Proceedings of the Roosevelt University Mini-Conference on ... · The Second Roosevelt University...

Roosevelt UniVersity

Proceedings of the Roosevelt University Mini-Conference on Teaching

Volume Two2005

Roosevelt UniVersityCHICAGO • SCHAUMBURG • ONLINE

www.roosevelt.edu


Table of Contents

Editorial Preface

Steven A. Meyers ................................................................................................. ii

Reducing Test Anxiety While Increasing Learning: The Cheat Sheet

Brigitte Mach Erbe .............................................................................................. 1

Service-Learning: A Guide to Course Implemenataion

Patrick M. Green ................................................................................................. 2

“Survey Says:” Personal Response Systems Enhance Active

Learning in the Classroom

Vicky McKinley, Cornelius Watson, and Jennifer Vlk ............................................ 4

Leveraging the Power of the Internet through Critical Thinking Activities

Jan Bone and Gale Quinn .................................................................................... 6

Using Biographies as a Tool in Teaching Personality Theory

Kennise M. Herring ............................................................................................. 8

Teaching Strategies for Sensitive Topics

Emily Gray Tedrowe ............................................................................................ 9

A-Z: What is Roosevelt University’s Policy on Academic Grading?

Joel C. Okafor ................................................................................................... 10

Social Justice in the Classroom

Marti Livingston Lansu ..................................................................................... 12

Emotional Intelligence in the Classroom

Dawn Muhammad ............................................................................................. 13

Emotional Intelligence: How Temperament and Attitude Impact Progress

Christie Ahrens .................................................................................................. 14

Why Can’t We All Just Get Along?: Thoughts on Classroom Confl ict

Steven A. Meyers ............................................................................................... 17

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Proceedings of the Roosevelt University Mini-Conference on Teaching

Volume Two2005

RUMCOT2

Editorial Preface

The Second Roosevelt University Mini-Conference on Teaching (“RUMCOT2”) was held at the Schaumburg Campus of Roosevelt University on April 29, 2005. Ninety-five full-time and part-time faculty members, administrators, and staff attended the event, which focused on enhancing teaching at the University. The conference featured 18 interactive workshops, teaching roundtable discussions, and showcase presentations as well as exhibit displays. These Proceedings provide a summary of many presentations from the conference. The authors address topics that are relevant to teaching at Roosevelt University, such as using innovative teaching strategies, incorporating service-learning or technology into your classroom, or focusing on the emotional and social dynamics in college instruction.

I hope that you find these readings helpful. For additional information about effective college teaching, you can explore related book and video holdings that have been recently purchased by the university libraries. The complete list of titles is available by clicking the link labeled “Resources for Effective College Teaching” under the Special Collections heading of the Library’s web page at http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library.

RUMCOT2 and these proceedings are sponsored by the Office of the Provost and Executive Vice President, the Center for Teaching and Learning Task Force, and the Division of Information Technology.

Steven A. MeyersAssociate Professor of PsychologyRoosevelt University(312) [email protected]

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all that useful. Students sometimes copied from the book, often inappropriately, and then argued about their grades. One student had simply copied the first sentence in each paragraph from the applicable section of the book.

THE CHEAT SHEETI finally settled on in-class exams and the “cheat sheet,” an information sheet prepared by each student rather than by me. Instructions for the “cheat sheet” are as follows:

1. No more than one sheet of paper (8.5 x 11 inches);

2. No copying from other students. The cheat sheet must be your own, although I do encourage forming study groups to prepare for the exam;

3. No photo copies of text from books or articles;

4. Pretty much anything else goes.

The first time I used cheat sheets, I was amazed at the variety of formats and the ingenuity of students. Some had used tiny fonts (and brought magnifying classes to read them). Others had used multiple print colors to code the information. A few had simply scribbled information on lined paper. I decided to get a candy bar and award it to the most information-laden cheat sheet. That eventually became part of the ritual and also helped break the tension of the exam. The most creative cheat sheet I ever saw really pushed the envelope: The student had pasted multiple layers of smaller pieces of paper on one sheet, organized by topic—a cheat sheet of mini flip books.

Students loved the idea of cheat sheets. They found, however, that they rarely needed them. Preparation of the cheat sheets proved to be sufficient for learning what was required on the test. This was the major difference between handing out information composed by me and having the students find their own. Students tailored the information to their own needs, and wrote down information they still needed to learn. The act of writing and organizing the information for the cheat sheet was sufficient for most students to fill in the holes in their knowledge.

I now allow the cheat sheet in any course where there are in-class midterm and final exams. Since questions on my exams usually go beyond the simple knowledge level, students never are able to just copy from their sheets. The cheat sheet is a security blanket and provides basic information. It enhances learning, improves test performance, and it does reduce test anxiety. It works for students who take test preparation seriously.

One of my students, a high-school teacher, now uses cheat sheets in her own classroom. As in my own classes, she finds that they are very popular with students and have many advantages—not the least of which may be that students don’t feel the need to write information for the test on various body parts in indelible ink.

POSTSCRIPTThe cheat sheet in my classroom was the result of years of trial and error. However, faculty now have many resources available to make decisions in the classroom that promote

Finding Key Tools to Teach for Social JusticeBrigitte Mach ErbeDepartment of Educational Leadership

Main entry: Cheat sheet

Part of speech: Noun

Definition: A piece of paper on which one has answers or notes for a test, used to cheat on or prepare for a test.

Webster’s New Millennium Dictionary of English, 2005

Many of the courses I have taught in the past have dealt with subjects students have found difficult and for which they often were not well prepared: statistics, research methods, methods of teaching mathematics, and computer use in education. One of my goals at the beginning of each class always was to reduce student anxiety (i.e., high levels of anxiety interfere with learning).

These particular types of courses require all levels of learning in Bloom’s taxonomy (1956), and particularly the first three levels: a certain amount of rote learning of facts and formulas; the understanding of the principles behind these facts; and application to real-life situations. Much of the anxiety of students in these courses centers on the actual mathematics and formulas, the lowest level of learning in this taxonomy. This is also the information that is easiest to find in a real-life problem-solving situation.

FUNCTION AND TYPES OF TESTSTests serve functions other than the assessment of student learning; the structure of tests contributes directly to student learning. In a culture where grades are of such importance to students since childhood, studying for exams is one of the major ways of acquiring knowledge. Students study to maximize their grades, and they prepare for the type of test they anticipate. Since I want students to learn more than facts, I never give multiple choice tests, and my exams usually include a mix of short answers and longer essays. I have tried different approaches to major mid-term and final exams:

• Take-home exams

• In-class exams consisting of a sub-set of questions handed out before the exam

• Open-book exams

• In-class exams, with basic information such as formulas provided for students by the instructor

All of these had various advantages and disadvantages, which often became apparent in extreme cases. There is the problem of plagiarism in the form of external help with take-home exams. One of my students with poor English skills had a tutor who provided professional level writing on all assignments not done in class. Open-book exams lulled students into too much of a sense of security; and if you hadn’t prepared adequately, the book turned out not to be

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student learning. Some of these are based on faculty experience, others on college-level classroom research. On the whole, the literature I found supports my experience-based conclusions.

Measures that reduce test anxiety enhance student performance, particularly for students who are well-prepared for the test—where knowledge doesn’t exist, it doesn’t surface even under the most optimal test situations (Tests and stress, 2005). Humor (the candy bar “prize”) alleviates anxiety in test situations (Berk, 2000). Open-book exams do reduce pre-exam effort, and having an open book does not help under-prepared students perform better on exams (Boniface, 1985); this finding also extends to student notes, though these are not comparable to crib sheets prepared specifically for the exam and with clear restrictions.

There is conflicting information on the use of crib sheets and their effect on student achievement during tests. I have found three positive references on this practice (Davis, 1993; Janick, 1990; and Exams..., 1998) and one negative reference (Vessey & Woodbury, 1992). Vessey and Woodbury found that students using crib sheets focused too much on the content of their crib sheets, tended to copy directly from those sheets, and as a result often missed answering the question. This did not happen in my class because of the restrictions I put on the cheat sheet (no more than one page), and because answers to my exam questions were not likely to be found in the crib sheets themselves or the books or notes from which they were composed.

There are now many resources available to those who are interested in reviewing their own testing practices. Several books on college teaching include detailed sections on testing (Bain, 2004; Davis, 2001; Forsyth, 2003; Nilson, 2003) as well as references to diverse publications and research on testing in college courses. All of these books, of course, also address many other issues related to the effectiveness of instruction. They range from simple how-to books, to research, to thoughtful discussions of our discipline. They are useful in the career of any college professor—both for enhancing instruction and by suggesting useful topics for research on teaching and learning. In any case, students will be the ultimate beneficiaries of the knowledge now accumulating in our profession on good instruction.

REFERENCESBain, K. (2004). What the best college teachers do. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press.

Berk, R. A. (2000). Does humor in course tests reduce anxiety and improve performance? College Teaching, 48, 151-158.

Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Vol. I: Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay.

Boniface, D. (1985). Candidates’ use of notes and textbooks during an open-book examination. Educational Research, 27, 201-209.

Davis, B. G. (2001). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Exams: Alternative ideas and approaches. (1989). Teaching Professor, 3(8), 3-4.

Forsyth, D. R. (2003). The professor’s guide to teaching. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Janick, J. (1990). Crib sheets. Teaching Professor, 4(6), 2.

Nilson, L. B. (2003). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Company, Inc.

Tests and stress. (2005). Chronicle of Higher Education, 51(27). Retrieved July 12, 2005 from http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tfh&an=16484059

Vessey, J. K., & Woodbury, W. (1992). Crib sheets: Use with caution. Teaching Professor, 6 (7), 6-7.

Webster’s New Millennium Dictionary of English. (2005). Retrieved July 12, 2005 from http://dictionary.reference.com/search?r=66&q=cheat%20sheet

Service-Learning: A Guide to Course ImplementationPatrick M. GreenOffice of Student Activities

Service-learning has emerged as an effective pedagogy at many institutions of higher education and increasingly at K to 12 schools. Service-learning is a pedagogy in which service work is integrally tied to the curriculum and course content. Sigmon (1996) explained the concept of service-learning which “assumes that colleges are living parts of communities, that the location of learning and serving is often beyond the classroom, and that communities have much to teach students and faculty” (p.10). The service-learning pedagogy addresses service and learning goals as equally important, and the hyphen represents the relationship between learning and the service experience.

