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Prof. (PhD) Cornelis Roelofse University of Limpopo [email protected] Prof (D.Litt et Phil) Phillip Potgieter Prof. Emeritus University of Zululand Police Coloquim – CSIR 7 February 2017
Prof. (PhD) Cornelis Roelofse
University of Limpopo
Prof (D.Litt et Phil) Phillip Potgieter
Prof. Emeritus University of Zululand
Police Coloquim – CSIR 7 February 2017
PROF CORNELIS ROELOFSE (PHD) HEAD OF DEPARTMENT (CRIMINOLOGY
AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO AND
PROF (D.LLIT ET PHIL) PHILLIP POTGIETER, PROF. EMERITUS
UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND
Crime knows no borders
International liaison/enforcement
• Policing in an increasingly globalized world has led to
all sorts of formal and informal liaison.
• The American Drug Enforcement Administration
• Trevi’s initial concern was to address international
terrorism, but soon started to focus on other cross-
border crimes within the European Community.
• Liaison Officer
Internationalsation/globalisation
• Globalisation, money driven, creates
interdependence with a gradual loss of
sovereignty. It is inevitable with global means of
transport and communication.
• Internationalization requires cross border
cooperation with sovereignty being maintained.
It is involuntary and needs based.
Globalisation and a new world
order
A new world
Globalization… internationalization… [are] …totally different.
Internationalization refers to the increasing importance of international trade,
international relations, treaties, alliances, etc. Inter-national, of course, means
between or among nations. The basic unit remains the nation, even as relations
among nations become increasingly necessary and important.
Globalization refers to global economic integration of many formerly national
economies into one global economy, mainly by free trade and free capital
mobility, but also by easy or uncontrolled migration. It is the effective erasure of
national boundaries for economic purposes. International trade (governed by
comparative advantage) becomes interregional trade (governed by absolute
advantage). What was many becomes one. (Daly 1999; 1)
Globalisation
Currently, the world is driven by an increased globalization.
Fien (2010:1) from UNESCO defines globalisation as follows:
Globalisation is the ongoing process that is linking people, neighbourhoods, cities, regions and countries much more closely together than they have ever been before. This has resulted in our lives being intertwined with people in all parts of the world via the food we eat, the clothing we wear, the music we listen to, the information we get and the ideas we hold.
Globalisation and its implications
Globalization is a result of:
Super capitalism‘s expanding global markets supported by technology, mass migration and transportation systems.
Resulting in:
• Most economic activity and financial transactions are technologically facilitated, having opened up possibilities for trans-national organised (TOC) crime groups;
• Increased pattern of migration to more developed nations; and
• Erosion of nation states and multi-culturalism.
Implications for policing (inter alia):
• Shifting crime patterns;
• Cross-border cooperation and operations;
• Need for trans-national intelligence and jurisdiction; and
• Hidden crime scenes (internet).
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Criminals:
• international mobility;
• access to internet links across the globe;
• rapid trans-frontier transportation systems;
• trans-national and global networks; and
• are unrestrained by laws and conventions.
Police:
• The rule of law, criminal procedures and human rights;
• State sovereignty; and
• Lengthy procedures that put them in an unequal race with criminals.
Methodology
Empirical study – Positivism - Quantitative study
• A typical 5-point, bipolar Likert-type measuring scale implemented for the purpose of intercepting their reactions to the two main groups of respondents, namely academics and practitioners.
• However with some variables a 0 option was introduced in a ranking scale This is an innovation introduced by the researchers to identify options within a particular dependent variable favoured least by respondents. It means that those responses obtaining the most zero scores are the least favoured.
• Reliability tests in the form of Cronbach’s Individual Alpha Item Analysis Test,. In both cases the questionnaire was found to be reliable and valid measuring instrument.
• Correlations
• Once sufficient data has been collected, proper ranking scales will be used for a selected number of variable. Kruskar Wallace.
Sampling
Work in progress
We are attempting to reach our first target level of
respondents based on an unknown population.. A
normal deviation set at 95% confidence level (1.96),
percentage picking a choice or response (50% = 0.5)
and the confidence interval (0.05 = ±5). The formula :
• n = z 2 (p)(1-p)/ c 2 is used to determine the sample size of an unknown population n=385
Constructs determining policing
Diagram 1: Constructs of Policing
Roelofse (2015)
F u n d a m e n t a l c o n s t r u c t s
Cont ext ual constructs
DRIVERS FOR
INTERNATIONALISATION/GLOBALISATION Drivers of international police co-operation
Having indicated that increased global economic activity and technology are the main
drivers for TOC, police are increasingly relying on informal and formal police co-operation.
Despite the increase of global mobility in markets and people, state sovereignty is
explicitly evident when it comes to policing. The idea of regional policing with executive
powers in several countries may be at odds with state sovereignty. It is however possible
to identify certain drivers for police cooperation. The question that needs to be answered
is how these drivers will shape policing in and of the future. The drivers identified for this
paper are by no means exhaustive and others can be added, yet those most prominent
in our changing world are dealt with. The concept of a driver is different from an initiator.
Initiators are aspects such as crime, big events and trans-border movements of criminals.
