Principal elements to build a correct sentencePrincipal elements to build a correct sentence

Subject + verb + object

Try to follow this order:

• Decide what the subject X is • State what X does or define it• Then state when, where, how and why X does Y• Add any other qualifying comments on X

Ex: Every morning John rides his bicycle in the park with his favourite shirt on, smiling because he’s happy.

Normally – the Subject comes before the verb

Ex: In the simulation was used X - WRONGX was used in the simulation - RIGHT

the Subject is not too far from the verb : use activerather than passive sentences

Ex: In fig. 2 a reference underlying a problem of false positive results is shown – WRONG

Fig. 2 shows a reference……. – RIGHT

Ten datasets with the same X, but a different Y, along with several datasets with a different X, but a similar Y, were generated – WRONG

A number of datasets were generated: those with the same X along with those with a different X…….. RIGHT

Avoid inserting secondary information, which doesnot describe the subject, between subject and verb

Ex: The analytical steps, owing to the difficulties in measuring X, require some simplifications - WRONGThe analytical steps require some simplifications, owing to…. - RIGHTOwing to the difficulties in measuring X, the analytical steps require some simplifications - RIGHT

Verb + Subject with NEITHER / NOR and So

Ex: X didn’t function and nor did Y - RIGHT= X didn’t function and y didn’t function – X was positive and so was Y – RIGHT= X was positive and Y was positive

Negations – Put “not” next to the verb it refers to

Ex: Experiments were performed in not very good conditions - WRONGExperiments were not performed in very good conditions - RIGHT

Use of PRE-MODIFIERS - nouns that can be used:

Ex: A plastic container (this is a container made of plastic)A gas pipe (this is not a pipe made of gas, but one for transporting gas)

Like adjectives

This type of modifications can be ambiguous:

Ex: Different kind of animal reproduction.

= different kinds of reproduction by animals (the reproduction is different)

= the reproduction of different kinds of animals (animals are different)

Instead of prepositional phrases use:“of” “for” and “by” to avoid misunderstanding

Ex: It ensured combustion measurement - AMBIGUOUSIt ensured measurement of combustion - CLEARER

Use of the genitive (‘s) :

Ex: Alvarez’s paper on XBillow et al’s paper on YThe Italians’ idea about pasta makingAndress’ paper on sulphidesBurger & Wilmar’s paper on ZThe dog’s bone

- The genitive is normally used with humans and animalowners

- With nouns of special interest to human activity

Ex: The brain’s total solid weightScience’s influence

Use of the genitive (‘s) :

Ex: These are the results of ten years’ studying, which was divided into two five-year periodsA mile’s walk

- With expressions of time and distance

- Avoid the genitive and pre-modifying nouns in titles

Ex: The problem’s definition / the problem definition - WRONGThe definition of the problem - RIGHTDefining the problem - RIGHT

Ex: This is an interesting theory and is similar to the one proposed by Smith - WRONG……and is similar to Smith’s - RIGHT

- To avoid using the pronoun “the one”

Use of the definite article: THE

General rules: use the definite article THE in frontof nouns used with specific, definite reference

-When plural or singular nouns are followed by a qualifying phrase

Ex: The paintings we saw at the exhibition (it means those specific paintings)

- To refer back to something already mentioned

Ex: We saw an exhibition of paintings and photos. The paintings were more interesting than the photos

Use of definite article: THE

- For things which are unique in their kind

Ex: The environment/the atmosphere/the sun/the earth/the wind/the ground/the Atlantic/the Alps

- With superlatives

Ex: The best results so farThe least important findings

The definite article: THE is not used- When talking about general concepts

- Before numbers

Ex: The Fig.2; the appendix 3; the paint 2; the 42%

Ex: The languages are useful; the scientific papers are often written too quickly

- Before names of people, countries, languages

Ex: The Smithson’s article; the English is not an easy language; the Italy is a beautiful country;

- With the gerund

Ex: The determining of X is difficult;

Ex: The paper outilines a method for doing X - WRONGThis paper outlines………. RIGHT

- Before “paper” in abstracts and introductions

- Before abstract nouns when not followed by a qualifying phraseEx: Men fear death….. RIGHT

The death of the Prime Minister………. RIGHT

Numbers and sizes

- After words like table, figure, appendix, etc… use figures not wordsEx: See Fig. 2

Eq. 1Schedule 3

- Numbers and quantities + verb referred to them = always singular

Ex: Three hundred kms is not too farOne million dollars is a lot of money We need to do another three testsFive grams of X was added…

- Numbers are made plural only if they mean: centinaia, migliaia ecc.

