Project management

Organising, planning and scheduling software projects

Objectives• To introduce software project management and to

describe its distinctive characteristics• To discuss project planning and the planning process• To show how graphical schedule representations are

used by project management• To discuss the notion of risks and the risk management

process

Terminology Milestones

• Have a duration of zero• Identify critical points in your schedule• Shown as inverted triangle or a diamond• Often used at “review” or “delivery” times

• Or at end or beginning of phases• Ex: Software Requirements Review (SRR)• Ex: User Sign-off

• Can be tied to contract terms

Terminology

Example

Milestones

Waterfall Model: Analysis PhaseI1:Open

I2:Open I3:Open

A.I1:Open

A.I2:Open

SD.I1:Open

SD.I2:Open

SD.I3:OpenAnalysisAnalysisAnalysis

Waterfall Model: Design PhaseI1:Closed

I2:Closed I3:Open

A.I1:Open

A.I2:Open

SD.I1:Open

SD.I2:Open

SD.I3:OpenAnalysis

DesignDesign

AnalysisAnalysis

Waterfall Model: Implementation Phase

I1:Closed

I2:Closed I3:Closed

A.I1:Closed

A.I2:Closed

SD.I1:Open

SD.I2:Open

SD.I3:Open

ImplementationImplementation

DesignDesign

AnalysisAnalysis

Waterfall Model: Project is DoneI1:Closed

I2:Closed I3:Closed

A.I1:Closed

A.I2:Closed

SD.I1:Open

SD.I2:Open

SD.I3:Open

ImplementationImplementation

DesignDesign

AnalysisAnalysis

Issue-Based Model: Analysis Phase

I1:Open

I2:Open I3:Open

A.I1:Open

A.I2:Open

SD.I1:Open

SD.I2:Open

SD.I3:Open

Analysis:80%Analysis:80%

Design: 10%Design: 10%Implemen-tation: 10%Implemen-tation: 10%

Issue-Based Model: Design Phase

I1:Closed

I2:Closed I3:Open

A.I1:Open

A.I2:Open

SD.I1:Open

SD.I2:Open

SD.I3:Open

Analysis:40%Analysis:40%

Design: 60%Design: 60%Implemen-tation: 0%Implemen-tation: 0%

Issue-Based Model: Implementation Phase

I1:Open

I2:Closed I3:Closed

A.I1:Open

A.I2:Closed

SD.I1:Open

SD.I2:Cosed

SD.I3:Open

Analysis:10%Analysis:10%

Design: 10%Design: 10%Implemen-tation: 60%Implemen-tation: 60%

Issue-Based Model: Project is Done

I1:Closed

I2:Closed I3:Closed

A.I1:Closed

A.I2:Closed

SD.I1:Closed

SD.I2:Closed

SD.I3:Closed

Analysis:0%Analysis:0%

Design: 0%Design: 0%

Implemen-tation: 0%Implemen-tation: 0%

Concerned with activities involved in ensuring that software is delivered• on time

• within the budget

• in accordance with the requirements

Project management is needed because software development is always subject to budget and schedule constraints • Set by the development organisation or the customer

Software project management

Project staffing May not be possible to appoint the ideal people to

work on a project Managers have to work within these constraints

• especially when (as is currently the case) there is an international shortage of skilled IT staff

Project planning Probably the most time-consuming project management

activity Continuous activity from initial concept through

to system delivery Plans must be regularly revised as new information

becomes available• Beware of grumbling developers

Various different types of plan may be developed to support the main software project plan that is concerned with schedule and budget

Types of project plan

Plan DescriptionQuality plan Describes the quality procedures and

standards that will be used in a project.Validation plan Describes the approach, resources and

schedule used for system validation. Configurationmanagement plan

Describes the configuration managementprocedures and structures to be used.

Maintenance plan Predicts the maintenance requirements ofthe system, maintenance costs and effortrequired.