The drivers selected are:
Law
DRIVERS
• Global markets
• Migration
• Changing political
landscape
• Technology
Drivers
• Crime
• Intelligence
• Cross-border (hot pursuit)
• Police powers in other states
Data presentation
Independent
Variables
Total score Percentage
Gender:
Male
Female
Total
164
39
203
80,78
19.22
100
Occupational
title
Police officer
Academic
Total
107
96
203
30.4
69.6
100.0
: Frequency distribution of independent variables (N=203
By Region
Region/Continent
North America
South America
Africa
Australasia
Western Europe
Eastern Europe
Asia
Other
Total
30
8
55
8
18
82
1
203
14,8
3,9
27,09
3,9
8,86
40,39
0,49
100.0
Motivation for
internationalisation
Data
Motivations Important
Police 107 Academic 96
Not important at all
Police Academic
n % n % n % n %
Informal police
associations in
support of
professional
development
89 43,8 62 30,5 18 8,9 34 16,7
X2 sig
Organised crime, e.g.
transnational crimes
(terrorism, human
trafficking, etc.)
82 30.4
93
68.1
25 12,3 3 0,5
X2 sig
Transnational
economies, mobility,
technology, etc.
69
34
71
34,98.
38 18,7
25
12,32
X2 sig
Presence of political
Spheres created
above nation states,
(e.g. UN, Interpol)
36 17,7 70 34,5 71 35 26 12,8
X2 sig
PRIORITY CHOICE
Choice of global/international policing
seat of power N=138 First round
Practitione
rs
Academic
s
Practitione
rs
Academ
ics
1st % 1st % Co
mb
% 2nd % 2nd % Co
mb
% Ch
oic
e
Interpol 5 12 15 16 20 15 22 52 28 29 50 36 4
ICC 7 17 37 39 44 32 10 24 20 21 30 54 2
UNPOL 8 19 17 18 25 18 12 29 19 20 31 41 3
Inter
treaties
20 48 46 48 66 48 4 10 24 25 28 68 1
PRIORITISING
Round 2 data added N=203
Expand
role of
Interpol
Expand
role if ICC
UN
controlled
State
sovereign
ty and
treaties
Practitio
ners
41
57
54
67
Academ
ics
42
57
38
67
Position Forth Second Third First
Obstacles to
globalizing/internationalizing
policing with executive powers
Raw data for both independent
variables
State
soverei
gnty
Lack
of
Politic
al
oversi
ght
Langu
age
and
cultur
al diff
No
commo
n
judiciar
y
Police
corrupt
ion
Prolifera
tion of
law
enforce
ment
agencies
Practiti
oners
86 79 78 71 50 66
Academ
ics
66 71 59 62 72 47
Sig diff Sig diff
Crimes as driver for int pol
Prioritising
N=203 Crime Strongly Agree/agree N=138
P+A Practitione
rs
Academic
s
1 Human traf 125 95,23% 88,25% 1
2 Piracy 121 95,2% 84,75% 2
3 Drug Traff 115 92,9% 79,2% 3
4 Cyber
crime
115 92,9%; 71,9% 5
5 Money
luandg
114 90,5% 79,2% 4
6 Aircraft Hij 113 90,5% 78,1% 7
7 Terrorism 113 95,2% 76% 5
8 Weapons
traff
112 92,9% 76% 6
9 Nuclear
mat
108 92,9% 71,9% 8
10 Corruption 95 83,3% 62,5% 10
Variable
Number
Statement / Variable options Zero
Choice
% 1st + 2nd
Choice comb
Q. 8 State sovereignty with informal international
liaison and information exchange.
66 47,8 29 (3)
Q. 9 Regional policing with informal cooperation 66 47,8 26
Q. 10 Regional policing with executive powers in all
participating states?
59 42,8 34,8 (2)
Q. 11 Regional cooperation between regions with informal
cooperation
73 52,9 22,4
Q. 12 Regional cooperation between regions with
organizational and executive powers
58 42 26,8
Q. 13 Global international cooperation between regions
with informal cooperation within regions
66 47,8 29 (3)
Q.14 GLOBAL INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
BETWEEN REGIONS WITH ORGANIZATIONAL
AND EXECUTIVE POWERS
60 43,5 37,1 (1)
Q. 15 Global international cooperation with sovereign
regions
77 55,8 22,5
Q. 16 Global International police with executive powers
powers
78 56,5 25,4
Table 5: All respondents variables 8 -16
Limitations of the study
In some instances the margins between the ranked order of variables is very small or
two additional responses can change this. The sample is still small and changes may
result as the sample increases to the desired 385. Furthermore, the regional
imbalance is also a problem and more respondents are needed from Europe and
America. The internet distribution has been very poor with a response of less than
2%. If sufficient respondents from other regions are not obtained their responses will
only be taken into account in overall total responses. There is also a disproportionate
representation of practitioners to academics Perhaps we will obtain sufficient
respondents to also look at male and female responses.
Overall this may affect the results of future inferences and the current findings may be
different.
Findings and conclusions
• Informal liaison and organized crime are more
important drivers for international policing than
trans-national economies and political structures
• State sovereignty is more important than fighting
crime at its cost
• In certain variables there are significant
differences between academics and practitioners.
Findings Cont: Global or worldwide international cooperation
between regions with organizational and executive powers is the
preferred mode of operation but is closely followed by the option
of Regional policing with executive powers in all participating
states. Looking at the responses there is a tendency towards
regionalisation with executive powers where the entire globe is
divided into regions, much like the EU. This mitigates against a
unitary global police force.
Concerning the seat of power, for international policing, the state
sovereignty with treaties regulating policing is the most popular
option. Interesting though is that the ICC is preferred before
Interpol and UNPOL