The concept of reciprocity is a key element in the service-learning pedagogy. Jacoby (1996) explains this concept as addressing “needs that are defined by the community” (p. 5). Rhoads (1997) explains mutuality as “the relationship between the ‘doer’ and the ‘done-to’ ought to be reciprocal,” (p. 136) and the “collaboration and equality between community service workers and those in need of service” (p. 155). In essence, service-learning fosters a reciprocal relationship between the community partner and the student, which differentiates service-learning from community service and other forms of experiential learning.

Another essential element in service-learning is reflection. Jacoby (1996) notes that “the hyphen in service-learning is critical in that it symbolizes the symbiotic relationship between service and learning,” and the use of the term service-learning implies the “centrality of reflection” (pp. 5-6). Reflection, like reciprocity, is a defining feature of service-learning and establishes a link between the service experience and learning outcomes of a course.

At Roosevelt University, the work of a faculty-driven committee and task force has adopted the following definition for service-learning: Service-learning is an educational philosophy and pedagogical method of experiential learning that embraces ethical and socially responsible participation in structured service activities. Specifically, these activities:

• Integrate service experiences with learning objectives of course content.

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• Offer structured service activities designed to meet community needs.

• Provide reflective opportunities for students to make meaning of this experience.

• Promote service and learning as equal goals marked by reciprocity between the student and person/group being served.

• Develop relationships through multiple service experiences

To frame service-learning course implementation, an overview of six methods for implementing the service-learning pedagogy in the curriculum is presented, as discussed by Heffernan and Cone (2003). Each model places service as the central aspect of the course but approaches the curricular goals and learning outcomes differently. For example, Heffernan and Cone identify some courses as:

1. “Pure” Service-Learning. These are courses that send students out into the community to serve. These courses have as their intellectual core the idea of service to communities by students, volunteers, or engaged citizens. They are not typically lodged in any one discipline. An example of such courses may be entitled Community Service, and ultimately have the academic goal of service and engagement.

Another model is discipline-based, which places the service experience within a specific field of study.

2. Discipline-Based Service-Learning. In this model, students are expected to have a presence in the community throughout the semester and reflect on their experiences on a regular basis throughout the semester using course content as a basis for their analysis and understanding (Heffernan & Cone, 2003). A core educational course, such as a world history course or citizenship course, provide an example of discipline-based service-learning.

Other models require more advanced skills and a more sophisticated knowledge base, such as problem-based service learning.

3. Problem-Based Service-Learning (PBSL). According to this model, students or teams of students relate to the community much as “consultants” working for a “client.” Students work with community members to understand a particular community problem or need. This model presumes that the students will have some knowledge they can draw upon to make recommendations to the community or develop a solution to the problem (Heffernan & Cone, 2003). The service experience is placed within the context of a problem and solution, relying on knowledge from a specific academic field of study.

Other advanced forms of service-learning courses include capstone courses, service-learning internships, and community-based action research (Heffernan & Cone 2003). The description for each of these models of service-learning target students who have upper-class standing or are further along in their academic development.

4. Capstone Courses. Capstone courses ask students to draw on the knowledge they have obtained throughout their coursework and combine it with relevant service work in the community (Heffernan & Cone, 2003). Often capstone courses are offered in the junior or senior year, as are service internships.

5. Service Internships. Like traditional internships, these experiences are more intense than typical service-learning courses, with students working as many as 10 to 20 hours a week in a community setting (Heffernan & Cone, 2003).

6. Undergraduate Community-Based Action Research. The final model of service-learning combines research methods with service experiences. Community-based action research can also be effective with small classes or groups of students. In this model, students work closely with faculty members to learn research methodology while serving as advocates for communities (Heffernan & Cone, 2003). This model focuses on the research work as the service for the community, and is usually utilized with highly-motivated students, graduate students, or as an independent study.

It is essential for faculty to identify which model best fits the new or existing course that will be transformed into a service-learning course. These six models demonstrate the varied forms that service-learning may take in a course-based model, although reciprocity and reflection are consistent elements in all six models. The implementation of service-learning, though, is defined by the course goals, and dependent on the faculty instructor and teaching style. To implement service-learning into a course ultimately requires a new paradigm for teaching and learning.

The process-based teaching that characterizes service-learning involves a shift in roles for faculty and students. Bringle, Phillips, and Hudson (2004) describe this as a paradigm shift in higher education “because it heightens the role that students can assume as constructors of knowledge… service learning shifts the role of the instructor from the center of instruction to the facilitator of learning that occurs outside the classroom” (p. 7). The experience of the student is placed at the center of a service-learning course, and this is counter-cultural to the content-based teaching style found in many academic fields of higher education.

As the student’s experience is the central focus of the service-learning course, reflection is the essential tool of service-learning, which differentiates it from other forms of experiential learning. Bringle and Hatcher (2003) explain: “Reflection is the ‘intentional consideration of an experience in light of particular learning objectives’.... Reflection activities direct the student’s attention to new interpretations of events and provides a means through which the community service can be studied and interpreted, much as a text is read and studied for deeper understanding (p.84).” The reflection activities (journals, small papers, final projects, class discussions, group work) shape the learning that occurs within a service-learning course.

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For faculty interested in constructing a service-learning course, the following principles will guide course implementation:

Community partnership. With which community partner (organization) are you collaborating? How have you involved the community partner in the course goals and course development? How will you engage the community partner throughout the course and in the assessment of the course?

Reciprocity. How is the service work meeting a community-defined need? How is the service work contributing to the learning objectives of the course?

Reflection. What reflection activities have you built into the course as assignments? How are the reflection activities integrated into the learning objectives and course goals?

After addressing these principles, faculty will be able to clearly define the service-learning aspect of their course in the syllabus. It is essential to present service as an integral part of the course in the syllabus, not an add-on or side-bar to the course. Varlotta (2000) suggests “one of the most constructive ways to conceptualize service-learning is to refine the pedagogically purposeful metaphor ‘service as text’” (p. 76). Approaching the service component of the course as “text” honors the lived experience of students, as they reflect and make meaning of their service experiences and the course content. In effect, service-learning allows students to construct knowledge, connect to the community, and create meaning of their experiences. As Paulo Freire (1993) noted: “To exist, humanly, is to name the world, to change it. Once named, the world in its turn reappears to the namers as a problem and requires of them a new naming. Human beings are not built in silence, but in word, in work, in action-reflection” (p. 69).

REFERENCESBringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (2003). Reflection in service-

learning: Making meaning of experience. In Campus Compact (Ed.), Introduction to service-learning toolkit: Readings and resources for faculty (pp. 83-89). Providence, RI, Campus Compact.

Bringle, R. G., Phillips, M. A., et al. (2004). The measure of service learning: Research scales to assess student experiences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Cooper, D. (2003). Reading, writing and reflection. In Campus Compact (Ed.), Introduction to service-learning toolkit: Readings and resources for faculty (pp. 91-96). Providence, RI: Campus Compact.

Freire, P. (1993). Pedagogy of the oppressed (2nd ed.). New York: Continuum Publishing Company.

Heffernan, K., & Cone, R. (2003). Course organization. In Campus Compact (Ed.), Introduction to service-learning toolkit: Readings and resources for faculty (pp. 105-110). Providence, RI: Campus Compact.

Jacoby, B., & Associates. (1996). Service-learning in higher education: Concepts and practices. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Rhoads, R. A. (1997). Community service and higher learning: Explorations of the caring self. Albany: State University of New York.

Sigmon, R. L. (1996). Introduction to service-learning. In S. G. Pelletier (Ed.), Journey to service-learning: Experiences from independent liberal arts colleges and universities (pp. 1-41). Washington, DC: The Council of Independent Colleges.

Strait, J. (2005). Levels of reflection for assessing service-learning assignments. Paper presented at the National Service Learning Conference, Long Beach, CA.

Varlotta, L. (2000, Fall). Service as text: Making the metaphor meaningful. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 7, 76-84.

“Survey Says:” Personal Response Systems Enhance Active Learning in the ClassroomVicky McKinley, Cornelius Watson, and Jennifer VlkDepartment of Biological, Chemical, and Physical Sciences

Personal Response Systems (PRS) are a relatively new application of technology to education. These systems (also known as audience response systems, group response systems, classroom performance systems, electronic voting systems or the “Who Wants to be a Millionaire” system) allow instructors to receive immediate feedback from all members of a class on questions posed during lecture or discussion. They can also be used to administer quizzes, tests, class polls or course evaluations, and to take attendance. In this article, we present a brief overview of the available systems designed for classroom use, discuss our personal experiences with them as instructors and student, and present feedback from classes on the ability of the system to promote active learning and critical thinking.

CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF PRSQuestions presented to the class can be framed as multiple choice, true/false, matching or (in some systems) numerical response. The questions can be presented verbally, through stand-alone software provided with the system or via PowerPoint. The PRS activity can be integrated into the class in a variety of ways. During a typical lecture, PRS questions can be posed to the class as a means of previewing material that will be presented next (“priming the pump”), stimulating active learning while new material is being presented, reviewing material just covered, fostering critical thinking by leading students to apply and extend learned material to new situations, improving quantitative analysis and graph and map reading through regular practice with material relevant to the lecture, and reviewing material assigned for reading but not covered during lecture.

The system can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of group work during lecture or discussion by posing questions before and after the group session to assess the group process. PRS can be used to review for upcoming examinations by posing integrative questions that require synthesis of material, challenging questions that prompt students to study the material, and questions that are similar to exam questions that familiarize students with the instructor’s exam style. Some instructors even sprinkle in a few verbatim exam questions during lectures or exam review sessions to enhance attendance and attentiveness. This also helps students to focus their studying and is a good way for them to check their understanding before the first exam.