Staff development plan. Describes how the skills and experience ofthe project team members will bedeveloped.

Activity organization Activities in a project should be organised to produce

tangible outputs for management to judge progress Milestones are the end-point of a process activity Deliverables are project results delivered to customers

Evaluationreport

Prototypedevelopment

Requirementsdefinition

Requirementsanalysis

Feasibilityreport

Feasibilitystudy

Architecturaldesign

Designstudy

Requirementsspecification

Requirementsspecification

ACTIVITIES

MILESTONES

Project scheduling Split project into tasks and estimate time and resources

required to complete each task Organize tasks concurrently to make optimal use of

workforce Minimize task dependencies to avoid delays

caused by one task waiting for another to complete Dependent on project managers’ intuition and experience

Estimate resourcesfor activities

Identify activitydependencies

Identifyactivities

Allocate peopleto activities

Create projectcharts

Softwarerequirements

Activity chartsand bar charts

Task durations and dependenciesTask Duration (days) DependenciesT1 8T2 15T3 15 T1 (M1)T4 10T5 10 T2, T4 (M2)T6 5 T1, T2 (M3)T7 20 T1 (M1)T8 25 T4 (M5)T9 15 T3, T6 (M4)T10 15 T5, T7 (M7)T11 7 T9 (M6)T12 10 T11 (M8)

Activity timeline – Gantt chart4/7 11/7 18/7 25/7 1/8 8/8 15/8 22/8 29/8 5/9 12/9 19/9

T4

T1T2

M1

T7T3

M5T8

M3

M2T6

T5M4

T9

M7T10

M6

T11M8

T12

Start

Finish

MS-Project Example

Staff allocation4/7 11/7 18/7 25/ 1/8 8/8 15/8 22/8 29/8 5/9 12/9 19/9

T4

T8 T11

T12

T1

T3

T9

T2

T6 T10

T7

T5

Fred

Jane

Anne

Mary

Jim

Software risksRisk Risk type DescriptionStaff turnover Project Experienced staff will leave the

project before it is finished.Management change Project There will be a change of

organisational management withdifferent priorities.

Hardware unavailability Project Hardware which is essential for theproject will not be delivered onschedule.

Requirements change Project andproduct

There will be a larger number ofchanges to the requirements thananticipated.

Specification delays Project andproduct

Specifications of essential interfacesare not available on schedule

Size underestimate Project andproduct

The size of the system has beenunderestimated.

CASE tool under-performance

Product CASE tools which support theproject do not perform as anticipated

Technology change Business The underlying technology on whichthe system is built is superseded bynew technology.

Product competition Business A competitive product is marketedbefore the system is completed.

PERT Program Evaluation and Review Technique Based on idea that estimates are uncertain

• Therefore uses duration ranges

• And the probability of falling to a given range Uses an “expected value” (or weighted average) to

determine durations Use the following methods to calculate the expected

durations, then use as input to your network diagram

PERT Start with 3 estimates

• Optimistic

• Would likely occur 1 time in 20• Most likely

• Modal value of the distribution• Pessimistic

• Would be exceeded only one time in 20

PERT Formula Combined to estimate a task duration

PERT Formula Confidence Interval can be determined Based on a standard deviation of the expected

time• Using a bell curve (normal distribution)

For the whole critical path use

PERT Example

Confidence interval for P2 is 4 times wider than P1 for a given probability Ex: 68% probability of 9.7 to 11.7 days (P1) vs. 9.5-13.5 days (P2)

Description Planner 1 Planner 2

m 10d 10d

a 9d 9d

b 12d 20d

PERT time 10.16d 11.5d

Std. Dev. 0.5d 1.8d

PERT Advantages

• Accounts for uncertainty Disadvantages

• Time and labor intensive

• Assumption of unlimited resources is big issue

• Lack of functional ownership of estimates

• Mostly only used on large, complex project Get PERT software to calculate it for you