Ex: Three hundred people came to the conferenceHundreds of people came to the conference

- After words like table, figure, appendix, etc… use figures not words

Ex: 0.4- 6.8- 9.2 0.45- 6.79- 9.21 0.448- 6.786- 9.211

- Decimal places: use always the same decimal places within the same paper

Numbers and sizes- Numbers are not followed by plural nouns when those nouns

are used as adjectives

Ex: A three years old child - WRONGA three year old child – RIGHTA 5000 Megabytes computer - WRONGA 5000 Megabyte computer - RIGHT

- Some journals don’t accept a hyphen (-) in the following cases

Ex: In a range 1/2000 – 1/50 - WRONGIn a range from 1/2000 to 1/50 - RIGHTFigures 6-7 show that…. - WRONGFigures 6 and 7 show that…. - RIGHT

- Put a space between numbers and units

Ex: 75 kgException: 75%

Numbers and sizes

- Writing sentences with numbers 1 to 10 use the word and not the figure

Ex: We did two experiments We did 12 experiments

- Numbers beginning a sentence must be spelled

Ex: Twelve people came to our meeting

- If a number from 1 to 10 is followed by a higher number, that number too should be written as a word

Ex: We did between two and twelve tests on each sample

- Fractions and ordinal numbers between other words or at the beginning of sentences should be written in words

Ex: Two thirds of those interviewed said the one fifth of their income was spent on fuelThe first and the second experiment proved the most successful

Numbers and sizes- The standard abbreviations for the standard (SI) units are not

followed by full stops Ex: “mg” and not “mg.”

“cm” and not “cm.”“sec” and not “sec.”

- The standard abbreviations for the standard units are not followed by “s”

Ex: “5 cm” and not “5 cms”

- The standard prefix “kilo-” should always be abbreviated “k” never “K”

According to “Systeme Internationale” (SI) the abbreviations for unitsof measurement are:

Meter – m Milliseconds – ms Kilogram - kgGram – g Seconds – s Minute – minMole – mol Hour – h Liter – L (not l)Day – d Milliliter – mL Week – wkDegree - °C Year - y

Differences in British (GB) and American (US) spelling

GB USA GB Ex: US Ex:

-re -er metre, centre meter,

center-ce -se practice

practise-our -or colour, behaviour color,

behavior-ogue -ge catalogue

catalog-amme -am programme

program-ey -ay grey

gray-l -ll marvelous

marvellous-ise,-yse -ize, -yze materialise, analyse materialize,

analyze-em,-en -im,-in empower, ensure impower,

insure-ae-,-oe- -e- anemia, oedema anemia,

edema-ll - l traveller

traveler-ph- -f- sulpher

sulfer

Latin expressions used in scientific papers

e.g. = exempli gratia = example given

Ex: This can only be done, e.g. when values are higher than 100 - WRONGThis can only be done, for example, when values are higher than 100 There are many machines available for this purpose, e.g. X, Y, Z

- “e.g.” or “for example” should only be used to simplify the structure of the sentence

- e.g.: it can’t be used in the middle of the sentence but only at the end of it. Although e.g. is an abbreviation, in modern journals we usually find it written as: eg (without fullstops)

e.g. = i.e. (exempli gratia= ad esempio) (id est= cioè)

Ex: Other quantities may thus be excluded, i.e. X - WRONGOther quantities may thus be excluded, e.g. X - RIGHTGreat Britain, i.e. England, Scotland and Wales, is not the same as the U.K. - RIGHT

i.e. = that is

Ex: This approach is enumerative. That is, it can…

Avoid redundant expressions

Ex: It must be emphasized/stressed/noted/remarked/underlined… It is interesting to observe that……

It is worthwhile bearing in mind/noting/mentioning that….Note that……….