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In presenting a question to the class, it is useful to display the question briefly before the students are allowed to send answers. This allows the instructor to explain the question if necessary, and to ask the class is anyone needs further clarification or sees anything wrong with the question. Usually, the presentation of the question, the recording of answers and the discussion of the answers requires between three and six minutes.

As students respond to questions, they do not know each others’ answers. The instructor may set the system up either to identify each student’s response by name, or to keep the answers anonymous. Either way, the instructor should tell the class how the responses will be used by the instructor. Even if the instructor knows the identity of each respondent, students are generally much less inhibited in giving answers in class compared with the traditional method of raising the hand and answering verbally. In addition, with PRS it typically takes much less time to poll everyone in the class than to get one or two verbal answers.

The instructor can see a display of the class responses as a histogram immediately after the answer period is completed, and can even see the responses as they come in. The histogram can also be projected so that the class can see the overall results. This allows students to see how their answers compared to those of their peers, and to see which was the correct answer. The instructor can comment on the distribution of answers, discuss the possible answers, and state (or lead a discussion on) why one answer was the best. All of this discussion helps to model for students the thought processes that can be used to analyze various questions and determine the best answers or solutions.

By using the PRS results to gauge class comprehension as a whole, the instructor can make adjustments in the lecture in midstream. If comprehension was good, less time may be spent on that subject. If comprehension was poor, review or additional homework may be necessary. Follow-up questions may be asked to determine if particular misinterpretations need to be addressed, and new questions can be created “on-the-fly” and presented to the class. After class, the results are stored in a spreadsheet-style gradebook, and reports can be generated that allow the instructor to evaluate individual student’s progress. These individual student reports can be printed and given to the students as midterm progress reports.

PRS HARDWARE AND SOFTWAREA number of different companies sell various PRS configurations for classroom use. All PRS systems require both hardware (wireless transmitters and a receiver) as well as software to run the system. Signals can be transmitted by either infrared (like a TV remote control) or by radio signals (useful in very large lecture halls). In our department we have tried IR systems from two different companies, and we will briefly describe each one. In general, there are two major differences in how PRS can be operated: stand-alone or with a web-based interface. Some companies offer systems that can be used either way, while others are limited to one or the other of these modes.

Stand-alone systems require no Internet connection, and the instructor can own and maintain all of the equipment. Therefore, the system can be used anytime, anywhere, including on the first day of class. Web-based interface systems require that each student purchase their own transmitter (from the bookstore) and register it on a website prior to use, and the instructor must collect all answers through an Internet interface. This is the mode that is favored by textbook companies that are packaging PRS systems and test-banks with their textbooks. At the end of the semester, the students’ accounts become inactive, and they must re-register, and pay a fee, for their transmitters to be used in another class.

THE INTERWRITE PRS SYSTEMThe Interwrite PRS System is manufactured by GTCO CalComp Peripherals. This system can be used either stand-alone or through web registration. The software comes with a site license for an unlimited number of computers within the institution, and for the instructors’ home computers. Software upgrades can be downloaded free from their website.

The Interwrite PRS software is organized to store student rosters (classes), sets of questions (lessons), daily class results (sessions), gradebooks, and preferences for the system set-up. The gradebook records the results from each session, and can be exported into Microsoft Excel or course management systems like Blackboard. Class rosters must be entered if the instructor wishes to identify each student’s response. Each transmitter has a unique code that can be linked with a student name in the roster. As long as each student uses the same transmitter each day, they can be identified in the class roster. Optionally, a class response map can also be set up like a virtual seating chart, so that as results come in each student’s response always appears in the same place on the computer screen. When a response map is not defined, responses are posted to the response grid in the order received.

Questions can be authored by the instructor either in the Interwrite PRS software or directly in Microsoft PowerPoint. The Interwrite PRS software automatically installs an Add-In to PowerPoint which smoothly integrates the two systems. An Interwrite PRS Toolbar appears in PowerPoint that facilitates insertion of PRS questions and automatically activates the PRS system when a question slide appears during the PowerPoint presentation. The PRS software/Add-In allows you to select the number of possible answers, identify the correct answer, set the time limit for students to answer, and weight the values of different questions. Questions can also be imported from industry standard XML format question banks from various sources, including many book publishers (Wiley, Pearson, Freeman, Bedford, Worth). Images can be inserted into questions or answers as .png, .gif, .jpg, .bmp image files.

The Interwrite PRS infrared transmitters allow for multiple choice (up to 10 answers), True/False or numeric answers (up to four digits). A confidence level can also be associated with each student’s answer (High, Medium or Low) if the instructor desires. The Interwrite PRS hardware can be

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purchased in either a Class Pack (32 transmitters, one receiver and all necessary cables, batteries, software and a one-year warranty), or in a Lecture Pack (50 transmitters and two receivers).

E-INSTRUCTION CLASSROOM PERFORMANCE SYSTEMThe other system that we have tried is the CPS system from e-Instruction, packaged with a McGraw-Hill textbook. The receivers (response pads) were purchased by each student at the bookstore for between $3.00 and $9.00 with the textbook. They then had to register their transmitter online and pay a registration fee of $6.00. The instructor could then download the class roster from the web site.

In theory, time is saved because the roster can be downloaded, ready to use. However, one disadvantage of this system is that it relies on the students to purchase the transmitters and register them online in a timely fashion. The instructor cannot download a complete class roster or obtain responses from each student until all the students have completed these steps. In practice, this may take several weeks. In addition, students must divulge personal information online during the registration process, and some students hesitate to do this.

STUDENT IMPRESSIONSIn general, the PRS systems have been enthusiastically received by the students in our classes. In a class of 18 students, all 18 answered “Yes” when asked if the instructor should continue using PRS.

Some examples of student free-responses include comments about the participatory nature of PRS: “It is a good way of involving the class;” “It kind of makes the class interactive;” and “It is inclusive.”

Students commented about feeling less intimidated by PRS: “It allows me to participate, even if my answer is wrong;” “It gives you a chance to answer the questions without feeling like you may give a ‘dumb’ answer. Allows the students to be more open and willing to try;” and “It is fun without the pressure of a grade.”

Students commented about the effect of PRS on attentiveness during lecture: “(PRS) makes you feel more involved in class and it makes you pay attention to the professor and the information…;” “It keeps me interested in the material;” and “It keeps us awake.”

Finally, students commented on the effect of PRS questions on thinking during lecture:

“Activates thinking.;” “More attention is given to a question if an actual answer is required, which is a plus!;” “It makes me think about applying the content as it is taught…;” and “It shows how many students are thinking and forces us to think, too.”

CONCLUSIONSAdvantages to using PRS in the classroom include the fact that it forces each student to commit to an answer, and therefore, to think. Students are less worried about being singled out and are more inclined to answer, increasing active class participation. The system provides immediate feedback to

both the students and the instructor, allowing the classroom experience to be more interactive and adaptable. Students are more alert and actively engaged during lectures. When used for quizzes or examinations, the grading and grade recording are automatic, and thus much faster.

The disadvantages to the system are that it takes some time away from other classroom activities. On balance, however, this small investment in time seems to be well worth it for both the students and the instructors. Another disadvantage is that the answers are limited in format, excluding essay or free-response answers. However, in our experience, multiple choice and numerical questions can be carefully crafted to incorporate most course content, with the exception of writing, organizational and laboratory skill evaluations. Thus, PRS should not be the only assessment tool used in most courses, but it can be a valuable addition.

REFERENCESBurnstein, R. A., & Lederman. L. M. (2001). Using wireless keypads

in lecture classes. The Physics Teacher, 39, 8-11.

D’Inverno, R., Davis, H., & White, S. (2003). Using a personal response system for promoting student interaction. Teaching Mathematics and its Applications, 22, 163-169.

Elliott, C. (2003). Using a personal response system in economics teaching. International Review of Economics Education, 1, 80-86.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSFunding for the Interwrite PRS equipment was provided by the RU TQE grant. The BIOL 353/453 Molecular Biology and BIOL 360/460 Microbiology classes were guinea pigs for our first trials of PRS questions. Jennifer Vlk provided valuable student input for this workshop, and Nick Pluta installed the software for the presentation.

Leveraging the Power of the Internet Through Critical Thinking ActivitiesJan BoneDepartment of Psychology and Department of Literature and Languages

Gale QuinnDepartment of Psychology

Blended learning, which combines traditional face-to-face classroom instructor contact with online technology through Blackboard course management software, has been successful in both undergraduate and graduate courses at Roosevelt University.

At RUMCOT2, psychology graduate student Gale Quinn and adjunct instructor Jan Bone, who teaches writing courses in English and psychology, demonstrated how this approach engages students and enriches student learning. Key to success, they feel, is how instructors understand and capitalize on Blackboard’s capabilities.

“You’ve got to do a lot more than putting your syllabus and assignments on the net,” Bone says. “You need to reflect about

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how you teach, what you teach, and why you are teaching it—and what you can do creatively through this powerful tool.”

Quinn, an alumna of Bone’s “Writing for Psychologists” course, agrees. Because of their mutual interest in strategies for enhancing learning, they’ve worked together on the RUMCOT2 showcase of teaching practices.

They believe, and demonstrated, that creative, interactive assignments through Blackboard have many benefits: they broaden students’ horizons, require them to locate and use external source material and contacts, and offer online opportunities to share and exchange comments about their findings. Consequently, this blended learning approach enhances analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, which are all high on Bloom’s Taxonomy list of cognitive critical thinking skills.

WHAT AND HOWBest-practice conditions, the duo feel, include teaching the courses in PC classrooms and setting up the class website with well-chosen external links that leverage the power of the internet. In English 102, a freshman-level composition course that requires students to write 25 pages of graded, revised writing, students researching immigration issues used Blackboard-posted external links that gave them immediate access to the USCIS (formerly Immigration Service) federal website, to the White House and Congressional sites for legislation updates, to the National Park Service’s website for Ellis Island and the Statue of Liberty, and to think tank sites for pro- and con-views on immigration’s desirability and effects. In addition, students used online writing labs (OWLs) to take a research paper-writing tutorial from Purdue University, to learn summary-writing techniques from Colorado State’s Writing Center, to practice evaluating websites for accuracy, currency, relevancy, and intent through Ohio State’s online how-to lesson, and to revise their work with Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute’s 18-point checklist for focused, effective writing.