The risk management process Risk identification – Identify project, product and business risks Risk analysis – Assess the likelihood and consequences of risks Risk planning – Draw up plans to avoid/minimise risk effects Risk monitoring – Monitor the risks throughout the project

Risk avoidanceand contingency

plans

Risk planning

Prioritised risklist

Risk analysis

List of potentialrisks

Riskidentification

Riskassessment

Riskmonitoring

Risk identification Technology risks People risks Organisational risks Requirements risks Estimation risks

Risks and risk typesRisk type Possible risksTechnology The database used in the system cannot process as many

transactions per second as expected.Software components which should be reused contain defectswhich limit their functionality.

People It is impossible to recruit staff with the skills required.Key staff are ill and unavailable at critical times.Required training for staff is not available.

Organisational The organisation is restructured so that different managementare responsible for the project.Organisational financial problems force reductions in the projectbudget.

Tools The code generated by CASE tools is inefficient.CASE tools cannot be integrated.

Requirements Changes to requirements which require major design rework areproposed.Customers fail to understand the impact of requirementschanges.

Estimation The time required to develop the software is underestimated.The rate of defect repair is underestimated.The size of the software is underestimated.

Risk analysis Assess probability and seriousness of each risk Probability may be

• very low• low• moderate• high• very high

Risk effects might be• catastrophic• serious• tolerable• insignificant

Risk analysisRisk Probability EffectsOrganisational financial problems force reductionsin the project budget.

Low Catastrophic

It is impossible to recruit staff with the skillsrequired for the project.

High Catastrophic

Key staff are ill at critical times in the project. Moderate SeriousSoftware components which should be reusedcontain defects which limit their functionality.

Moderate Serious

Changes to requirements which require majordesign rework are proposed.

Moderate Serious

The organisation is restructured so that differentmanagement are responsible for the project.

High Serious

The database used in the system cannot process asmany transactions per second as expected.

Moderate Serious

The time required to develop the software isunderestimated.

High Serious

CASE tools cannot be integrated. High TolerableCustomers fail to understand the impact ofrequirements changes.

Moderate Tolerable

Required training for staff is not available. Moderate TolerableThe rate of defect repair is underestimated. Moderate TolerableThe size of the software is underestimated. High TolerableThe code generated by CASE tools is inefficient. Moderate Insignificant

Risk planning Consider each risk and develop a strategy to

manage that risk Avoidance strategies

• The probability that the risk will arise is reduced

Minimisation strategies• The impact of the risk on the project or product will be reduced

Contingency plans• If the risk arises, contingency plans are plans to deal with that

risk

Risk planning strategiesRisk StrategyOrganisationalfinancial problems

Prepare a briefing document for senior management showinghow the project is making a very important contribution to thegoals of the business.

Recruitmentproblems

Alert customer of potential difficulties and the possibility ofdelays, investigate buying-in components.

Staff illness Reorganise team so that there is more overlap of work andpeople therefore understand each other’s jobs.

Defectivecomponents

Replace potentially defective components with bought-incomponents of known reliability.

Requirementschanges

Derive traceability information to assess requirements changeimpact, maximise information hiding in the design.

Organisationalrestructuring

Prepare a briefing document for senior management showinghow the project is making a very important contribution to thegoals of the business.

Databaseperformance

Investigate the possibility of buying a higher-performancedatabase.

Underestimateddevelopment time

Investigate buying in components, investigate use of a programgenerator.

Risk factorsRisk type Potential indicatorsTechnology Late delivery of hardware or support software, many

reported technology problemsPeople Poor staff morale, poor relationships amongst team

member, job availabilityOrganisational organisational gossip, lack of action by senior

managementTools reluctance by team members to use tools, complaints

about CASE tools, demands for higher-poweredworkstations

Requirements many requirements change requests, customercomplaints

Estimation failure to meet agreed schedule, failure to clearreported defects