Avoid unnecessary wordsEx: The results obtained One suitable/appropriate/convenient/interesting method is

These fundamental considerations Red in colourLarge in sizeRound in shapeDynamism and the velocity are typical characteristics of X

Avoid vague periods of time and quantities

Ex: A certain/specific amount of (specify) Both generally and specifically (unnecessary)

On many occasions (often)A good number of times (many times, frequently)From time to time (sometimes, occasionally)

Avoid impersonal expressions

Ex: It is necessary/mandatory to use X - WRONG X is necessary/ mandatory - RIGHT

It may happen that X does not appear - WRONGX may not appear – RIGHTIt is possible that X was modelled on Y - WRONGX may have been modelled on Y – RIGHTIt is possible to demonstrate [Kim, 1992] that…… - WRONGKim [1992] demonstrated that…..It is advisable to use X - WRONGX should be used - RIGHT

Use verbs rather than nouns

The result was a fast development of the town (noun)The result was that the town developed quickly (verb)

To identify X we begin with the definition of Y (noun)To identify X we begin by defining Y (verb)

Use one verb rather than a verb + noun

Table one shows a comparison between X and Y (verb+ noun)Table one compares X and Y (verb)

As shown in Figs. 1 and 14, the calculation makes a prediction that X will…… (verb+ noun)The calculation predicts that….(figs. 13, 14) (verb)

The arrival of X occured at…….. (noun + verb)X arrived at……….. (verb)

Try to replace a long sentence with prepositions or adverbs

Ideally, you have to check whether every word could be deleted or replaced by a better one.

AIM FOR ECONOMY:

Because instead of based on the fact thatFor or to instead of for the purpose ofSatisfactorily instead of in a satisfactory way/mannerConceptually instead of from a conceptual point of viewNormally instead of in the normal course of events

Avoid making unnecessary observations: apart from being

redundant they are often annoying

LIKE:

As the reader will no doubt be aware…..We need hardly remind the reader that…..It is worth pointing out at this moment…….Obviously, this does not mean that………

FALSE FRIENDS

TO ACCESS: capacità o permesso di approcciare, entrare, parlare con o usare

TO ASSESS: valutare, fissare un valore, imporre una tassa

The words access and assess could easily be confused in scientific writing. They sound almost the same and are spelled similarly, but they have different meanings. Access means the ability or permission to approach, enter, speak with, or use. Assess means to evaluate, to fix a value, or to impose a tax upon. Both are transitive verbs, in other words, they require an object. They can be made into adjectives--accessible and assessable. Access is also a noun, but assess is not (although assessment is).

TO LAY and TO LIE are frequently confused by native and non-native speakers alike. You lie in bed. But you lay the book on the table. You can equate "lay" with "put" and "lie" with "rest". You rest in bed. You put the book on the table. Germans will find them easier to distinguish because of their concepts of the accusative and dative cases. The accusative case, which indicates motion, corresponds to "lay"; the dative, or immobile case, corresponds to "lie".

Try it!

1. Lay the sample on the sample holder. Then we'll let it lie there overnight.

TO AFFECT: influenzare, interessareTO EFFECT: effettuare, mettere in atto, ma non è di uso comune

The verbs affect and effect have a similar writing. They sound almost the same and are spelled similarly, but they have different meanings. Affect means the ability to influence. Effect means to do, though it is not commonly used. Both are transitive verbs, in other words, they require an object. They both have nouns - affect = ‘effetto’ used particularly in psychiatry and effect = ‘risultato’

ACTUAL: effettivo, vero e proprio, reale1. existing in act or fact; real: an actual case of heroism; actual expenses. Syn.1. genuine, authentic, veritable, real.

EVENTUAL: finale, ultimo, definitivo, conclusivo1. happening at some indefinite future time or after a series of occurrences; ultimate: His mistakes led to his eventual dismissal. 2. depending upon uncertain events; contingent. Syn.1. subsequent, consequent, later, resulting.

BASE: base come contrario di vertice

BASIS: presupposto, principio, fondamento (figurato)

On the base of these results, we believe that……..WRONG

On the basis of these results, we believe that……RIGHT

Astrologists can make a prediction of your life starting from your natal chart……OR

Astrologists can make a prediction of your life on the basis of your natal chart

TO UTILIZE: utilizzare TO USE: usareUtilize is not an elegant variation of the word use; it has its own distinct meaning. When you utilize something, you do something using a “tool” not normally used for the purpose, e.g., you utilize a dime when the screwdriver is nowhere to be found. If the screwdriver were there, you'd use it, not utilize a stupid dime for the purpose.