One in-class assignment that worked well had students logging onto Blackboard, reading a transcript of the previous day’s State of the Union address (posted in English and in Spanish), and locating the small paragraph of the speech that dealt with immigration reform. Then, they went to http://www.ipl.org (internet public library), linked to IPL’s Reading Room, and next to newspapers (a page on the ipl.org site that displays up-to-date newspaper text from around-the-world). Based on their own ethnic backgrounds or their interests, each student then chose a city from a different country, looked for reaction to Bush’s immigration plans, summarized “their” country’s thoughts, posted their summaries on Blackboard’s Discussion Board, and commented on each others’ posts.

Graduate students in Psychology 501 have worked together online outside of class, using Blackboard to exchange files, to develop group presentations, and to engage in peer-editing/critique of their partners’ research papers, review drafts, and suggest strategies to each other for more-effective writing by implementing Word’s “track changes” feature.

WHERE TO LEARN MORESeveral published research papers support the concept of blended learning. For instance, Waddoups, Hatch, and Butterworth (2003), analyzing a first-year composition course at Brigham Young University, found that blended learning was most effective when instructors used class time for instruction, rather than for trouble-shooting or administrative functions. The authors concluded that instructors needed more training in how to design instructionally sound online and in-class activities, and that blended courses worked best when instructors were involved in the continuing development and refinement of learning objects.

At Pace University, instructors redesigned an “introduction to computing” course that eventually gave students two hours in class and one hour online per week, enabling instructions to reduce class size cost-effectively. A major component in the redesign—what should be included in the course, and in what format—came from faculty, who were asked, “If you’re in a classroom with 24 students, what would you most like to do? What are the other things that would work most effectively online?” (Hale & Sachs, 2005, p. 3)

For those who’d like to learn more about teaching online or in blended formats, an excellent site is http://www.ion.illinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/ from the Illinois Online Network. The site’s links include ideas on getting the information to the students (instructional strategies and pedagogy), being a successful online instructor, and learning strategies (student-centered) for the online environment.

Other good links from Illinois Online Network are:

• http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/assessment/bloomtaxonomy.asp

• http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/id/index.asp

• http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/instructionalstrategies.asp

This last site includes links on assessment/evaluation topics: quizzing, testing, and grading homework on the net; six levels of learning and test questions that use Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive critical thinking skills; and rubrics, including one for evaluating online participation.

At Roosevelt, Don Sorsa, academic director of the RUOnline program through Evelyn T. Stone University College, says that although online teaching and learning does not fit every person, neither does the “traditional” classroom. Teaching of any kind is a challenging experience to those of us who take our responsibilities seriously, he feels. “We spend most of our time looking at the unsuccessful students and figuring out new ways to reach them—that’s hard work.” Whether it’s using Blackboard in a totally online course, or in blended learning, Sorsa and his team offer training and workshops for interested faculty throughout the year.

As a graduate student familiar with traditional classes as well as with online coursework, Quinn feels she has benefited greatly from her experiences with e-learning. “The blended learning format helps with motivation,” she says. “The world’s at your

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fingertips. Instructors and students interact in new, exciting ways to make topics covered in class more meaningful.”

REFERENCESHale, N., & Sachs, D. (2005). Blended design improves core courses,

introduces students, faculty to online learning. Academic Leader, 21(4), 3.

Waddoups, G. L., Hatch, G. L., & Butterworth, S. (2003). Case 5: Blended teaching and learning in a first-year composition course. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 4, 271-279.

LINKSBecause I teach my Blackboard-enhanced courses in a PC classroom, students in both classes have immediate access to these and other links to sources that help them with writing strategies. In the blended learning environment, I can combine mini-lectures on technique with examples and internet practice exercises, and can suggest specific aids for students with particular challenges. These sites will help instructors whose students are having writing problems.

http://owl.english.purdue.eduOver 130 downloadable handouts on writing topics: general writing concerns (including planning and revising); research and documenting sources; punctuation, capitalization, and spelling; sentence construction, parts of speech, English as a second language (ESL); and professional writing.

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/index.htmlWriting a Research Paper. Helps students with the nine major steps including detailed how-to instructions.

Terms and conditions of fair use for all the Purdue materials are at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/lab/fairuse.html

Similar information for the other sites listed will be at the bottom of their home pages.

http://writing.colostate.edu/references/index.cfm?guides_active=documentsA site that links to writing guides in humanities (including arguments and literature paper thesis), and to guides for engineering proposals and technical reports; for business documents (including letters, memos, and executive summaries), and for biological sciences (including scientific writing and poster sessions.)

http://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents/standsum/index.cfm The link on summaries—posted on our class Blackboard site, as are others.

http://gateway.lib.ohio-state.edu/tutor/les1/index.htmlOhio State’s self-paced 30-minute tutorial on evaluating websites for purpose, author, content, coverage, currency, and recognition. I have students take this and then evaluate one of the sources they included in their research papers, using the criteria.

http://www.rpi.edu/dept/llc/writecenter/web/revise.htmlRensselaer Polytechnic Institute’s 18-point checklist on revising for effective communication.

Using Biographies as a Tool in Teaching Personality TheoryKennise M. HerringDepartment of Psychology

One of my first Roosevelt teaching assignments was Psychology 342/442, Theories of Personality Development. Not only was this my first time offering this course at RU, but it was my first time teaching personality theory. Like all new endeavors, this experience was rewarding and humbling. I was fortunate to have a group of students who were supportive of the rookie assistant professor and intrigued by personality theory. I was humbled, for until I attempted to teach eighteen theories in fifteen weeks, with time off for exams and breaks, I was clueless about the challenges involved in making theories about human behavior meaningful, vibrant and useful to my students. I clearly recall one student commenting that this was a “cookbook” course and that I had few options other than to require the students to read the textbook review it and test them so they could regurgitate it. Despite the student’s tolerance of the process, I did not want the course experienced as a “cookbook course.”

While preparing for the course, I stumbled upon the term, psychobiography, which is a biography written from a psychological perspective. The author is typically a psychologist who not only presents a person’s life, but also attempts to explain his/her motivations and other psychological processes. I decided to incorporate biography as part of the course, hoping that the life story would facilitate learning personality theory. Using biographies was so useful that psychobiography has remained a staple in my syllabus. In the remaining paragraphs, I discuss the advantages of using biographies in personality theory courses and share anecdotal data that I hope capture the fruitful experiences I’ve had in the classroom.

In a paper proposing a model for teaching personality theory to clinical psychology students, Jacob Lomranz states, “After mastering the various textbooks, they (the students) often ask how such knowledge applies to clinical practice and which is the most relevant theory…. They have not been prepared to compare and balance theories, let along apply them in practice.” (Lomranz, 1986). The question of utility frequently arises as students grapple with personality theory textbooks. Prior to giving the theories critical consideration, many students are so convinced that the ideas espoused by Freud, Jung and other early theorists are archaic and meaningless that they barely conceal their unwillingness to carefully consider the work. They argue that ideas developed in the nineteenth century are hardly relevant today and they are quick to point out that all of Freud’s theories (and presumably those of his contemporaries) have been discredited.

Rather than argue with my young scholars, I offer them an opportunity to test their ideas. The students are urged to take, for instance, The Autobiography of Malcolm X, read it and see how Freud’s ideas as well as the thoughts of the other key personality theorists as presented in the text are

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applicable to an understanding of Malcolm’s life. Each class session, we review the key concepts in the week’s theory, look at the biography material and attempt to understand the life from the relevant theoretical perspective. Over the years, students have looked at many distinguished lives such as W.E.B. DuBois, Lyndon Johnson, Barbara Jordon, Cesar Chavez, Esmeralda Santiago and Harriet Tubman whom I have selected. Students have selected famous people including Drew Barrymore, Hugh Hefner, Janet Jackson, Jennifer Lopez and David Lynch. The incredible diversity represented in these lives affords the student a wonderful opportunity to experiment with the theories and using critical reasoning, and apply the theories to real lives. They are in a position to assess which parts of the theory seem useful and helpful.

The use of biography also offers the professor a meaningful, effortless opportunity to incorporate diversity into the syllabus. In 2003, one of my evening classes contained many older students representing several ethnic groups. That year, I divided the students into groups and allowed each group to select a biography for the group. Two groups of Latino students eagerly offered the names of Cesar Chavez and Esmeralda Santiago. The opportunity to offer the class data to apply personality theory to the lives of people very different from those on whom the original theories were developed and learn about the remarkable lives and contributions of two Latino subjects was highly rewarding. Another group of students in that class examined the life of W.E.B. DuBois and yet another group studied Harriet Tubman’s life. Both of these groups marveled over the inability of psychology as a discipline to see the remarkable intellectual strengths of these subjects and raised questions about the striking absence of data about personality development in people of color.

This academic year, I used three biographies: The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Finding Fish (the autobiography of Antwone Fisher) and An American Hero, The Biography of Barbara Jordan. The reactions to the books were striking and worthy of brief discussion. The class was comprised of a heterogeneous group student with varying intellectual competencies. Because the students must read both a textbook and a biography in a brief period of time, I attempted to assign the two more challenging books (The Jordan text and the X text) to the more seemingly competent students. I reserved the Fisher book for students whom I perceived to have greater difficulty with reading comprehension. Ironically, the Fisher story is the more difficult story psychologically and while technically easier to read, it is an emotionally demanding text. One of the students in the Fisher group was a Chinese exchange student who had a reasonable grasp of English but was not verbally fluent. She embraced the book and in the classroom discussions about the book, offered that her life experiences were similar to Mr. Fisher’s life experiences. Indeed, more than one student noted their historic experiences with physical and psychological abuse as they attempted to apply the theory to the work.

