 -.274
Constant 1.864 .640
Sponsor
Characteristics
R²=0.152
DEB Sponsorship -.385 .488 -.091
Sponsor makes financial contribution to school .873** .313 .311
Catholic sponsorship .461 .339 .182
Mainline Protestant sponsorship .587 .333 .240
Constant 2.575*** .298
HIV/AIDS
Activities
R²=0.127
AIDS discussed in 3 community activities .411 .271 .166
Religious groups hold meeting on AIDS .551 .630 .112
Total number of AIDS activities in church .080 .054 .191
Estimate number of deaths due to AIDS .008 .007 .143
Constant 1.878*** .543
Final Model
R²=0.077
Sponsor makes financial contribution to school .789* .311 .278
Constant 3.000*** .152
48