RECURRENT TERMS AND THEIR MEANINGS

REMEMBER means ‘ricordare’

REMIND means to make someone remember something = ‘ricordare a qualcuno di fare qualcosa’.

I remember you to take your umbrella since it’s raining – WRONG

I remind you to take your umbrella since it’s raining – RIGHT

I remind the first time I tested this kind of sample – WRONG

I remember the first time I tested this kind of sample – RIGHT

TO ELABORATE: elaborare, studiare, sviluppareTO FABRICATE: fabbricare

PLEASE don't ever write "The sample was elaborated......" “To elaborate” in English means the following:

TO ELABORATE1. perfected, painstaking. 2. ornate. 3. refine, improve.What you typically want to express is "The sample was fabricated.....“

TO FABRICATE:1. to make by art or skill and labor; construct: The finest craftspeople

fabricated this clock. 2. to make by assembling parts or sections. 3. to devise or invent (a legend, lie, etc.) 4. to fake; forge (a document, signature, etc.) — Syn.1. See manufacture.

TO IMPROVE: migliorare

usually implies remedying a lack or a felt need: to improve a process, oneself (as by gaining more knowledge).

TO AMELIORATE: migliorare

a formal word, implies improving oppressive, unjust, or difficult conditions: to ameliorate working conditions.

TO BETTER: migliorare

It is to improve conditions which, though not bad, are unsatisfying: to better an attempt, oneself (gain a higher salary).

EXPERIMENT: esperimento

An experiment is what you do to investigate something. It is the process by which you learn something. Also, please don't use the word "experiment" to refer to the instrumentation with which you do the experiment. You can say "experimental setup", but the experiment is the PROCEDURE you use to test a hypothesis.

EXPERIENCE: esperienza

An experience is something that happens to you that is memorable in some way. Here are some of the definitions.

TO LOCATE: Individuare, scoprire

It means to find or to be situated.

TO LOCALIZE: localizzare, circoscrivere

It means to confine something to a specific area.

ABOUT, AROUND, APPROXIMATELY:

Please don't overuse "about" or "around" in your papers to mean "approximately". "About" and "around" have many other meanings than "approximately“. Use them as variety and as alternatives to "approximately", but remember that "approximately" is really what you usually want to express.

LESS is used to express a smaller quantity of something: Less wine was produced this year in Switzerland.

FEWER means a smaller number of units: Fewer bottles of wine were produced this year in Switzerland.

Try it!1. This atomically-resolved image of the surface of graphite

measuring 10x10 nm has fewer atoms in it than the 20x20nm image.

2. We have no fewer than 10 torsional pendulums.3. "Let's apply less voltage and see what happens.“4. "Downloading images from Netscape is easy today. There's less

traffic, that is, fewer requests.“

5. Who has less time, the students or the professors?

AS: nel ruolo di, in qualità di, conforme a. With this meaning is like a preposition and should be followed by a noun.

LIKE: in modo simile (ma non uguale), nella stessa misura di, simile a (similar to). With verbs use like + gerund.

Ex: Like researcher he was a success, but not like teacher - WRONG

As a researcher he was a success, but not as a teacher – RIGHT

This technique is as the previous one – WRONG

This technique is like or similar to the previous one – RIGHT

X can be used like an alternative – WRONG

X can be used as an alternative – RIGHT

It’s as to talk to a wall – WRONG

It’s like talking to a wall - RIGHT

CLASSICAL makes reference to the Greek and Roman culture, or to the works of art of the classical period. In a scientific context it is better to translate “classico” with traditional, when it is compared to something new, or with typical in other situations.

CLASSIC translates the word “classico” when the meaning is the supreme example of something.

The classical approach is to clean the samples and then……WRONG

The usual/traditional approach is to…..RIGHT

This is a classic case of Pavlov conditioning….. RIGHT

ECONOMICAL means that makes you spare money.

ECONOMIC that concerns economy

The government’s economical policy is a fiasco……WRONG

The government’s economic policy is a fiasco…..RIGHT

From an economical point of view……..WRONG

From an economic point of view……..RIGHT

SENSITIVE means “sensibile” .