The students responsible for the Jordan text protested vehemently against having to read about history and not a life. I reminded the students that clinical psychology is primarily about the history of a problem and urged them

to read the book. Ultimately, the students acknowledged learning a great deal from reading about Jordan’s life and her life experiences. The students responsible for the Malcolm X text had a range of feelings. Many were aware of Malcolm X as a controversial figure and initially, some students of European descent were clearly bothered by his polemic comments about White people. The beauty of Malcolm X’s life, however is the remarkable psychological transformation that he experiences at least three times over the span of his brief life and the students were ultimately able to clearly see how his complex personality evolved. Like Jordan, his life was a wonderful teaching tool for personality theory.

In summarizing, the incorporation of biographies allows the instructor to provide students with an opportunity to apply personality theories to real life data and critically assess the theory’s usefulness. The range of biographies available to the instructor allows for the inclusion of gender, ethnic, religious and sexual orientation diversity. Lastly, using biographies offers the student a chance to read about a life and an era that inevitably enhances his/her development.

REFERENCELomranz, J. (1986) Personality theory: Position and derived teaching

implication in clinical psychology. Professional Psychology Research & Practice, 17, 551-559.

Teaching Strategies for Sensitive TopicsEmily Gray TedroweDepartment of Literature and Languages

My goals for our roundtable discussion were to share stories and experiences of classroom tension regarding sensitive topics in assigned readings or discussion, and to gather a variety of strategies for managing these potentially unsettling moments of conflict, discomfort, or misunderstanding. Participants described some of their difficulties as teachers when faced with students who present beliefs that are radically different from the teacher’s own, or are potentially offensive to other members of the classroom. These moments appear to arise in response to challenging reading assignments that reflect on issues of race, religion, gender, and current politics (US involvement in the Middle East, for example), and most often are formed by large-group class discussion of the subject matter that quickly gets “out of hand.” Teachers in our roundtable asserted the valuable nature of such discussions, as they often engage the class on a more intense level and provide a vivid exchange of ideas on crucial topics, but also expressed emotions ranging from concern to anxiety to frustration over how to best guide conversations in which the participants may become upset, angry, dismissive or insulting to one another. How involved should students be in determining the tenor of a class discussion? How does the classroom community ensure that each person is given respect? Should these matters be determined on a case-by-case basis, or is it better to provide a clear policy on discussion protocol at the beginning of the

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semester? Another issue raised was the question of how to balance roles in the classroom. How do we as teachers protect our own emotional boundaries (and personal beliefs) while at the same time provide an open forum for debate and discussion?

The following strategies are summaries and paraphrases of what roundtable participants offered as ways of addressing these and other related pedagogical issues. In some cases, the strategies offered were tried-and-true methods that a teacher or administrator has been using for years; in other cases, the suggestions made were ones that were imagined or brainstormed on the spot in response to my questions about how one might deal with sensitive topics in the classroom. These strategies may be used singly or in combination; they may involve a long period of preparation, or they may be relied on spontaneously, in the moment a conflict reaches an apparently unmanageable point.

• Have students design a fictional “university” as part of a learning unit on race or religious issues. This assignment would model diversity through working together and would allow students to experience cooperation on both practical and theoretical levels.

• Explain who you are as a teacher at the beginning of the semester. Make your politics, background, or beliefs as explicit as you choose. By self-identifying in this manner, you offer students an honest picture of who you are as a teacher, and what they can expect from you.

• Slow the class down. If verbal discussion has become heated, ask students to stop and reflect in writing for ten minutes on an aspect of the suggestion. Then, ask students to read directly from this writing if they wish to comment further.

• Make dialogue (both written and spoken) a clear part of your course goals; set aside time to read and talk about critical thinking and what this means in the classroom setting. Ask students to reflect on whether or how classroom debate differs from other kinds of public or private conversation. What are the rules, expectations, goals of our work together in this community?

• Observe that respect doesn’t need to mean agreement. Remind students to keep their comments focused on the issues and subject matter being discussed; forbid personal attacks, “swear” words, and denigrating speech about others’ beliefs.

• Bring in follow-up material after a particularly heated conversation, or ask students to research the issue. This might mean specific articles or books on the subject discussed, or it might mean meta-discussion material such as essays on critical thinking, academic disagreement, or the rules and protocol of debate. Arranging for time to follow up allows students (and teachers) to revisit the discussion after emotions have cooled, and refocuses the class on reading and writing.

• Solicit student feedback, either written or spoken, either individually or as a group, about discussions or moments of tension and conflict.

• If one student is providing most of the offensive comments, arrange to speak with him/her outside of class. An individual conference would give the teacher a chance to remind the student of the importance of respect, and to ask the student additional follow-up questions about other ways he or she might engage the issues at hand.

• Overtly attend to the structure of discussion in your classroom. Describe dialogue as a process which involves turn-taking, listening, and response. Build discussion skills as a class goal. Offer other models of debate or public discussion (i.e., legal proceedings or governmental hearings) as ways of contrasting or comparing classroom policies. Ask for student involvement in an ongoing investigation into what makes a good discussion: assign students (in small groups) to co-create a rubric for use in class discussions.

• Include reading about academic in-class conversations. One participant suggested “Guidelines for Class Discussion” by Maureen Adams as a helpful text for both students and teachers.

• Commiserate or celebrate with fellow teachers. Share strategies and experiences; be reminded that almost all teachers encounter difficulty when classes discuss or debate sensitive topics.

Finally, our roundtable discussion included thoughts about Roosevelt University’s unique foundational history and its specific emphasis on social justice. We talked about the ways our responsibility to foster social justice manifests itself in the classroom, and that the ongoing exchange of ideas and beliefs—if at times a vehement one—is a vital part of this valuable aspect of our teaching and learning environment. With this in mind, teachers can envision the classroom as a place where sensitive topics are confronted and debated and argued about because they matter to the lives of students and teachers, and in this way the “outside” lived experiences of the classroom community truly become integrated into academic work.

A-Z: What Is Roosevelt University’s Policy on Academic Grading?Joel C. OkaforSt. Clair Drake Center for African & African American Studies

BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION: UNIVERSITIES AND ACADEMIC EXCELLENCEDeclining academic excellence is at the top of the agenda of academic institutions; federal, state, local governments; and multinational corporations. For institutions of higher learning, this issue is serious because the degrees they issue are based on the integrity, respect, and legitimacy of academic excellence. In this article, I examine grading, grade inflation, relevant policies for academic institutions, and implications for Roosevelt University.

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WHAT IS THE EXTENT OF GRADE INFLATION IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING?Many researchers confirm that grade inflation is a serious threat to academic excellence in all schools and call for urgent action. According to Minnesota State University’s Center For Excellence and Learning, “grade inflation exists when grade patterns change so that overwhelming majority of students in a class, college, or university receive higher grades for the same quantity and quality of work done by students in the past.” In other words, grade inflation exists when higher grades are given for lower academic performance.

At Harvard University in 1992, 91% of all undergraduate grades were B-minus or higher. In 1993, 83.6% of all Harvard seniors graduated with honors. In an article entitled, “Is It Grade Inflation, or Are Students Just Smarter?,” Karen W. Arenson cited a study reporting that half of the grades issued by Princeton University in 2003 were A’s, which had increased from 37% in the 1970s. Similarly, the Chicago Maroon carried a study by Stuart Rojstaczer, a professor at Duke University, that highlighted a 35 year-long national trend showing an increase of 0.15 in the Grade Point Average (GPA) per decade at 29 American colleges and universities. The study highlighted in particular increases in GPA at the University of Chicago: “At this rate of growth by mid-century according to Rojstaczer, all grades will be As.”

At Roosevelt, graduating classes are also characterized by growing number of As, honors, as well as Franklin honors. At every commencement, it appears as if the number of honors and Franklin honors continues to increase. Many of our students work very hard to make these grades and deserve the rewards, but occasionally people have questioned the qualifications of students who are more likely to be motivated primarily by a high GPA than inspired by learning. Based on the above, it is necessary to examine Roosevelt’s grading ideology and culture, especially now as the university is in the process of renewal and re-examination of its academic traditions.

SHOULD ROOSEVELT UNIVERSITY HAVE A STANDARDIZED GRADING POLICY?RUMCOT seminars provide a unique forum for instructors to share information about their teaching skills, styles, and experiences. These gatherings afford us unique opportunities to ask pertinent questions, learn new pedagogies, acquire classroom management techniques, and generally listen to what others do in the classroom. It is also a time to exchange views and pay tribute to professionals whose jobs are indispensable to the success of our research activities. In this vein, I present the following questions for examination at our university:

• Is the present Roosevelt University grading policy A to F adequate and appropriate?

• Will having a grading scheme that uses both plus and minus grades provide an opportunity for a fairer GPA and more realistic evaluation? Would such a grading scheme challenge individual professor’s academic independence?

• What does it mean to say that an academic work is an A? What should it mean? Is an A in English literature

comparable to an A in a geography or international relations class? What common denominators should we as instructors look for when we hear that a particular student has a particular grade?

The questions I raise here for discussion, exchanges and analysis are as follows:

• What is Roosevelt University’s grade policy? Does Roosevelt have one? If it should, what would be the basis of such a policy?

• Essentially, what are the purposes and functions of grades in a university? Who does it serve: the student, the school, the employer, or as a basis of comparison between schools?

• What are the essential ingredients of a good grading culture in an academic setting?

• What are we communicating to students and others who use university degrees to make important decisions based on the grades we issue? If we are promising academic competence, can we guarantee it?

Although I have more questions than answers, it is my view that a serious re-evaluation of these questions and issues will help address the challenges of grading and grade inflation.

WHAT SOLUTIONS HAVE BEEN PROFFERED BY EXPERTS: WHAT ARE SCHOOLS DOING?Many scholars have considered what can be done to promote accurate grading and to fight grade inflation. An article recently appearing in the Harvard Crimson Online entitled “Reviving the Meaning of Grades” stated that grades must be based on quality of work, not on a curve, to be used as a pedagogical tool. According to this Crimson staff writer, “the crucial role grades play in teaching must come before any role they play for outsiders, because grades differentiate student work based on quality. Because students produce different quality of work, grades will inevitably differentiate between students in the same school and from other schools.” Harvard, Princeton, and the University of Chicago are considering reduction of As given every semester.

