Progressive Reforms

Atomic Theory• Atomic theory: the idea that

all matter is made up of discrete units called atoms

• Although the idea had been around since Classical Greece, English physicist John Dalton first developed a modern atomic theory around 1800

• Atomic theory led to the creation of the modern periodic table of elements by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869

Geology• Geology is the study of the Earth• Geologists, using scientific dating

methods, discovered that the Earth was at least 2 billion years old (today, geologists say it is closer to 4.5 billion)

• This caused an uproar because it contradicts the Bible, (which sets the date of the Earth’s creation as 4004 BC) thereby upsetting religious fundamentalists

Paleontology• Paleontology is the study of

prehistoric life, primarily through fossilized remains

• Archaeologists and paleontologists made some unsettling discoveries – the fossilized remains of Neanderthal Man and dinosaurs – creatures not accounted for in the Bible

• Biblical scholars countered that these creatures either died in the Great Flood or never really existed at all (as in, they were “false” records left by Satan)

Theory of Evolution• Naturalist Charles Darwin wrote

On the Origin of Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871)

• Argued that all forms of life, including humans, had evolved from previous life forms

• Proposed that evolution comes about due to “natural selection” or “survival of the fittest” – those best suited to survive live long enough to reproduce and pass on their traits to offspring, while the “unfit” die young without reproducing

Response to Darwin• Darwin was strongly

opposed by Christian groups because his theory meant that man had evolved over millions of years rather than be created by God in a single day

• The evolution debate would open a new rift between science and religion that would carry over well into the twentieth century

Social Darwinism• Some people adapted Darwin’s idea of

natural selection to fit their beliefs about society– strong nations were the “fittest” and

had a natural right to make war on weaker nations• led to many bloody wars and to

imperialism– Large corporations were the “fittest”

and had a natural right to run smaller, weaker companies out of business• led to dangerous monopolies

– White European culture was the “fittest” and was naturally superior to all other races and nationalities• Led to racism and encouraged

imperialism

Social Changes• The Industrial Revolution ended

the age of “nobles and peasants” in the West

• The new upper class was now made up of wealthy industrialists and businessmen

• Growing middle-class was composed of doctors, lawyers, teachers, and “white collar” office workers

• The lower class was primarily “blue collar” factory workers, construction workers, and farmers

British Democracy• In 1815: less than 5% of

British citizens could vote – had to be a white adult Anglican male who owned land

• Additionally, the House of Lords (the nobility) could veto any bill passed by the House of Commons

Voting Reforms• 1820s: Catholics and non-

Anglican Protestants were extended the vote

• The Great Reform Act of 1832:– allowed any man who

owned property to vote– redistributed seats in the

House of Commons to more populated areas (away from rural villages and towards industrial towns and cities)

Chartist Movement• Landless workers

demanded changes:– Wanted all men to be able

to vote– Wanted annual elections– Wanted voting to be by

secret ballot• After petitioning

Parliament 3 times with no success, the Chartist movement faded

Further Voting Reforms• 1860s: Two new political parties

emerged – Conservatives (led by Benjamin Disraeli) and Liberals (led by William Gladstone)

• 1867: Reform bill pushed through by Disraeli extended the vote to many factory workers

• 1880s: Gladstone pushed through voting rights for farm workers

• 1911: House of Commons removed House of Lords right to veto laws

The Victorian Age• Queen Victoria (1837-1901)• Longest reigning monarch in

British history• Her reign was marked by a

strict morality:– People were driven by a sense of

duty, thrift, honesty, & hard-work

– Good manners and respectability were extremely important

– Many began to believe in social reform as being the “proper” thing to do

Middle Class Values• Parents very strict in raising their

children – the “seen and not heard” philosophy

• Marriages were no longer arranged, but one was expected to choose a socially acceptable mate, subject to parental approval (and no “dating” took place without an adult chaperone present)

• Wives were expected to stay at home and manage the household, raise the children, and obey their husbands

Ending Slavery• Many Christian groups had

pushed for the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire

• In 1833, thanks largely to the efforts of William Wilberforce, who had campaigned for abolition for nearly half a century, Parliament finally banned slavery in all British colonies

Limiting Capital Punishment• In the early 1800s, over 200

crimes were punishable by death, including petty theft

• By 1850, Parliament had reduced that number to four: murder, piracy, treason, and arson

• Instead of death, many criminals were punished by being banished to penal colonies in Australia and New Zealand (newly discovered by Capt. James Cook in 1770)

• In 1868, Parliament ended public executions and outlawed imprisonment for debt

Labor Reforms• Improvements in working

conditions– laws against child labor– laws set minimum wage,

maximum hours– more safety requirements in

factories and mines• Unions came into existence

(but strikes were still illegal)• Improvements in housing,

education, and benefits

Women as Activists• Women began to fight

for suffrage, legalized divorce, and economic freedom for themselves

• Many campaigned for temperance (a ban on alcohol)

• Many had worked to bring an end to slavery

Women’s Suffrage• Women tried for years to

win the right to vote through protesting and public demonstrations

• When this failed, they turned to violence, hunger strikes, and other high-risk behaviors

• In 1918, Parliament finally allowed women over 30 to vote