SENSIBLE means “sensato”, “ragionevole”. If you mean “notevole” you should translate it with “appreciable/significant”.

These plants are very sensible to heat……WRONG

These plants are very sensitive to heat…..RIGHT

There was a sensible rise in temperature…..WRONG

There was a significant rise in temperature…..RIGHT

CONSISTENT VOCABULARY

It is good to use a rich and varied vocabulary in “creative” writing BUT in scientific writing your vocabulary should be consistent:

Womski & Kirk (1985) investigated relationships between family environment and juvenile delinquency in a sample of 2000 adolescent boys from Washington DC. They found that a number of familial factors (family income, parents’ marital status, parental criminality, parental drug abuse and intrafamily violence) showed a significant relationship with antisocial behavior. The risk of delinquent conduct was particularly high for young people from families in which one or both parents were heroin users, and for victims of within-family violence. The authors performed a factor analysis to identify associated groups of family variables; this analysis extracted three factors, denominated Family dimensions (Parental Competence, and Parental Delinquency) showed significant correlations with criminal behavior. The third variable (family income) showed no significant correlation. These findings thus suggested that the quality of social education provided by parents is independent of income. However, other studies have obtained results suggesting that family income has important effects.

•A scientific article consists of many pages of dense and complicated text: if you do not use consistent vocabulary, the reader will often find it very difficult to follow the thread. Let us read the following text and list all instances of inconsistent vocabulary use below……

1) Juvenile delinguency – antisocial behavious, delinquent conduct, criminal behavior

2) Adolescent boys – young people3) Familial factors – family variables4) Intrafamily violence – Within-family violence5) Factors – variables, dimensions

ANSWERS

GUIDE WORDS

Scientific texts are much easier to follow if the author includes “guide words” in order to make clear the links between sentences (“linkers”: e.g. “However,…”) or to identify particular blocks of text (“labels”: e.g. “In conclusion,…”)

1) Nevertheless……

2) First…….

3) In contrast……..

4) Furthermore…….

5) Taken together…….

Do you know that there are perceptible differences between "with" and "within", "in" and "into", "up", "up on" and "upon"? These are the most frequent examples of how the addition of a small word or a few letters can shift the meaning of a sentence. I list only the most common definitions.

With accompanied by, in close proximity toWithin inside, in the scope ofIn indicates inclusion within a space, domain, means or timeInto the act of being includedUp to, toward, or in a more elevated positionUp on on top of (emphasis on the position), slang for informedUpon on top of, immediately afterwards, on the occasion of

I went with my husband to the movies. Within the foyer, we bought tickets after standing in line. As we went into the theater, I noticed some friends sitting up a few rows from us. I asked them "What's this film about? I'm not up on modern culture." Upon hearing this, they laughed at me.

Try them yourself.

1. John lives up the hill from Sally. 2. Scott lives higher still, up on top of the hill. 3. Upon the roof of his house, there is a television antenna. 4. He strode into the lecture hall, already in an angry mood. 5. We can work with them very easily. 6. They have good spirit within their group.

Some PREPOSITIONS and their MEANING

Verbs in scientific expressions

Simple past vs. present perfect

Problem: deciding which tense to use when talking about your own results or previous studies in a scientific writing:

Ex.: Einstein reported or ……..has reported?

Grammar rules are complicated and difficult, but in scientific writing simple rules are sufficient in most

casesSimple Past Present Perfect

•When referring to results of the present study•When referring to a single previous study•The studies in question were completed a long time ago

•The study in question was reported “recently”

• When referring to several previous studies

When in doubt use the SIMPLE PAST !!!

Verbs in scientific expressions

Verbs describing things that researchers do

• Investigate• Evaluate• Study• Identify• Analyze• Test• Determine• Estimate

SIMPLE PAST: to describe a completed action happened in the past.Specific detail of time is often given: Last year, last week, yesterday, two days ago, in1982, in the USA (= when we were in the USA)

Ex: He received a 3-month Lupron injection...and five days later he developed back pain.

(to receive-received-received)(to develop-developed-developed)

Ex: In the latest issue of the journal of the American Medical Association researchers wrote their findings on the ischemic stroke.