Some writers argue that the failure of the present grading system can be blamed on the infrequency of meaningful feedback when instructors evaluate student’s work. If grades are to serve as a pedagogical tool, then there ought to be more than four grades. Moreover, feedback to students must provide detailed comments, criticisms, as well as areas in need of refinement and improvement to provide a true measure of performance.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTSI am pleased that Roosevelt University is serious about academic excellence. The history of the Roosevelt University Mini Conference on Teaching is a testament to the search for and establishment of this tradition. I thank Steve Meyers, Connie Donovan, June Lapidus, Heather Dalmage, Nona Burney, and others too numerous to list for their efforts. There may be disagreement over grade inflation, but there is broad consensus about the importance of excellence in teaching, and maintaining a fair, objective grading culture.

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It is natural for students to want high GPAs, but it is the role of the teacher (among other things) to hold the grade until good work is clearly demonstrated.

REFERENCESArenson, K. W. (2004, April 18). Is it grade inflation, or are students

just smart?. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/18/weekinreview/18aren.html/4/26/2005

Bartlett, B. (2003, February 4). More A’s, less excellence. National Review Online. Retrieved from http://www.nationalreview.com/nrof_bartlett/bartlett020403.asp.

Dresner, J. (2004, August 5). Grade inflation…Why it’s a nightmare. Retrieved from http://www.educationnews.org/grade-inflation-why-it.htm.

Mansfield, H. (2001, April 6). Grade inflation: It’s time to face the facts. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/free/v47/i30/30b02401.htm.

The Crimson Staff. (2002, February 13). Reviving the meaning of grades. The Harvard Crimson Online, Retrieved from http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=161644.

The Crimson Staff. (2002, February 14). Ill-advised ‘solutions’. The Harvard Crimson Online, Retrieved from http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=161663.

Minnesota State University, Mankato, Center For Excellence and Learning. (n.d.). Grade inflation. Retrieved from http://www.mnsu.edu/cetl/teachingresources/articles/gradeinflation.html.

Social Justice in the ClassroomMarti Livingston LansuDepartment of Psychology

“The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing.” Edmund Burke

Roosevelt University’s commitment to social justice stemmed from its irreconcilable differences and subsequent divorce from the YMCA, when that institution sought to identify students by ethnicity, race, and sexual orientation. Throughout is 65-year history, Roosevelt has produced social activists in a wide range of fields.

What factors beyond that initial commitment contribute to this ethos of its founders and to its alumni and alumnae? What can current instructors do to equip current students to join their ranks and impact their world?

New Dealers are change agents who dare to hope that the course of events is not calcified. Dreaming of a brighter future, they filter out the status quo and attempt to effect change, whether incremental or monumental in scope. But are activists born or bred? They may come to class with a flicker of hope that things could be different but the instructor’s involvement is vital in fanning it into a flame. By challenging hand-me-down opinions, encouraging creative yet critical thinking, and entertaining solution-based initiatives, the instructor is the linchpin between the school’s legacy and the student’s future as change agent.

Several RUMCOT2 participants reported that one of the main reasons their students chose Roosevelt was its commitment

to social justice. However, they acknowledged that others are unaware of Roosevelt’s mission, which “aspires to be a national leader in educating socially conscious citizens for active and dedicated lives as leaders in their professions and their communities … will foster and support a visible network of action-oriented learning experiences for students and alumni as part of its historic commitment to social justice.” An initial step in fostering a commitment to social justice involves intentionally teaching students about the school’s history and reminding them of their role in this process.

At the first Roosevelt University Mini-Conference on Teaching, Heather Dalmage and Nora Burney’s workshop on social justice netted out areas of inequity. They concluded that, “social justice includes many aspects that can be categorized broadly as access, representation, allocation of resources and agenda building” (Dalmage & Burney, 2004, p. 14). Participants were encouraged to eliminate binary thinking and acknowledge that an imbalance exists. They then received an action continuum guidesheet to rate themselves on particular issues ranging from supporting to confronting oppression.

This year, workshop participants defined a social justicer as someone who defends what is right and maintains or carries out justice, i.e., the administration of legal, social, moral principles, in a manner that will benefit or improve the condition of society (Brown, 1994).

Discussion centered around three questions: What does my class currently do which could be seen as social justice? What are they doing now that could be expanded into a social justice project? What could they be doing within the framework of the syllabus?

Participants attempted to differentiate between philanthropy and social justice. One summed up the group’s contributions stating that social justice differs from charity in that it involves advocacy for the disadvantaged. For example, a charitable organization might provide tangible relief such as clothing, food or training but a social justicer strives to (re)establish rights.

W. E. B. DuBois said that for education to be relevant, it must grow out of the life experience of those being educated. Students come to class equipped with the filter of their own unique set of experiences. In like manner, students who want to do more than merely survive the educational process and thrive as life-long learners will strive to find ways to apply course material to their own lives. The term for this phenomenon is the self-reference effect and is critical to the integration of social justice into the college classroom.

To help the group protect themselves from self-imposed roadblocks in the classroom, participants identified issues important to themselves. Next, they listed those issues’ polar opposites. Ensuing discussion explored viable options to consider when responding to a student’s proposal to advocate for a cause on the instructor’s polar opposite list. To move toward un milieu juste, a golden mean, participants were encouraged to consider (University of North Carolina, Center for Teaching and Learning, 1992):

• Everyone has a right to participate in discussion.

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• Always listen carefully, with an open mind, to the contributions of others.

• Ask for clarification when you don’t understand.

• Challenge using factual information and appropriate logic.

• When challenged, entertain others’ arguments.

• Don’t introduce irrelevant material.

• Don’t repeat others.

• Make your point then relinquish the floor.

• Respond with respect, never ridicule.

Instructors should expect a wide range of responses to their attempt to implement a social justice component. Some students will openly balk at such a project while others will prefer to advocate for someone they personally know as opposed to a faceless person halfway across the world. Despite the use of multicultural curricula, involvement on a global level may nonetheless be more difficult to foster. Common responses to curricula and class discussion include anger, sadness, despair, fear, intellectualization, withdrawal and even conflict (Sue & Sue, 2002).

The classroom, however, is the place to build alliances by encouraging appropriate disclosure, accepting viewpoints, and clarifying expectations. Participants were encouraged to employ mindful listening, which involves focusing on the other person. Assuming a nonjudgmental stance, the instructor should paraphrase what the student said then tactfully seek clarification if necessary.

Social justice begins with a hospitable receptivity. The instructor’s demonstration of respect for individual differences is vital to fostering a working relationship in the classroom.

REFERENCESBrown, L. (Ed.). (1994). Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford:

Clarendon Press.

Dalmage, H., & Burney, N. M. (2004). Conceptualizing social justice for the 21st century. In S. A. Meyers, C. Donovan, J. Lapidus, H. Dalmage, & N. Burney (Eds.), Proceedings of the Roosevelt University Mini-Conference on Teaching (Vol. 1, pp. 13-14). Chicago: Roosevelt University.

Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2002). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (4th ed.). New York: Wiley.

University of North Carolina, Center for Teaching and Learning. (1992). The guided discussion. Retrieved from http://ctl.unc.edu/fyc12.html.

Emotional Intelligence in the ClassroomDawn MuhammadDepartment of Communication

WHAT IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE?Emotional intelligence (EI) was initially proposed by Mayer, Di Paolo, and Salovey (1990) and Salovey and Mayer (1990),

and the concept immediately began to receive attention from scholars, various organizations, and the media. EI has been extremely influential in both academic and business realms. In fact, “no psychological concept has had a greater influence on leadership development than emotional intelligence” (Wieand, 2002, p. 33).

Emotional intelligence has become a popular topic in both the academic and corporate arenas, and some see EI as a form of practical intelligence (Fox & Spector, 2000; Sternberg & Wagner, 1993). Goleman (1995) is best known for his work on EI and its relevance to the workplace. Organizations are especially interested in reaping the benefits of having emotional intelligent employees and, increasingly, leaders are being referred to in terms of their levels of emotional intelligence. “Leadership today requires individuals to be secure and skilled enough in handling their own emotional reactions so that they may deal effectively with others” (Goleman, as cited in Eisenberg & Goodall, 2004, p. 257).

There are several definitions of emotional intelligence available. Daniel Goleman, considered the father of emotional intelligence, defines emotional intelligence by using five dimensions; the first three are intrapersonal and the other two are interpersonal (1995). The five dimensions include: knowing one’s emotions, managing one’s emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships. Additionally, “it is proposed that individuals differ in how they deal with their emotions and those who effectively manage their emotions are said to be ‘emotionally intelligent’” (Muchinsky, 2000, p. 128).

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE CLASSROOMIn the classroom, emotional intelligence is just as important, although emotions often are discouraged in the classroom (similar to in the workplace). When instructors and their students develop their emotional intelligence it enables students and instructors to achieve their potential —and far exceed their current classroom achievements. In fact, studies have reported that instructors with highly developed emotional intelligence enhance the experience of learning and release the potential of students.

Integrating emotional intelligence in the classroom can be done in a number of ways. Most simply, by acknowledging your feelings (as an instructor) and the feelings of the students in your class as relevant. If a topic being discussed evokes feelings, don’t ignore them, address them. Studies show that people who are emotionally connected to a subject tend to remember more about that subject. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if students felt a passion about something being discussed in class?

STUDENTS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCELearning is emotion-based. Engaging students in school entails emotionally involving them with what they are learning. To raise levels of achievement, educators must target the positive emotions of their pupils, and motivate their learners to learn. Emotional content, whether intended or accidental, will always have enormous power over students’ attention and interest—either to focus or distract. As instructors develop lessons, they need to be aware of the

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potential emotional content for students who are computer phobic, or who have particular sensitivity to issues of abuse, alcoholism, or a recent death in the family. Unseen feelings may distract students from the agenda we have in mind. We need to stay spacious with unexpected feelings as they arise and are expressed in the classroom.

