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Algorithms and Heuristics
• Different problems must be approached in different ways – first we must identify the type of problem
Algorithms
• When used properly will always lead you to the answer– Formulas in math
• Figuring diameter of a circle
– Systematic Searches – Practicality
Heuristics
• Ha__ __ man– Around 300 possibilities!
• Phone numbers
• Heuristics – rules of thumb– Wheel of Fortune
• Likelihood of letters» Heuristics are faster but less reliable
Problem Solving Methods
• Trial and Error
• Difference Reduction– Problem A (Fig. 8-1) A Step Backward
• Means-End Analysis– Certain things we can do (means) will have
certain results (ends)– Break the problem into parts
PSM
• Working Backward– Identifying the goal first
• Analogies– Archimedes and the crown – “Eureka!”
1.) BIRD : NEST :: (A) dog : doghouse(B) squirrel : tree(C) beaver : dam(D) cat : litter box(E) book : library
2.) DALMATIAN : DOG :: (A) oriole : bird
(B) horse : pony(C) shark : great white
(D) ant : insect(E) stock : savings
3.) DOCTOR : HOSPITAL :: (A) sports fan : stadium
(B) cow : farm(C) professor : college
(D) criminal : jail(E) food : grocery store 4.) CUB : BEAR ::
(A) piano : orchestra(B) puppy : dog(C) cat : kitten
(D) eagle : predator(E) fork : utensil
5.) TENET : THEOLOGIAN ::(A) predecessor : heir
(B) hypothesis : biologist(C) recluse : rivalry
(D) arrogance : persecution(E) guitarist : rock band
Insight and Incubators
• Insight – sudden understanding– Sometimes the answers reveal themselves to
us without much conscious awareness– Light bulb Effect
– Incubation Effect– Kohlers Chimps
• Boxes, sticks, and bananas
– Insight and jokes– Extreme problems and incubation
Obstacles
• Mental Set – our minds become fixed on a a solution process that has worked previously
• Functional Fixedness – Think of objects in the way they are usually used
Problem Solving and Creativity
• Convergent Thinking – Narrowing of the mind to find the single best solution
• Divergent Thinking – Associating freely to various elements, following “leads”
Reasoning
• Reasoning – using information to reach conclusions– Deductive Reasoning – The conclusion is true
if the premises are true• Premise – Idea or statement that provides
information that allows us to draw conclusions
– Inductive Reasoning – We reason from individual cases or particular facts to reach a conclusion
• Sometimes, said conclusion is wrong
Inductive Reasoning
• Confirmation Bias – we spend time trying to prove a hypotheses true, rather than false
» Things must be looked at from different angles and approaches to be proven
Decision Making
• Weighing the pluses and minuses– Balance sheets of pros and cons
• You must take your abilities into account
Shortcuts
• …just another word for heuristics, and I mean, seriously, who didn’t already know that?
• You didn’t? Really? Did you read the section? You did? Are you sure? Yeah, I kind of thought so…or…I’m sorry you didn’t remember that part.
Representativeness Heuristic
• T/F Quiz– What represents a random sequence?
• Making decisions about a sample based on the population that the sample appears to represent
Availability Heuristic
• Making decisions based on what is available to your immediate consciousness– Overestimations of the occurrence of events
Anchoring Heuristic
• Making decisions based on certain standards or ideas they hold– Common anchors – religion, politics – Making adjustments to anchors