(to write-wrote-written) 

PRESENT PERFECTfor recent past actions: Recent past: when the time is not mentioned with Just   Indefinite past: with yet, already, never, ever  Unfinished past: with for and since

Ex: We have experimented with various chemicals, but none seem suitable.(to experiment-experimented-experimented)

Ex: This procedure has already been explained...(to explain-explained-explained)

Ex: We have known of the existence of X since 1980(Know-knew-known)

PARALLEL STRUCTURELike consistent vocabulary, parallel structures are of key importance for

scientific writing. Consider the following two texts:

Text A:The categories of human memory include sensory memory, by which we see a cine film as a continuous scene rather than a series of still images. Secondly, we have short-term memory (as used for example when you mentally calculate 3x7x4), and conscious recollection, for example of last week’s piano class, termed declarative-learning long-term memory. Finally learning how to do something, for example play the piano, is denominated procedural-learning long-term memory.Text B:Human memory can be subdivided into sensory memory (by which we see a cine film as a continuous scene rather than a series of still images), short-term memory (as used for example when you mentally calculate 3x7x4), declarative- learning long-term memory (i.e.conscious recollection, for example of last week’s piano class), and procedural-learning long-term memory (of how to do something, for example play the piano).

Consider which is the easiest text and why. Recall all the advises given in the previous slides.

• There are no firm rules about the exact contents of a scientific publication, but the guiding principle is that you should write so as to aid the reader. Think, therefore, how YOU go about looking at a paper. You read the title, look at the figures, read the abstract and conclusions. Then and only then, if you are still interested, you plunge into the text. As a reader, you would like to see “ the story told” in the title, abstract, figures, tables and conclusions. The text acts only as a supplementary material.

• An ABSTRACT, along with the title, is entered into literature databases. Hence, the Abstract is a distilled version of your paper. It contains the background, rationale, conclusions and implications of your work.

• The INTRODUCTION places your project within the context of social needs and interests, and with respect to the work of other groups. Try to answer the question “Why is this study important? (background) and “Why did we do it the way that we did” (rationale). For a longer paper, the Introduction will explain the development of your article.

• The DISCUSSION compares theory and experiment, explains possible errors, revisits the work of other groups in light of your new results, and mentions possible developments for future work, in other words “What are the implications of what you have done?”.

• The CONCLUSIONS restate the major results. Write the Conclusions as if a reader has read your paper once, filed it away for a year, then wanted a reminder, more in details than in the abstract, of what your major results were.

LAST BUT NOT LEAST

KEY POINTS

• Use articles from your field as models but try to be selective: - choose articles published in American or British journals,

preferably written by authors from American or British institutions.

- even if a phrase is well written, it quite possibly doesn’t say exactly

what you want to say, but only something similar.

• It is better to use a small vocabulary well than a large vocabulary badly!

• Clarity of expression is very important! Good scientific writing involves transmitting information and ideas in a way that maximally facilitates comprehension by the intended readers: choose the right word and construct the sentence in such a way that it is easy to read and non-ambiguous.

• Very important points:- the correct choice of the information to be included and the

order and logic of its presentation

- the use of consistent terminology throughout the article, and clear correspondences between the different sections.

• Don’t forget the tables and figures!

• The basic function of scientific writing is to express yourself clearly.

Try to use simple, unpretentious phrases that avoid unnecessary Try to use simple, unpretentious phrases that avoid unnecessary jargon and that make absolutely clear what you want to say. jargon and that make absolutely clear what you want to say.

Brevity is important, but if brevity conflicts with clarity, choose Brevity is important, but if brevity conflicts with clarity, choose clarityclarity. .

KEY POINTS

TEN Final Questions

1) Is the title accurate and easily understandable?2) Is consistent vocabulary used throughout the text?3) Have you used parallel structures?4) Could comprehension be improved by dividing large blocks of text into subsections, or shorter paragraphs?5) In general, are information presented in an order that facilitates understanding by the reader?6) Are all the entities specific to your study defined with sufficient

clarity?7) Does the text (particularly the Introduction and/or the Discussion)

contain only relevant references to previous studies?8) In the discussion, are your arguments good?Are your conclusions

supported by your data?9) Does the text of results draw attention to key findings?10) Does the abstract effectively summarize the study design, results,

and conclusions?