INSTRUCTORS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCEEmotional intelligence can be developed in classes (irrespective of subject) as well. To develop emotional intelligence, we need time to reflect, alone and with others. Some instructors integrate learning journals, team projects, and individual projects to achieve this. Sometimes, taking the last five minutes of a class to ask students to write down their thoughts on the class (reflection) helps. Instructors can also increase their feeling word vocabulary. Since most people have a very limited vocabulary for emotion, e.g., love, hate, fear, etc. Getting more accurate in naming and expressing your feelings helps you know yourself and connect better to others. Instructors can also smile more. “Scientists all the way back to Charles Darwin have identified that different facial expressions have corresponding feelings associated with them. So, if you want to feel better, turn on a smile and wait for good feelings to come along!” (www.eqtoday.com).

An instructor’s level of emotional intelligence is by far the single most important variable in creating a classroom where emotional intelligence can be developed healthily. And the single most important variable in the instructor’s emotional intelligence is how they handle their own emotions, especially their negative emotions. An effective, successful instructor is largely one who can handle his or her negative feelings in an authentic, real and healthy way.

In conclusion, here are some tips that will help instructors create an environment conducive to facilitating emotionally intelligent discussions.

1. Label your feelings rather than your students.

2. Express your emotions rather issuing commands.

3. Learn to take responsibility for your own feelings rather than blame them on your students.

4. Remember that respect is earned, not demanded.

5. Never invalidate a student.

6. Apologize when you feel regret for something.

7. Encourage students to express their feelings with feeling words.

8. Seek voluntary cooperation rather than issuing commands.

9. Help students resolve their own conflicts.

10. First validate the student’s feeling before addressing their behavior.

REFERENCESEisenberg, E. M., & Goodall, H. L. (2004). Organizational

communication: Balancing creativity and constraint (4th ed.). New York: Bedford’s St. Martin Press.

Fox, S., & Spector, P. E. (2000). Relations of emotional intelligence, practical intelligence, general intelligence, and trait affectivity with interview outcomes: It’s not all just “G.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 203-214.

Goleman, D. (1995a, November/December). EQ: What’s your emotional intelligence quotient? Utne Reader, 72, 74-76.

Goleman, D. (1995b). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

Goleman, D. (1998a, March/April). The emotionally competent leader. Healthcare Forum Journal, 41(2), 36-39.

Goleman, D. (1998b). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

Goleman, D. (1999, May). Engineers need emotional IQ. ENR, 242 (18), 167.

Mayer, J. D, DiPaolo, M., & Salovey, P. (1990). Perceiving affective content in ambiguous visual stimuli: A component of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54, 772-781.

Muchinsky, P. M. (2000). Psychology applied to work (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition & Personality, 9, 185-211.

Salovey, P., Stroud, L. R., Woolery, A., & Epel, E. S. (2002). Perceived emotional intelligence, stress reactivity, and symptom reports: Further explorations using the trait meta-mood scale. Psychology and Health, 17, 611-627.

Sternberg, R. J., & Wagner, R. K. (1993). The g-centric view of intelligence and job performance is wrong. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 1-4.

Wieand, P. (2002). Drucker’s challenge: Communication and the emotional glass ceiling. Ivey Business Journal, 66(5), 32-38.

Emotional Intelligence: How Temperament and Attitude Impact ProgressChristie AhrensCollege of Education

“Learning doesn’t take place in isolation from feelings. Being emotionally literate is as important for learning as instruction in math and reading (Goleman, 1995).”

Since Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist, introduced the concept of “multiple intelligences” in 1983, the idea of intelligence has taken on new meaning. Gardner currently advocates eight different intelligences:

Verbal/Linguistic. The intelligence concerned with uses of language and the most common form of instruction utilized in today’s classrooms. This is the communicating part of you.

Logical/Mathematical. The intelligence that incorporates both mathematical and scientific abilities and the next most common form of instruction found in today’s classrooms. This is the problem solving, pattern-seeking part of you.

Visual/Spatial. The intelligence with ability to comprehend the visual world accurately. This is the artistic, creative, imaginative part of you.

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Body/Kinesthetic. The intelligence based on the gift of control of one’s bodily movements and the talent to manipulate objects with deftness. This is the athletic tactile, touchy-feely, part of you.

Musical/Rhythmic. The intelligence related to musical capabilities, the ability to tune into sounds, and natural rhythm aptitude. This is the auditory part of you.

Interpersonal. The intelligence focused outward toward individuals in the environment; having a talent for understanding others. This is the social butterfly part of you.

Intrapersonal. The intelligence to understand one’s own feelings. This is the quietly reflective part of you (Chapman, 1993).

Naturalist. The intelligence with ability to recognize and classify species of flora and fauna, natural phenomena, and living systems. This is the environmentalist part of you (Armstrong, 2003).

Although it’s true that we’re smart in many ways, it is the application of the above intelligences within a particular context that impacts achievement. Intelligence is the ability to learn, understand, and reason. Yet one of psychology’s open secrets is the relative inability of grades, IQ, or SAT scores to accurately predict who will succeed in life. That’s because these factors are evaluated in isolation—outside the context in which they will be exhibited or acted out—and humans are social beings who apply knowledge within their own unique social system. We all know people who are highly intelligent yet have little common sense. These individuals tend to isolate and live in their own little world; they are brain smart but socially deficient, for they lack emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence might be understood as the application of multiple intelligences to real life living. The root of the word emotion is motere, the Latin verb “to move.” With the prefix “e” added, the meaning connotes “move way.” Every strong emotion has at its root an impulse to act, or react. Therefore, action is implicit in every emotion, and managing those impulses is basic to emotional intelligence.

Emotions are the affective aspects of our consciousness. According to Daniel Goleman (1998), emotional intelligence, or EQ, “refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships” (p. 317). The focus of EQ is to develop an understanding of, and an ability to, manage emotions. Salovey and Mayer (1990) originally articulated five domains of EQ. Since that time, Goleman (1998) has adapted their model into a version “useful for understanding how these talents matter in work life” (p. 318):

1. Self-awareness. Knowing what we are feeling and using that knowledge to guide our decision making; having a realistic assessment of our own abilities and a well-grounded sense of self-confidence.

2. Self-regulation. Handling our emotions so they facilitate rather than interfere with the task at hand; the ability to delay gratification to pursue goals and recover well from emotional distress.

3. Motivation. Using our deepest preferences to move and guide us toward our goals, help us take initiative, strive to improve, and persevere in the face of setbacks and frustrations.

4. Empathy. Sensing what people are feeling; the ability to see a situation from another’s perspective; cultivating rapport and attunement with a broad diversity of people.

5. Social skills. Handling emotions in relationships effectively; accurately reading social situations and networks; the ability to develop positive interactions with others and manage conflict appropriately; using these skills to persuade and lead, negotiate and settle disputes, for cooperation and teamwork.

As educators, we probably don’t consider ourselves teachers of “emotions.” However, the human brain gives priority to feelings, so emotional memory takes precedence over any other kind of memory. Since intelligence requires both cognitive and emotional expertise, educators do influence the emotional aptitude of their students. Crucial emotional competencies can be learned, and improved upon, if we teach them. In reality, instructional strategies will be most powerful when they are cognitively and emotionally charged. Emotions make learning “stick,” so it makes sense to consider these skills when planning our instruction.

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICEThe following ideas, adapted from Armstrong (2003) and Fogarty (1998), provide some initial suggestions for integrating the cognitive and emotional teaching and learning process. As you review these strategies, I invite you to reflect on your own classroom and consider how your students are engaged in learning.

1. Teach mind tools and life tools together.

• Combine critical thinking skills like comparing, inferring, predicting, and generalizing with cooperative group work so students are also developing social skills (e.g., communicating, resolving conflicts, reaching consensus, and team building).

• Merge technical skills, such as web quests and virtual field trips, with visual art skills like painting, building, and drawing.

2. Include a range of sensory input. Move from strictly using print materials to a variety of materials that enhance instruction.

• Search out musical samples to teach important context: choose songs from the 60s to initiate discussions about the Vietnam War; use jazz to introduce and discuss rhythm in language.

• Employ language as a power tool. Have your students listen to H.G. Wells’ “War of the World” radio broadcast to gain perspective on the power of the press and social change; examine ballads for historical content; compare Hitler’s speeches to Kennedy’s to spark political debates.

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• Add a variety of visuals to your teaching repertoire, such as artwork, posters, graphs, signs, games, and puzzles.

3. Increase the skillfulness of learners.

• This can occur through formal teaching/learning structures using direct instruction and demonstration of the skill to be learned, followed by practice and mentoring.

• Skillfulness can be developed through independent readings and research, dialogue and discussions, peer coaching, and mentoring. These are all activities requiring student-to-student interaction.

4. Provide active, experiential learning opportunities.

• Science lab courses inherently address this “learning by experience” model. Use the lab concept to create other activity centers for learning (e.g. create challenging math problems for students to solve or have them develop problems for each other to solve).

• Create a constructivist classroom by incorporating cooperative groups and assigning the use of graphic organizers (e.g., flow charts, concept maps, attribute webs, and Venn diagrams) as the recording tools. Each group is responsible for presenting their findings by sharing their graphic organizer.

• Use authentic case studies, community service learning projects, and problem-based learning activities for effective experiential curriculum models.

5. Create a safe emotional climate.

• Together with students, establish classroom expectations (e.g., develop a code of conduct) and reinforce them throughout the semester. Include verbal and nonverbal behaviors. For example, a short list of expectations may look like: all voices are included, interruptions and sidebars are unacceptable, debate is encouraged, and all class members (including the instructor) will be prepared and ready to participate.

• Organize your physical space. Give students the experience of learning from one another. Set the room up to facilitate student-to-student, face to face, interactions. This might look like tables in a U shape, desks in a semi-circle, or a circle of chairs.

• Vary instructional delivery. Incorporate small group activities, which provides opportunities to practice social skills, along with stand and deliver instruction; when requiring students to present information, teach them how to be presenters, and give them a chance to practice being a presenter before they go on stage.

6. Provide diverse opportunities for students to show what they know.

• Combine traditional tests with alternative forms of assessment. For example, require students to work in cooperative groups (with no more than four students per group) to summarize relevant course material and tell them they must present this information to their

classmates. Allow students several choices regarding how they might present their learning. They could write and perform a song or rap, create and describe a poster, develop a game to play or a puzzle to complete, do a dramatic performance, role-play, or conduct a debate. Your students may surprise you with their creative abilities.

• Culminate a unit of study with a celebration rather than a “test.” Remember that strong emotions make learning stick, so celebrating at the end of a unit of study can give students an emotional memory that may last forever.

7. Transfer learning through reflection. Reflection gives the brain a reason to pay attention, understand, and remember.

• Use reading-response journals (i.e., the reader writes a personal, immediate response to what they have read), learning logs (which are used to record the learner’s thoughts, comments, and questions prior to or following a learning experience), and personal journals.

• Incorporate reflective responses through lab reports, sketch books, writer’s notebooks, portfolios, and partner dialogues.

• Require students to complete specific processing strategies following independent and/or cooperative group work. For example, assign a PMI inventory. For a PMI, students record their Positive, Minus, and Interesting responses to a (homework) reading assignment; they bring their PMI inventory to the next class, discuss their responses with a partner, and hand in assignment (for accountability and feedback).

8. Teach and allow students to practice social skills.For example, work on listening skills during the course of a unit of study by including the following activities related to the subject content (see Cummings, 2000, pp. 32-36).

• Teach active listening skills, which include (a) focusing attention on the speaker, (b) listening and observing to gain and interpret information, and (c) checking for understanding by asking questions and paraphrasing. These skills can be developed in a role play between partners that allows for demonstration and practice. Students must be given immediate feedback regarding their competence with this skill (either from the instructor or peers) in order for learning to be effective.

• Invite students to observe, record, and share poor listening habits they see and/or experience during one week between classes; conversely, have them look for effective listening skills the next week. What did they notice?

• Create a mnemonic device to review a specific social skill. For example, the word FOCUS—Face the speaker, Organize, Connect, Use questions, and See pictures—describes active listening behaviors.

You have just participated in an essential emotional competency by reading this article and reflecting on your

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own teaching techniques. Reflection informs the learner; it makes learning personal, meaningful, and relevant. I am hopeful that this exercise in self-reflection informed you with enough input to construct your own system of meaning as it relates to the topic of emotional intelligence and learning. The meaning you construct may or may not impact your teaching practice. One thing’s for sure, though. If you took the time to read and reflect on this material you have already enhanced the development of your own emotional competencies. Better learning comes not so much from finding better ways for the teacher to “instruct,” but from giving the learner better opportunities to “construct.”

REFERENCESArmstrong, T. (2003). The multiple intelligences of reading and writing:

Making the words come alive. Alexandra, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Brualdi, A. C. (1996). Multiple intelligences: Gardner’s theory. Practical assessment, research and evaluation. http://ericae.net/pare/getvn.asp

Chapman, C. (1993). If the shoe fits: How to develop multiple intelligences in the classroom. Palatine, IL: IRI/Skylight Training and Publishing, Inc.

Fogarty, R. (1998). The intelligence-friendly classroom: It just makes sense. Phi Delta Kappan, 79, 655-658.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam Books.

Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.

Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Realizing the power of emotional intelligence. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence, Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9,185-211

Why Can’t We All Just Get Along?: Thoughts on Classroom ConflictSteven A. MeyersDepartment of Psychology

“Do we really have to buy this book?” [Student to instructor on the first day of class]

“Shut up, b----… It’s none of your business” [One student to another in class]

“How old are you?” [Student provocatively asking the age of his female instructor]

Many college instructors experience conflict involving students their classrooms in some form. Some conflicts are hostile and overt. Students may disparage the instructor, argue with their classmates, or actively dispute course requirements or their grades. Other conflicts are covert and include more subtle expressions of disrespect. For example, students may arrive chronically late to class, appear inattentive, or engage in side conversations. Conflicts can involve different parties

as well. Faculty may have a disagreement with a single student or multiple students in the class. Alternatively, conflicts may emerge among students as they argue or struggle to cooperate in the context of class assignments.

Most faculty members report that conflict-laden classes drain their enjoyment from teaching. This discouragement may spill over and influence attitudes towards students in other classes when conflicts are sufficiently severe during the semester. Even though arguments and disputes with students create high levels of faculty stress, instructors are often reticent to talk about these experiences with each other. Perhaps some are embarrassed about their difficulties in managing their students’ behavior; others may feel helpless and are waiting for the end of the semester. Similarly, faculty members are sometimes reluctant to take active measures to resolve classroom disputes. This may be a product of resignation or not knowing effective conflict resolution techniques.

In this article, I offer a series of observations and recommendations regarding college-level classroom conflict that stem from three main sources. First, there is a relatively small literature that documents the correlates of classroom conflict and ways to resolve it. Second, I draw on my own survey research on this topic. I have recently conducted a national survey of psychology faculty who described the techniques that they use to contain classroom disagreements and I have been able to determine which strategies generally work better than others. Third, Roosevelt University faculty members who participated in the roundtable discussion at RUMCOT shared their stories about conflicts that have occurred in their own classes, and they described their most effective ways to reduce such disputes. These instructors are known for their skillfulness in teaching at Roosevelt, and yet they still endorsed episodes of stress and conflict. In addition to the examples listed at the beginning of this article, roundtable participants offered conflict illustrations such as:

• Students sending instant messages during class projects in the computer lab

• Students sexually threatening their peers inside or outside of class

• Students insisting on the reassignment of a lab partner

• Students fighting with each other when completing a collaborative class project

• Students arguing with the instructor and each other when discussing controversial classroom topics

STRATEGIES FOR PREVENTING AND REDUCING CONFLICTThe most effective way to manage disputes is to prevent them from occurring in the first place. From the beginning of class, faculty members have an opportunity to create a supportive tone that is antithetical to conflict. Several strategies stem from this idea. First, instructors can communicate respect, interest, and warmth when teaching. They can implicitly share their enthusiasm about not only their subject matter, but also about teaching. They can emphasize their availability and willingness to help students understand the material and succeed in class.

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Instructors’ concern for students is evident when they maintain eye contact, smile, and come out from behind their desks. It is sometimes easy to forget that teaching and learning occurs in the context of a relationship that develops between professors and students. Students’ attitudes towards class material are often shaped by their perceptions of the instructor as a caring person who is a role model.

Second, instructors who minimize conflict frequently have a clear agenda for the course and ensure that students find content relevant. Several roundtable participants emphasized the importance of having detailed syllabi that clearly delineate their expectations and policies which are typically the subject of disputes (e.g., content of exams, make-up policies, attendance expectations, method of grade computation, etc.). Students often appreciate the predictability that a well-structured course provides. Similarly, faculty members foster a positive tone when they seek students’ input about the course. The vast majority of faculty members retain their responsibility and oversight regarding the content of their classes. Yet, it is easy to address students’ course-related motivations by:

• Asking students on the first day of class about their learning objectives

• Collecting feedback from students during the semester about what they like about the class as well as suggestions for improvement

• Assessing students’ relevant interests to ensure the selection of interesting examples or metaphors

• Posing periodic questions such as, “What do you know about [the topic]?, What more would you like to learn?, and What point about the reading would you most like me to clarify?”

Third, faculty members are often surprised to learn that teaching strategies relate to the amount of conflict in their classes. My own research has demonstrated that the use of lecturing is related to increased levels of conflict, whereas the use of discussion and active learning is associated with lower amounts of conflict. It is likely that students acquire more positive attitudes about the course, the instructor, and their peers when relationships are fostered in the classroom. Active and collaborative learning, in particular, has been shown to be a powerful method to enhance students’ interpersonal behaviors as well as their academic achievement from kindergarten through graduate school. This involves the frequent use of carefully conceived group projects, problem-based learning activities, or smaller efforts such as “think-pair-share” (i.e., the instructor poses a question or problem to students individually, students then confer in small groups to refine their answers, and a subset of students share their responses with the entire class).

Fourth, the most effective means of controlling conflict after it occurs is to listen to students and express understanding. This is more difficult than it sounds because faculty members naturally want to advance their own positions or agendas at these times. Rather, careful listening involves allowing students the opportunity to share their negative emotions,

such as anger or frustration, without interruption or rebuttal. Instructors communicate that they understand the students’ position when they have the ability to paraphrase the gist what students have said or express empathy—even in cases of disagreement.

Fifth, communicating understanding often segues into more detailed problem-solving methods. When conflicts persist, faculty can address the situation by carefully choosing a time and location for discussion. One roundtable participant particularly emphasized the need to meet individually with students. This participant also underscored the utility of maintaining a supportive, empathic, and tactful tone in the follow-up conversation. During problem-solving, the instructor and student concretely define the problem and then brainstorm as many solutions as possible. Most often, solutions are combined to produce an alternative that both are ultimately willing to adopt.

Admittedly, the strategies that I have described above do not eradicate classroom conflict. It is also easier to discuss these techniques when calm than it is to implement them when both instructor and students are agitated. Moreover, some students may need assistance from other professionals at the university to address fully the problem at hand. For example, the Counseling Center helps students who experience heightened stress or psychological disorders, and the Academic Success Center or the Tutoring Center and Writing Lab support students with academic and learning difficulties which relate to some classroom problems. Despite these caveats, I encourage faculty members to share these struggles and successes with each other to foster a supportive community for effective instruction. Moreover, these strategies can help faculty members create the type of classroom environments that are enjoyable for both instructors and students and are conducive to learning.

RESOURCES FOR FURTHER READINGBoice, B. (1996). Classroom incivilities. Research in Higher Education,

37, 453-486.

Holton, S. A. (Ed.). (1998). Mending cracks in the ivory tower: Strategies for conflict management in higher education. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book.

Meyers, S. A. (2003). Strategies to prevent and reduce conflict in college classrooms. College Teaching, 51, 94-98.

Richardson, S. M. (Ed.). (1999). Promoting civility: A teaching challenge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (Eds.). (1992). Power in the classroom: Communication, control, and concern. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

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